Chapter 1: Introduction to Natural Hazards

The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old

Rocks:

Dark colors- low silica

Medium colors- medium silica

Light colors- high silica

Igneous rocks- formed by cooling of magma or lava

Intrusive or plutonic (at depth within the crust, well defined

crystals)
Extrusive or volcanic (at the surface)

Sedimentary rocks (layers)- formed by erosion, transportation, and

sedimentation

Metamorphic rocks- formed by increasing pressure and temperature

Important Ages:

Mesozoic-Cenozoic (Human kind) Boundary (65Ma) off

dinosaurs, on mammals
Paleozoic-Mesozoic Boundary (251 Ma)- the earth shapes into a

more familiar look

Precambrian-Paleozoic Boundary (542 Ma)- explosion of life)
Earth forms: 4600 Ma

Earth Structure:

Continental crust (0-40 km)- outer rock of the Earth

Lithosphere (40-200 km)- the cool, strong outermost layer of

Earth
Asthenosphere (200-400 km)- weak, deforming layer of the Earth
Mantle (400-3000 km)- surround the outer core
 Outer core (3000-5000 km)- a liquid
Inner core (5000-6000 km)- a solid

Plate Tectonics:

Three types of plate boundaries

o Divergent
o Convergent
o Transform

Divergent Plate Boundaries (Spread, normal faults):

Seafloor spreading
The place where new crust is formed- constructive margin!
Mid-ocean ridge
Rifts and rift valleys
Extensional regime

Convergent Plate Boundaries (Colliding, reverse (thrust) fault):

Subduction zone
The place where crust is destroyed and re-assimilated-

destructive margin!
Deep-ocean trench
Benioff-Wadati (earthquake) zone
Volcanic arc
Compressional regime

Transform Plate Boundaries (Side to side):

Transform boundary have strike slip motion

Offset of active spreading ridge
Not passive feature
Transform fault transforms motion of other plate boundaries
Side to side regime

2 Types of Crust:

Continental Crust, light, thick (CC)

Oceanic Crust, heavy, thin (OC)

3 Possible Convergence Combinations:

 (OC)-(OC)
(OC)-(CC)
(CC)-(CC)

Evidence for Active Sea Floor Spreading:

Pattern of magnetic anomalies

Distribution of crustal rocks age
The jig-saw puzzle fit of the coast of Africa and South America

Wegener Support the Idea of Continental Drift:

The jigsaw-like fit of the continents

The abrupt termination of mountain chains
Fossil evidence
Paleoclimate evidence

Chapter 2: Earthquakes

Earthquakes:

Earth vibration caused by rapid release of energy

Seismic waves radiate from the focus
Energy created by blocks slipping on faults
Plate tectonics explains the location of major fault zones and

seismic activity
The birth place of an earthquake is the focus (hypocenter) and

epicenter

Seismic Waves:

Body Waves:

P wave
o First arrival (primary)
o Compressional wave
 o Travel through all media
S wave
o Secondary arrival
o Shear wave
o Cant travel through fluids

Surface Waves (cause the most damage):

Love wave
o Horizontal shear wave at surface
Rayleigh wave
o Vertical P-S wave at surface

Instruments to Measure Earthquakes:

Seismometer and Seismographs

Seismometer measures ground motion due to passing seismic

waves

Richter Scale (M)

Richter magnitude is based on the amplitude of ground motion,

which is measured by seismometers

Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS)

To find out the energy released. Is the current, most accurate

way to provide information about earthquake used for

magnitudes above 3.5

Seismic Gaps:

Seismic Gaps- is a section of a fault that has produces earthquakes in

the past but is now quiet

Chapter 5: Volcanoes

Approximately 2/3s of all active volcanoes on earth are located

along the Ring of Fire (formed above the subduction zone) that

surrounds the Pacific Ocean. Volcanoes are also formed where tectonic

plates spread apart at md-ocean rides. To generate magma from that

volume of rock you need to allow fluids to circulate in it.

Lava is magma that gets to the surface by volcanic processes.

Lava- Molten material that flows onto the land surface from a volcano,

or rock that solidifies from such molten material.

Magma- Naturally occurring molten rock material formed deep within

the crust or in the mantle.

Gases: mainly Co2 and H20

Viscosity depends on silica content
Temperature: 700C to 1200C

How Magma Forms:

 1. Decompression melting- occurs when the overlying pressure

exerted on hot rock within the asthenosphere is decreased.

Happens at divergent plate boundaries, continental rifts, and hot

spots.
2. Addition of volatiles- lowers the melting temperature rocks by

helping to break chemical bonds within silicate minerals. Add

water or carbon dioxide. Happens at subduction zones.

3. Addition of heat- will include melting if the temperature of rocks

exceeds the melting temperature of silicate rocks at that depth.

Classification of Magmas:

Main parameter is silica content

o Lowest silica content (50%) basaltic magma (low viscosity

and gas)
o Intermediate silica content (60%) andesitic magma

(intermediate viscosity and gas)

o Highest silica content (70%) rhyolitic magma (high

viscosity and gas)

Silica Content Affects:

Melt Temperature
o Low silica magmas are formed at high temperature (1200),

high silica magma are formed at low(er) temperature

(700/900)
Viscosity
o High silica high viscosity, low silica low viscosity
o Dissolved volatiles (gas, fluids)

Volcanic Eruptions
 Non-explosive
o Low silica, faster and longer lava flow
o Low gas content
o Basaltic lava flows
o Examples: shield volcanoes & Hawaiian style eruptions
Explosive
o High silica, slower and shorter lava flow
o High gas content
o Pyroclastic
o Andesitic (lava, subduction zones)
o Examples: stratovolcanoes and composite volcanoes, lava

domes, and Pelean style eruptions

Pyroclastic Flows:

Pyroclastic Flows (100-200 mph) avalanches of hot pyroclastic

materials- ash, rock, volcanic glass fragments, and gas that are blown

out of a vent and move rapidly down the sides of the volcanoes.
 High volumes of pyroclastic = Rich silica and gas magma
Low volumes of pyroclastic = Poor silica and gas magma

Chapter 6: Flooding

Hydrologic Cycle

3 main long term storages: Oceans, Glaciers, (Under)ground

+ 1 short term storage: Atmosphere (lakes too but lets make it

simple)

Evaporation
Precipitation
Infiltration
Runoff to form streams
Transpiration by plants

Running Water: Steams

Stream- a body of water that flows downslope in a clearly defined

channel and transports particles and dissolved material.

Channel
Load
Drainage basin- the area drained by a stream or river. Rivers

eventually collect all precipitations that fall in the area.

Drainage divides- the line that separates adjacent drainage

basins
Stream Characteristics:

Cross section (depth * width)

Velocity
Stream gradient (dh/dx)
Discharge
Roughness

Drainage Network:

Drainage network- the pattern of river and tributaries that drain a

specific area.

These parameters vary along the river course

Rivers

Longitudinal profile- indicator of processes acting along the river

course: deviation from the equilibrium profile testifies recent

forcing in the evolution of the landscape (Dam changes

longitudinal profile).
Base level- the lowest elevation to which a river can flow (Stream

terraces change in base level).

The Work of Running Water:

Rivers are responsible for recycling sediments and is very important in

the formation of sedimentary rocks:

Erosion
Transportation
Sedimentation
Function of velocity flow

Meanders:

Meanders are dynamic they change trough time

 Point bar
Cut bank

Floodplains:

Broad river valleys

Built primarily by meandering rivers

Built by a big number of flood events
Areas of urban development
Natural levees- causes the cannel of the river to rise higher than

the surrounding plain

Flood:

Flood- is an overflow of water that submerges land, which is usually

dry.

Flood Control:

Artificial levees
Flood control dams
Retention ponds
Channelization- river restoration
Nonstructural approach
Chapter 7: Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is the downslope movement of regolith and masses

of rock and sediments under the pull of gravity. Is the step that follows

weathering Mass wasting is a basic part of the rock cycle. Weathering,

mass-wasting, and other aspects of erosion constitute a continuum of

interacting processes. Slopes have three segments: an upper convex

slope, a straight slope on the hillside, and a lower concave slope. The

steeper the slope, the greater the driving force. Causes of landslides

are slope over steepened by erosion, heavy rainfall, and earthquake.

Type of Landslides:

1. Rock fall- Blocks of bedrock fall through air and accumulate at

the base of the cliff as a talus slope (rock).

2. Rock slide- Blocks of bedrock slide down a bedding plane in

sedimentary rock. Soil slips are similar movements except soil,

rather than rock slides down a bedrock surface (Rock, mud, and

debris).
3. Rock slump- Cohesive blocks of soft earth material slide down a

curved slip surface (Rock and mud).

4. Debris flow- Mud, sand, rock, and other material are mixed with

water (Mud and debris).

5. Soil creep (slow movement)- Causes telephone poles to tilt and

tress trunks to become curved (Mud and rock).

6. Complex landslides- consisting of upper slump and lower flow.
Different Kinds of Mass Movements Speed:

1. Rock fall
2. Snow & debris avalanche
3. Debris Slide (Rock slide)
4. Mudflow
5. Slump
6. Solifluction creep

Angle of Repose

The stable slope of a pile of loose particles. The angle of repose

is a function of the grain size of the particles in the pile. Smaller

particles have lower angles of repose. Smoother particles have lower

angles of rep. try to pile up marbles. If you can! It is the result of the

balance between gravitational forces and friction between particles.

Mass wasting- Any type of downslope movement of earth materials.

Safety factor (SF)- The ratio of the resisting forces to the driving

forces. If the safety factor is greater than 1, the resisting forces exceed

the driving forces and the slope is stable and vice versa.

Debris flows- Are thick mixtures of mud, debris, and water. Can move

either slowly or rapidly.

Chapter 8: Soil and Hazards

Factors Affecting Soil Formation:

1. Parent material- Residual soils-bedrock. Transported soils-

unconsolidated material. Easily weathered material aids soil

formation.
2. Time- Thicker the soil, the longer it took to develop (in same

climate).
3. Climate- Most important factor in soil formation. Hot, humid

climates make soil faster.

4. Plants and animals- Furnish organics to soil. Vegetation defines

soil types.
5. Slope- Steep slope: soils are thin. Bottom lands: thick and dark

soils.

Soil Horizon:

1. O Horizon (top soil)- Composed mostly of organic materials

including decomposed or decomposing leaves, twigs, ect. The

color of the horizon is often dark brown or black.

2. A Horizon (top soil)- Composed of both mineral and organic

materials. The color us often light black or brown. Leaching,

defined as the process of dissolving, washing, or draining earth

materials by percolation of groundwater or other liquids, occurs

in the A horizon and moves clay and other material such as iron

and calcium to the B horizon.

3. E Horizon- Compose of light-colored materials resulting from

leaching of clay, calcium, magnesium, and iron to lower horizons.

The A and E horizons together comprise the zone of leaching.

 4. B Horizon (sub soil)- zone of accumulation, subsoil, rich in clay.
5. C Horizon- Compose of partially altered (weathered) parent

material; rock as shown here but the material could also be

alluvial in nature, such as river gravels in other environments.

The horizon may be stained in red with iron oxides.

6. R Horizon- Untethered (unaltered) parent material.

Weathering (Chemical and Mechanical) - The physical and chemical

breakdown of rocks and the first step in soil development. Weathered

rock is further modified by the activity of soil organisms into soil, which

is called either residual or transported.

Weathering:

1. Mechanical Weathering- Breaking apart of rocks, no change in

composition. Examples: Frost wedging, exfoliation,

fragmentation, thermal expansion, and biological.

2. Chemical Weathering- Change in composition transforms rock

in 1 or more new compounds. Examples: dissolution, hydrolysis,

and oxidation. Lower on the Bowens reaction series more stable

(Quartz). Higher on the Bowens reaction series less stable

(Olivine).

Subsidence- A type of ground failure characterized by nearly vertical

deformation, or the downward sinking of earth materials. Change of

elevation and lose of elevation. Happens because of big tectonic

movements, big earthquakes.

The Water Table:

The top of the saturated zone in bedrock or regolith

 Follows topography
Surface between the saturated and aerated zones

Porosity- is the volume of rock with pore spaces

Permeability- is the interconnectedness of the pore spaces (allows

flow through the rock)

Aquifer has high permeability (and porosity) (Sandstone)

Aquiclude or aquitard has low permeability (Shale)

Karst- process of weathering related to one solution, which is

limestone. The affect is caves, sinkholes. Know cave systems

Karst Topography- A landscape characterized by sinkholes, caverns,

and diversion of` surface water to subterranean routes.

Chapter 9: Atmosphere and Sever Weather

Two Type of Heat Energy:

1. Sensible heat- heat that may be sense or monitored by a

thermometer.
2. Latent heat- the amount of heat that is either absorbed or

released when a substance changes phases (From solid to liquid).

Three Major Heat Transfer Processes:

1. Conduction- the transfer of heat through a substance by means

of atomic or molecular interactions. Example: conduction of heat

through the metal pan causes the handle to heat up.

2. Convection- the transfer of heat by the mass movement of a

fluid, such as water or air. Example: water in the bottom of the

pan is heated and rises upward to displace the cooler water at

the surface. The cooler water than sinks downward to the

bottom of the pan.

3. Radiation- transfer of energy by radiation occurs by oscillations

in an electric field and a magnetic field, and thus the waves are

generally called electromagnetic waves. Example: the red glow

from the heating element of the electric range transmits visible

electromagnetic radiation as red light and non-visible infrared

radiation.

Atmosphere:
Atmosphere- is the gaseous envelope that surrounds Earth. It is made

up of gas molecules, suspended particles of solid and liquid, and falling

precipitation.

Components of the Atmosphere:

Major components- nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide

Minor components (which actually play a major role)- Water

vapor, ozone, aerosol, and methane.

Aerosols- condensation of precipitation and screen incoming

radiation.
Ultraviolent light- screening effect of ozone and UV effects on

life.

Atmospheric Structure:

By Air Pressure
o Atmosphere is 1013 mbars at sea level
o 90% of atmosphere below 16km (10miles)
By Temperature
o Troposphere (0-16 km) (Clouds- when very small water

droplets or ice crystals condense from the atmosphere.)

T decreases with elevation 20C to -60C
Heated by Earths surface (greenhouse effect)
o Stratosphere (16-50 km)
T increases with elevation
Ozone absorbs UV radiation
o Mesosphere (50-80 km)
T decreases with elevation
o Thermosphere (80-500 km)
T increases due to absorption of radiation and solar

wind

Global Atmospheric Circulation:

Hadley Cell
 o Winds flow toward equatorial low (Intertropical

Convergence Zone)
o Air sinks down at 30N and S-highs occur here and have dry

air and deserts

o As surface air moves toward equator deflected to move

east to west-Trade Winds

Ferrell Cell
o Mid-latitude
o Air move from subtropical high to polar front (where jet

stream is)
o As wind moves towards the poles it is deflected from west

to east (Prevailing Westerlies)

Polar Cell
o Cold, heavy air sinks from the poles toward the Ferrell cell

and the polar front

o These are called the Polar Easterlies

Fronts:

Warm Fronts
o Warm air moves over and advances on cool air
o Boundary has low slope
o Air rises and form clouds/precipitation
o Slow movement means rain over extended period
Cold Fronts
o Cold air advance/pushes warm air out of the way
o Boundary has steep slope
o They move rapidly/air rises more quickly
o High gusts/ downpours
o When a cold front over takes a warm front it is call

occluded

Thunderstorms (Cold Fronts):

Three basic atmospheric conditions to form a thunderstorm

 1. Warm humid air must be available in the lower

atmosphere to feed clouds and precipitation and provide

energy to the storm as it develops.

2. A steep vertical temperature gradient must exist in the

environment such that the rising air is warmer than the air

through which is it moving. This gradient places colder air

over warmer, moist air.

3. An updraft must force moist air up to colder levels of the

atmosphere.

Three Stages of a Thunderstorm:

1. Cumulus stage- Cloud growth begins (Head of a cauliflower)

2. Mature stage- Heavy rain (Anvil shape)
3. Dissipating stage- Light rain

Tornadoes:

Intense lows
Funnels of high winds
Associated with cold fronts
Formed from mesocyclones in thunderstorms
Move typically, SW to NE, because they form along cold from in a

zone of SW winds

Classification of Tornadoes:

1. EF0- (105-137 km/hr, 65-85 mph)

2. EF1- (138-177 km/hr, 86-110 mph)
3. EF2- (178-218 km/hr, 111-135 mph)
4. EF3- (219-266 km/hr, 136-165 mph)
5. EF4- (267-322 km/hr, 166-200 mph)
6. EF5- (322+ km/hr, 200+ mph)

Ice Storms:
Blizzards- severe winter storms in which large amounts of falling or

blowing snow are driven by high winds to create low visibilities for an

extended period of time.

Wind chill effect- moving air rapidly cools exposed skin by

evaporating moisture and removing warm air from next to the

body.

Ice Storms- prolonged period of freezing rain, can be more damaging

than, and just as dangerous as, blizzards.

Three Conditions of Freezing Rain:

1. An ample source of moisture in the warm air mass south of the

front
2. Warm air uplifted over a shallow layer of cold air
3. Objects on the land surface at or very close to freezing

Chapter 10: Hurricanes and Extratropical Cyclones

Winds:

Factors Affecting Wind Speed and Direction

Air pressure gradient

o Drives winds
o Ultimately comes from solar energy
Coriolis effect
o Only affects moving objects
 o To the right in NH
o To the left in SH
Friction
o Affects winds lower than about 1 km

Cyclone:

Storms are named when the winds exceed 63 km (39 mi.) per hour.

Mid-Latitude Cyclone:

Affects our weather

Moves from west to east across continent
Life Cycle
o Front between cP and mT air masses
o Establishes a low pressure (cyclone) with warm and cold

fronts extending outwards

o Cold front overtakes warm front
o Occluded front forms and storm then dissipates

Weather Changes Associated With Mid Latitude Cyclone in the

US

Warm front passes

o Light precipitation
o Wind from E-SE then from W-SW
o Clearing
Cold front passes
o Walls of clouds
o Heavy precipitation
o Winds from SW to W-NW

Cyclone- an area or center of low atmospheric pressure characterized

by rotating winds.

Tropical Cyclones (large thunderstorm)- form over warm tropical

or subtropical ocean water, typically between 5 and 20 latitude. They

are not associated with fronts and have warm central cores. Derive
energy from warm ocean water and the latent heat that is released as

rising air condenses to form clouds.

Two Types of Intensity:

1. Low-intensity: tropical depressions and tropical storms

2. High-intensity: are hurricanes (must have 119km (74mi.) per

hour somewhere in the storm.)

Extratropical- develop over land or water in temperate regions,

typically between 30 and 70 latitude. These mid-latitude cyclones are

generally associated with fronts and have cool central cores. Get their

energy from horizontal temperature contrast between the air masses

on either side of the front.

Formation:

1. A strong temperature gradient in the air near the surface and

strong winds in the upper troposphere.

2. Strong winds in the upper troposphere.

Hurricanes:

Big low pressure areas

Cyclones
Need high sea surface temperature to form
Latent heat give energy
They are all tropical cyclones but take different names according

where they strike: hurricanes, typhoon, and cyclone

Causes:

Tropical disturbance low pressure areas

Thick layer (45m) of warm water (26C) energy source
Strong gradient of T in the atmosphere above ocean surface
Tropical depression- wind start spiral around low pressure
Tropical storm- minimum sustained wind speed > 63 km/h
 Hurricane- increase in wind speed

Geographic Regions at Risk for Cyclones:

1. Entire Gulf Coast from southern Texas to southern Florida, an

Atlantic Coast from southern Florida northward through the

coastal provinces of Canada.

2. Southern Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, eastern Texas,

and Cap Hatteras.

FEWW Hurricane Scale:

Chapter 11: Coastal Hazards

Ocean Waves:

The velocity or speed of the wind; the stronger the wind speed,

the larger the waves.

The duration of the wind. Winds that last longer, such as during

storms have more time to impart energy to the water, thereby

producing larger waves.

The distance that the wind blows across the water surface. This

distance is referred to as the fetch. A longer fetch allows larger

waves to form. This relationship is one reason that waves are

generally larger in the ocean than in a lake.

Wave are f() of wind speed, time, and fetch
Waves in deep water = motion is circular
Wave velocity = wavelength/wave period
Wave base depth is of wavelength
Wave base in deep water typically 300m

Waves in Shallow Water:

Depth < Wave base

Waves slow down in shallow water (feel bottom)
Water piles up-wave height increases (conservation of mass)
 Beaker zone occurs at a depth < of of wavelength (becomes

wave of translation)
Build-up of water between beaker zone and beach leads to rip

tides and undertow

Swash and backwash on beach

Ocean Currents:

Surface currents

Driven by atmospheric circulation

Gyres- any large system of rotating ocean currents, particularly

those involved with large wind movements.

Coriolis Force
o CW in northern hemisphere, CCW in southern hemisphere
o Conservation of angular momentum
Ekman spiral- a complex interaction between wind, water, and

Coriolis forces that results in a net transport of water at 90

degrees to the right of the wind direction northern hemisphere

(Upwelling) and to the left, in southern hemisphere

(Downwelling).
o Coastal upwelling and downwelling

Coast:

Coasts- are a highly dynamic place so much that the position of the

coast has varied many times through the earth history.

Systems that Shape Coastal Environments:

Ocean Tides:

Marine tides-every 12 hours

Gravitational force of Moon and Sun
o Moons effect predominates
o Causes two tidal bulges (near and far side of Earth)
o Affects ocean and solid Earth
o Drag slowly decreases Earths rotation rate
Neap and Spring Tides
o Spring tides-exceptionally high (moon and sun aligned)
o Neap tide-little difference between high and low (moon and

sun at right angles)

Shoreline Features:

Erosional features
o Wave cut cliffs
o Wave cut platforms
o Arches
o Stacks
Wave Erosion and Sediment Transport:

Wave refraction
Waves are refracted (bent) as they approach the beach in an

oblique direction to bathymetry

o First part of wave to feel bottom slows down
o Part of wave in deeper water catches up
Wave refraction causes wave energy to be focused on headlands

(wears them down preferentially)

Wave refraction reduces wave energy to embayment

Long shore Current and Drift:

Long shore current occurs between beaker zone and beach

It flows parallel to the beach
Caused by wave hitting the beach at a slight angle
Sediment movement along beach cause by continual swash and

backwash

Barrier Islands:

Occur along East Coast and Gulf Coast

Origin controversial
o Erosional
o Depositional
o Post ice age sea level rises
Suffer from flooding during large storms

Coastal Erosion Control:

Temporary Fixes:

Hard stabilization: engineering structures to protect a shoreline

from direct wave erosion

Soft stabilization: adding sand to replace sand that has been

eroded from the beach, a process known as beach nourishment

Chapter 12: Climate and Climate Change

Climate- the characteristic atmospheric conditions of a given region

over a long periods of time, such as years or decades.

Weather- the atmospheric conditions of a given region for short

periods of time such as days or weeks.

Permanent and Variable Gases:

Permanent Gases:

Nitrogen and Oxygen (99%)

Argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon, and hydrogen (1%)

Variable Gases:
 Carbon dioxide, water vapor, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, and

halocarbons

How We Study Past Climate Changes and Make Predictions:

1. The instrument record

2. The historical record
3. The paleo-proxy record

Global Warming:

Global Warming- the observed increase in the average temperature

of the near-surface land and ocean environments of Earth during the

past 50 years.

The Greenhouse Effect:

Greenhouse Effect (natural phenomenon)- Trapping of heat in the

lower atmosphere by the absorption of infrared energy by water vapor,

carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, halocarbon, and other gases.

Three Factors that Determine the Earths Temperature:

1. The amount of sunlight Earth receives

2. The amount of sunlight Earth reflects (does not absorb)
3. Atmospheric retention of reradiated heat.

Why Does Climate Change:

Milankovitch Cycles- orbital parameters of Earth controls solar

insolation at high latitudes.

Factors Affecting the Earths Climate System:

Atmospheric composition
o Gases (Volcanic gases, water, carbon dioxide, and sulfuric

acid)
o Aerosols
 o Industrial pollutants
Incoming solar radiation
o Solar activity
o Clouds
o Orbital changes
Oceans
o Sea surface temperature (affects evaporation)
o Extent of ocean (plate tectonics)
o Continent-ocean distribution (plate tectonics)
o Heat exchange with atmosphere
o Salinity of ocean water
Continents
o Distribution affects ocean currents
o Orographic affects winds
o Albedo
Biosphere

Ways For Changing the Amount of Energy that Reaches the

Earth Surface:

Change in solar output

Change in fraction of radiation that reaches the surface

(shielding orbital parameters, Milankovitch cycles)

Change in fraction of radiation that is reflected from the surface
Change in radiation that is trapped by the atmosphere upon

reflection

Human Impact on Climate Change:

CO2- fossil fuel

Other gases- N2O, methane, CFCs
Grazing
Deforestation + fire
Soil
Carbon storage