Chapter 2

BUCKLING OF COLUMNS

Hitherto

- We have calculated stresses and deformation in a

structure
- We know that failure criteria depends on high
stress, strain in a material
- During failure the geometry is largely
undeformed

Let's now consider failure of structure due to

geometrical deformation (plastic ruler)

Forms of buckling
- Axial buckling
- Lateral buckling
- Crumpling (thin-walled cylinder)
- Torsional buckling (thin-walled cylinder)

2.1
2.2
2.1. EULER BUCKLING OF SLENDER
COLUMNS

A load-carrying component is considered to be

slender when its length is much greater than the
radius of gyration of its cross-section - typically
greater than 10. The following analysis of column
buckling is based on the following assumptions:

(1) The column is perfectly straight (i.e. no initial

curvature).
(2) The axial load acts through the centroidal axis
of the column (i.e. no eccentricity of loading).

Buckling analysis comprises essentially the

following:

(i) formulating the appropriate differential

equation for lateral deflection.
(ii) identifying correct boundary conditions to use
in the differential equation.

2.3
(i) Struts with both ends pinned.

Consider a pin-ended strut under an axial

compressive force P which causes it to buckle
laterally:

The bending moment along the deflected strut is

related to lateral deflection v by:

2.4
 2
M xz EI d v
2
Pv
dx
d 2v
i.e. 2 v 0
dx 2
where p
EI

The solution to the differential equation is:

v C1 sin x C2 cos x

The boundary conditions are used to evaluate the

solution:

At x = 0, v = 0; C2 = 0

At x = L, v = 0; C1 sinL = 0

C1 = 0 satisfies the second boundary condition but

this corresponds to a trivial solution. Hence the
meaningful solution is:

sinL = 0

This is satisfied by L = n, where n = 1,2,3, ..

2.5
By substituting = n / L into the relationship with
P, the Euler buckling load is given by:

Pn n 2 2 EI
L2

where the value of n determines the mode or shape

of the buckled strut. For any value of n, Pn is
smallest when I = Iminimum; ie. buckling occurs
about the axis corresponding to the smaller
principal second moment of area of the cross-
section - unless there are restraints preventing it
from doing so. (Consider which cross-sectional axis
your plastic ruler buckles about.) Hence,
y

z
h

For a rectangular cross-section where h > b,

buckling will occur about the y-axis and in the z-

2.6
direction. Hence, Imin = Iy (= hb3/12) must be used
for the buckling load since it corresponds to the
smaller principal second moment of area of the
cross-section. Note also that the minimum buckling
load corresponds to n = 1. Hence, the critical
buckling load for a pin-ended strut or column is:

2 EI min
Pcr
L2
or

2 EArmin
2
2 EA
Pcr
L2 2
L

min
r

where A is the cross-sectional area and rmin is the

minimum radius of gyration of the cross-section.
The denominator (L/rmin) is called the slenderness
ratio, where L is the length of the pin-ended strut.
Hence the larger this value (the more slender the
beam) the smaller the critical buckling load.
Therefore, slender beams are susceptible to
buckling. (Short, fat columns undergo compression
failure before the buckling load is attained.)

The buckled mode or shape of a strut is a sine curve

defined by:
2.7
 nx
y n C1 sin
L

The amplitude C1 is a small arbitrary value. For n =

1, the strut buckles into a half-sine curve. Higher
mode shapes can be obtained if a strut or column is
laterally restrained at the appropriate locations.
Larger loads are required to induce higher buckling
modes.

2.8
(ii) Struts with one free and one fixed end

Consider a strut or column with one fixed end. A

compressive axial force P is applied to the free end
causing it to deflect laterally when the column
buckles. (Note that buckling occurs about the
minimum second moment of area of the cross-
section.)

If the lateral deflection at the tip is , the bending

moment along the column is described by:

2.9
 d 2v
M xz EI min 2
P( v)
dx
d 2v P P
v
dx 2 EI min EI min
d 2v
or 2 v 2 where P
dx 2 EI min

The general solution to the preceding equation is:

v C1 sin x C2 cos x C3
Hence,
dv
C1 cos x C2 sin x
dx
d 2v 2 2
2
C1 sin x C2 cos x
dx

Substitution of the above into the differential

equation yields:

2 C1 sin x 2 C 2 cos x 2 (C1 sin x C 2 cos x C3 ) 2

C3 =

i.e. v C1 sin x C2 cos x

2.10
The boundary conditions are:

At x = 0, v = ; C2 = 0

At x = L, v = 0; C1 sinL+ = 0

dv
(iii) At x = L, 0 C1 cosL = 0
dx
i.e. - cotL = 0

Condition (iii) is satisfied if cotL = 0

P 1
i.e. tanL or L L n
EI min 2
where n = 1,2,3.

Hence, the buckling load for the various mode

shapes is given by:

n 12 2 2 EI min
Pn
L2

The smallest critical buckling load, corresponding

to the lowest mode (n = 1) shown earlier, is:

2 EI min
Pcr
4L2

2.11
(iii) Struts with both ends built-in

Consider a strut or column with both ends built-in,

subjected to an axial compression P. When it
buckles, there will be a bending moment M0 at the
built-in end. This must be included in setting up the
governing differential equation.

The bending moment along the column is given by:

M xz Pv M 0 0
d 2v
EI min 2
Pv M 0
dx

2.12
 d 2v P M0
v
dx 2 EI min EI min
d 2v M0
or 2 v where P
dx 2 EI min EI min

The solution to the equation again is of the form:

v C1 sin x C2 cos x C3

Hence,
dv
C1 cos x C2 sin x
dx
d 2v 2 2
2
C1 sin x C2 cos x
dx

Substitution of the above into the differential

equation yields:

2 C1 sin x 2 C 2 cos x 2 (C1 sin x C 2 cos x C3 )

M0
EI min

M0
C3
2 EI min

2.13
The boundary conditions are:

(i) At x = 0, dv 0 ; C1 = 0
dx

(ii) At x = 0, v = 0; C2 = C3 2 M 0
EI min
i.e. v C3 1 cos x

(iii) At x = L, v = 0; C3 1 cos L 0

i.e. cos L 1 or L
P
L 2 n
EI min
where n = 1,2,3.

Hence, the general buckling load for columns with

both built-in ends is:

4n 2 2 EI min
Pn
L2

The smallest critical buckling load (n = 1) is :

4 2 EI min
Pcr
L2

2.14
 iv) Struts with one pinned and one built-in
end

Consider a strut or column with one built-in and one

pinned end buckling under a compressive axial
load.

Owing to the bending moment reaction M0 at the

built-in end, there must be a transverse reaction F at
the pinned end such that M0 = FL.

The bending moment distribution along the column

is given by:
Mxz + Pv - Fx = 0

2.15
 d 2v
or EI min 2
Pv Fx
dx
d 2v F
i.e. 2 v x where P
dx 2 EI min EI min

The solution to the moment-deflection equation is

of the form:

v C1 sin x C 2 cos x C3 x C 4
Hence,
dv
C1 cos x C 2 sin x C3
dx
d 2v 2 2
2
C1 sin x C 2 cos x
dx

The boundary conditions are:

d 2v M xz
At x = 0, 2
0 (i)
dx EI min
(no bending moment); C2 = 0
At x = 0, v 0 (ii) C4 = 0
Hence, the solution to the lateral deflection reduces
to:
v C1 sin x C3 x
and dv C1 cos x C3
dx
At x = L, v = 0; (iii) C1 sin L C3L 0

2.16
At x = L, dv 0 (iv) C1 cos L C3 0
dx
C3 C1 cos L

Substitute C3 into Eq (iii) results in:

sinL - LcosL = 0

i.e. tanL = L

The value(s) of L which satisfies the preceding

equation must be determined graphically by
plotting a graph of tan L and L and finding the
intersection, or numerically (iteratively) using a
programmable calculator. This value is found to be:

P
L L 4.49 ( radians )
EI min

Hence, the critical buckling load for columns with

one built-in and one pinned end is:

Pcr
4.49 2 EI min

2.05 2 EI min
2
L L2

2.17
2.2. SUMMARY

Eulers buckling loads are given by

2 EI min
Pcr K
L2

End conditions

Case (i) Case (ii) Case (iii) Case (iv)

Both One Both One
pinned fixed fixed fixed one
one free pinned
Value of 1 1/4 4 2.05
K

2.18
2.3. EFFECTIVE LENGTH

Note that all the expressions for the critical buckling

load are of the form:

2 EI min
Pcr K
L2

where K is a constant whose value depends on the

boundary conditions at the ends of the column or
strut. K can be incorporated into the denominator,
resulting in a modified expression:

2 EI min
Pcr
L2e

Le is known as the effective length.

2.19
We have
L2 L
L2e i.e. Le
K K
Case (i) both pinned

K=1 i.e. Le L

Case (ii) one fixed, one free

K = 1/4 i.e. Le 2 L

Case (iii) both fixed

K=4 i.e. Le L
2

Case (iv) one fixed, one pinned

K = 2.05 i.e. Le 0.7 L

i.e. in case (iii) buckling load of a column (both

ends fixed) of length L is equivalent (effectively
equal) to that of a pin ended column of length L/2.

The bending moment at a pinned (simply

supported) end is zero.

2.20
For a given column the effective length is therefore
also the length between points of zero bending
moment.

2.21
 If the critical buckling load is expressed in terms of
the slenderness ratio, then an expression for the
critical buckling load is:

2 E Armin
2

Pcr
L2
2 E A
or Pcr 2
; where (L/rmin) is the slenderness
L

rmin
ratio.
Hence, the compressive axial stress is:
2E
cr

L 2
rmin

If the effective length Le is used instead of the actual

length L, the critical buckling load would be:

2 E A
Pcr 2
L
e
rmin

and compressive axial stress would be:

2E
cr

Le 2
rmin

2.22
Example 3.1

A 2 m high column has a rect. x-section of 60 x 40

mm. It is pinned at both ends. The column material:
E = 200 GPa
Yield stress (compresive) Y = 200 MPa

Using Factor of Safety = 2, determine the max

allowable axial force.

Solution:

(i) Consider compressive yield;

pa Y

A S
i.e. Pa

0.04 0.06 200 x10 6 N
2
240.0 kN

(ii) Consider buckling

For a pin-ended column;

2.23
 2 EI min
Pcr
L2
1
I min (0.06)(0.04) 3 3.2 x10 7 m 4
12

Pcr

2 200x10 9 3.2 x10 7 N
(2) 2
157.9 kN

Hence, Pa<157.9/2 = 79.0 kN

Between the two criteria, the one for buckling is

more stringent and hence, Pa<79.0 kN

2.24
2.4. COLUMNS INITIALLY CURVED

L
x

v v1 v0

A B P x
P
0
L/2

So far we assumed all columns initially Straight. In

practice columns can be bent initially (initially
imperfection). Consider pinned-ends column
initially bent and assume sinusoidal form.
Let initial deflection at x = v1
Let max. initial deflection = v0
Let deflection at x = v (after application of load)
Initial deflection is sinusoidal

i.e. v1 = C1 Sin Dx
C1, D are constants

2.25
B.C.

At x=L , v1= 0

i.e. sinDL = 0

The lowest value which satisfies the equation is

DL = i.e. D
L

B.C.
At mid-span, x = L/2, v1 =v0
L
i.e. v0 C1 sin
L 2
C1= v0

Thus, initial deflection

x
v1 v0 sin (a)
L

2.26
At distance x, consider rotational equilibrium

Mxz
x
P

x
P

i.e. MA = 0

PV + Mxz = 0

Mxz = -Pv

but the change in deflection due to the load is

v - v1

Hence

Mxz = -Pv
d 2 v v1
= EI
dx 2
(a1)

2.27
Note: All previous columns are assumed straight
initially and hence the initial deflection of the
straight column is zero. The differential equation is
in fact,

d 2 (v 0)
M EI
dx 2

Thus for the initially curved column with initial

deflection v1 , we have from Eq (a1):

d 2v d 2v1
M xz EI 2 2
dx dx

d 2v d 2v1 Pv
or dx 2
2
dx EI
2v (b)

From (a)
dv1 x
v0 cos
dx L L
2
d 2v1 x
v0 Sin
dx 2 L L

2.28
and (b) becomes
2
d 2v x
dx 2
2
v
L
v0 sin
L
(c)
or
2
d 2v x
2
2v v0 sin 0
dx L L

The solution of this eq. is

2v0 x
v C1 cos x C2 sin x 2
2 L2
sin
L
(d)

(check by successive diff.)

B.C.
At x = 0, v = 0; C1 = 0

At x = L, v = 0; C2 sin L 0

i.e. C2= 0; or sin L 0

For sin L 0 ; L and 2 L2 2

This condition is not acceptable as this will
make the 3rd term of R.H.S. in eq. (d)
2.29
 C2 0 and

eq(d) becomes

2v0 x
v 2 sin
2 L2 L

Max deflection occurs at mid-span ( x L2 )

2 v0 v0
vmax 2 (e)
2 L2 1 L
2 2
2

2
We have 2 EIP & Pcr EI
2
(Euler load for Pinned
L
ends)

or P EI ( f )
2
Pcr 2 EI
L2
(g)

Divide Eq (f) by Eq (g), we have

P 2 L2
2
Pcr
From (e)
1
vmax v0

1 Pcr
P

When P = Pcr
vmax (theoretically)

2.30
2.5. COLUMNS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS

x e

P L P

Consider a pin-ended column with axial load P

offset by a distance e.

Diff. equation becomes

d 2v
M xz EI 2
P (v e) (a)
dx

Introducing a new variable Y

Such that Y = v + e
dY dv
(e is a constant)
dx dx

2.31
 d 2Y d 2v
2

dx dx 2

Eq(a) becomes

d 2Y
EI 2
PY
dx
d 2Y
or EI 2
PY 0 (b)
dx

Soln. of above eq.

Y C1 cos x C 2 sin x
But Y = v + e
v e C1 cos x C2 sin x (c)
P
note: 2
EI

B.C.
At x = 0, v = 0; C1 = e
At x = L, v = 0;

0 e e cos L C2 sin L
i.e. C2 e1 cos L
sin L

2.32
Using cos L 2 cos2 L 1
1
2
1 1
sin L 2 sin L cos L
2 2

we have C2= e tan L

1
2
Substitute the values of C1 and C2 into Eq(c), we
have
v e e cos 12 x e tan 12 Lsin 12 x (d1)
Deflection at x L (mid-span) is given by
2
(substitute x L into Eq. d1)
2
We have
vmax e e cos 12 L e tan 12 L sin 12 L
cos 2 12 L sin 2 12 L
e

cos 1
2
L
e sec 12 L

and vmax e(sec 12 L 1) (d)

The maximum bending moment is

M max P(vmax e)
P e sec 12 L (e)
From (d) vmax
2.33
 when sec 2L

L 1
sec
2 cos 2L
L
i.e. cos 0
2
L
or
2 2


L

or Pcr
EI

L
2 EI
Pcr 2 (Euler's load)
L
I.e. the buckling load is similar to that of a column
pinned at both ends with axial loading through the
centroid of the x-section.

The max bending stress due to moment

b
M max c From (e)
I -ve y direction
L
Pe sec c

2
I

2.34
Stress (comp) due to applied load P

P
P
A

Hence max comp stress

max P b

P L c
Pe sec
A 2 I

In terms of the radius of gyration r

I = Ar2 and P P
EI EAr 2

Hence max comp. stress is:

P ec L P
max 1 2 sec EA
(f)
A r 2r

Above eq. is called the Secant Formula for

Columns.

- Applicable as long as stresses are elastic

- Note: max is not linearly P

2.35
 max arising from application of several axial
forces cannot be obtained by superposing the
stress generated by the individual forces.

The forces must be superposed first before stress is

calculated

Eq (f) shows that load eccentricity is significant for

slender columns

i.e. When L is large

r
For short column
L
0 , secant term 1
r

Eq. (f) becomes

( Pe)(c)
P
x
A Ar 2
P M ( c )

A I

2.36
 To obtain Max allowable load Pa
Given that the compressive yield stress = Y
and safety factor = S
Let PY be the load corresponding to Y
i.e. for a safety factor S, the allowable load is PY/S = Pa
or PY = SPa

We have from (f)

SPa ec L SPa
Y 1 sec
A r 2 2r EA

Above eq. can be solved by iteration or graphically by plotting the

following function f (Pa) to locate where it intersects the x-axis.

SPa ec L SPa
f ( Pa ) 1 2 sec Y 0
A r 2r EA

Note: unlike buckling discussed in previous sections, in

sections 2.4 and 2.5, buckling progresses gradually as the
load is being applied. The column buckles when the critical
buckling load is reached. However, the maximum allowable
load is often limited by the compressive yield strength of
the material.

2.37
 SPa ec L SPa
f ( Pa ) 1 2
sec Y 0
A r 2r EA

To solve the above Eq. graphically

Plot the values on a graph and the intersection of

the curve on the Pa axis gives the solution

f(Pa)
the intersection of the curve on the
Pa axis gives the solution

Pa

2.38
Example 1

The following diagram shows an eccentrically,

axially loaded 1.7 m long cantilever with a 50 mm
square cross-section. The beam material has a
Young's modulus of 200 GPa and a maximum
allowable compressive stress of 275 MPa. What is
the maximum load P permitted?

P
Zero slope

Solution:
Considered a beam pinned at both ends and
eccentrically-loaded. The length of the pinned column
is 3.4 m.
Half of the pinned beam behaves in exactly the same
manner as the cantilever beam, hence we can obtain
the solution from the pinned beam.

2.39
The radius of gyration rz of the x-section can be obtained
2
from I = Arz

1
Arz2 (0.05)(0.05) rz2 (0.05)(0.05)3
12
rz 0.025 / 3m

Hence,

P (0.075)(0.025) (2)(1.7) P
8
2.75 x10
(0.05) 2
1
(0.025) 2 / 3
sec
2(0.025)/ 3
2x1011 (0.05) 2

i.e. 6.88x105 P 1 9 sec5.267x10-3 P
Solving this equation iteratively yields:

P = 37.7 kN

2.40