UNIT III

WATER TREATMENT
OBJECTIVES
o To remove colour, dissolved gases and murkiness of water
o To remove objectionable tastes and odours
o To remove disease producing micro organisms so water is safe for drinking purpose
o To remove hardness of water
o To make it suitable for wide industrial purposes like brewing, dyeing and steam
generation

Unit Operations (UO)

Unit operations are primary treatment of water which uses physical forces to create the
desirable changes during water treatment
Unit operations causes physical change to the water to be treated
Unit operations are mixing, agitating, aeration, absorption, membrane separation,
distillation, sedimentation and filtration

Unit process (UO)

Unit processes are secondary treatment of water which uses chemicals to get desirable
changes during water treatment
Unit process causes chemical changes to the water treated
Unit processes are oxidation, nitrification, coagulation, chlorination and disinfection

S.N Units UO Principle Applications

o (or)
UP

1. Micro strainer UO Remove algae and plankton from the raw

water

2. Aeration UP Strips and oxidizes taste and odour causing

volatile organics and gases and oxidizes iron
and manganese. Aeration systems include
gravity aerator, spray aerator, diffuser and
mechanical aerator.
3. Mixing UO Provides uniform and rapid distribution of
chemicals and gases into the water.
4. Pre-oxidation UP Application of oxidizing agents such us ozone,
potassium permanganate, and chlorine
compounds in raw water and in other
treatment units; retards microbiological
growth and oxidizes taste, odor and colour
causing compounds
 5. Coagulation UP Coagulation is the addition and rapid mixing of
coagulant resulting in destabilization of the
colloidal particle and formation of pin head floc
6. Flocculation UO Flocculation is aggregation of destabilized
turbidity and colour causing particles to form a
rapid-settling floc
7. Sedimentation UO Gravity separation of suspended solids or floc
produced in treatment processes. It is used
after coagulation and flocculation and chemical
precipitation.
8. Filtration UO Removal of particulate matter by percolation
through granular media. Filtration media may
be single (sand, anthracite, etc.), mixed, or
multilayered.
9. Disinfection UP Destroys disease-causing organisms in water
supply. Disinfection is achieved by ultraviolet
radiation and by oxidative chemicals such as
chlorine, bromine, iodine, potassium
permanganate, and ozone, chlorine being the
most commonly used chemical

Water treatment process

Screening, Aeration, Sedimentation, filtration and disinfection

Screening:
Screens acts as protective device which protects the treatment plant from sticks,
branches, leaves and fine particles of sand and silt.

Types: (i) Coarse screen (ii) Fine screen (iii) Micro strainers

Coarse screens
* Coarse screens or bar screens are used to stop gross floating materials
* 25 mm size bars are placed at 75 to 100 mm centre to centre
* Usually bars are inclined on a slope of 3 to 6 vertical to 1 horizontal

* Strained water enters vertical screens leaving behind leaves, debris as sediment
* Straining is achieved by upward flow leaving behind debris and waste
* Self flushing inclined screen

Fine screens
* Water enters through fine screens after passing through coarse screen
* Fine screens are assembled as end less bands or drums with perforations 6mm
diameter
* Usually fine screens are automatic strainers which continuously remove solids from
water and deposit it to collecting tray
* Fine screen strainers are partly submerged in water

Micro strainers
* Micro strainers have 23 micron and 35 micron of stainless steel wire cloth wrapped
around revolving drum with continuous back washing assembly
* Used to clean stored water with less suspended matter but with plankton, algae and
micro particles
* Installed before rapid or slow sand filters which increases efficiency of filters by 50%
* While operation drum is submerged 2/3 rds of total size and water enters in to the
drum and passes out radially
* The solids are carried upside of drum and collected to get washed of by jet of water
which is 1% of total water strained
* 3m X 3m drum strains 50000 to 80000 lph and it cannot remove colour and finely
divided clay

Coagulation:
Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by addition of chemicals that neutralize the
negative charges
The chemicals are known as coagulants, usually higher valence cationic salts (Al3+,
Fe3+ etc.)

Coagulation is essentially a chemical process

Floc: When coagulant is dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed in it, thick gelatinous
precipitate know as floc is formed

Flocculation:
Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into large size particles known
as flocs which can be effectively removed by sedimentation or flotation.

Colloidal Characteristics:
Water colloids classified according to water affinity Hydrophilic colloids and hydrophobic
colloids

Hydrophilic colloids
These types of colloids have affinity towards water due to presence of water soluble
compounds like amino, carboxyl, sulfonic, hydroxyl groups on the colloidal surface.
These groups of compounds promote hydration which causes water film collection and
surround the hydrophilic colloid
Example: Proteins soaps and synthetic detergents

Hydrophobic colloids
These type of colloids have little affinity towards water, so no significant water film or
hydration is observed.
Example: Clay, metal

Test to determine optimum pH and Coagulant

The jar test a laboratory procedure to determine the optimum pH and the optimum
coagulant dose
A jar test simulates the coagulation and flocculation processes

Determination of optimum pH

Optimum pH:

Fill the jars with raw water sample (500 or 1000 mL) usually 6 jars
 Adjust pH of the jars by mixing using H2SO4 or NaOH/lime (pH: 5.0; 5.5; 6.0; 6.5;
7.0; 7.5)
Add same dose of the selected coagulant (alum or iron) to each jar (Coagulant dose:
5 or 10 mg/L)
Rapid mix each jars at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix helps to disperse
the coagulant throughout each container
Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 mins.
This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle
collisions, which lead to larger flocs
Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45 mins
Measure the final residual turbidity in each jar
Plot residual turbidity against pH

Determination of Optimum Coagulant Dosage

Jar Test Apparatus

Repeat all the previous steps
This time adjust pH of all jars at optimum (6.3 found from first test) while mixing
using H2SO4 or NaOH/lime
Add different doses of the selected coagulant (alum or iron) to each jar (Coagulant
dose: 5; 7; 10; 12; 15; 20 mg/L)
Rapid mix each jars at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix helps to disperse
the coagulant throughout each container
Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm for 15 to 20 mins
Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45 mins
Then measure the final residual turbidity in each jar
Plot residual turbidity against coagulant dose
The coagulant dose with the lowest residual turbidity will be the optimum coagulant
dose
 Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5

Coagulant Dose
Factors influencing selection of Coagulant
1. Easily availability in dry and liquid forms
2. Economical
3. Effective over wide range of pH
4. Produces less sludge
5. Less harmful for environment
6. Quick reaction to form flocs

Factors affecting coagulation

1. Types of coagulant
2. Quantity or dose of coagulant
3. Characteristics of water such as
- Type and quantity of suspended matter
- Temperature of water
- pH of water
4. Time, turbulence and method of mixing

Commonly used coagulants are:

Aluminum Sulphate or Alum
Chlorinated Copperas
Ferrous sulphate and lime
Magnesium Carbonate
Polyelectrolytes
Sodium Aluminate
Aluminium sulphate or Alum
Commonly used coagulant with chemical formula Al2(SO4)3 18H2O
Many waters have bicarbonate alkalinity which is required for alum coagulation
Water insoluble compound aluminium hydroxide is formed which is floc
Al2(SO4)3 18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 = 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O + 6CO2
Natural alkalinity is insufficient to react with alum, so lime is added which forms Calcium
hydroxide or hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2)
Al2(SO4)3 18H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 = 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O
Sodium carbonate is added to form alkalinity which does not hardness but it is expensive
Al2(SO4)3 18H2O + 3Na2CO2 = 2Al(OH)3 + 3NaSO4 + 18H2O + 3CO2

Advantages
Alum is effective for water pH between 6.5 to 8.5
Dosage varies between 10 to 30 mgl/L depends on turbidity, colour, taste, pH and
temperature
Alum reduces taste, odour and turbidity
Cheap and strong flocs
Produces crystal clear water
Alum recovery at th of the cost of alum is possible

Disadvantage
Alum coagulation results in permanent hardness resulting in calcium sulphate
Metal corrosive carbon dioxide is formed while coagulation
Sludge dewatering is difficult
Limited pH range of 6.5 to 8.5 which requires additional salts which is costly
Land fill of alum sludge in low lying lands are difficult which results in salinity

Chlorinated Copperas
Hydrated Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) is referred as copperas
High solubility makes it usable as coagulant at usual pH range
After chlorination it is oxidised to ferric sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3) and ferric chloride (FeCl3)
before mixing with bulk water
Ferric sulphate and ferric chloride are called as copperas they immediately form ferric
hydroxide floc
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 = 3CaSO4 + 2Fe(OH)3
2FeCl3 + 3Ca(OH)2 = 3CaCl2 + 2Fe(OH)3
Advantages
Quickly flocs are formed
Chlorinated copperas is effective in removing colour
Theoretical ratio of chlorine to copperas is 1 to 7.8
Independent use of ferric chloride is effective for 3.5 to 6.5 and above 8.5 pH
High pH level it is suitable for removing manganese
Independent use of ferric sulphate is effective over a pH range of 4 to 7 and above 9
Disadvantages
Low solubility in cold water
Cost is high when compared to alum
Special solution arrangements are required in cold water

Ferrous sulphate and lime

Ferrous sulphate reacts with natural bicarbonate alkalinity slowly
Lime is added to copperas to speed up flocculation
FeSO4.7H2O + Ca(OH)2 = Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4 + 7H2O
Formed ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2) floc is oxidised by dissolved oxygen in water to
ferric hydroxide
4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O = 4Fe(OH)3
Advantages
Ferric hydroxide is a gelatinous floc heavier than alum floc
Effective pH range is 8.5 and above
Suitable for alkaline water
Disadvantages
Ferrous sulphate is not suitable for soft coloured waters
Not suitable for pH range 7.0 and below pH 7.0

Magnesium Carbonate and lime

Magnesium carbonate and lime forms magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
Advantages
Useful for removing organic colour, iron and manganese
Disadvantages
Magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate are water soluble
Slurry is formed due to solubility
Not commonly used to treat water

Polyelectrolytes
Polyelectrolytes are high molecular water soluble polymers
Classified based on charge as anionic, cationic and non ionic
Cationic polyelectrolytes are independent effective coagulants
Other polyelectrolytes are used as coagulant aids
With polyacrylamides non polymer materials should be absent
Advantages
Polyelectrolytes increase pH range reducing primary coagulant volume to 1 ppm
Polyelectrolyte is very small when compared to coagulant but effective in flocculation
Cationic polyelectrolytes trade names are Floccal N, Magnifloc 972 and Mogul 980
Disadvantages
Costly when compared to alum
Sodium Aluminate
Sodium aluminate (Na2Al2O4) is alkaline in reaction which reacts with calcium and
magnesium
Na2Al2O4 + Ca(HCO3)2 = CaAl2O4 + a2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Na2Al2O4 + CaCl2 = CaAl2O4 + 2NaCl
Na2Al2O4 + CaSO4 = CaAl2O4 + Na2SO4
Advantages
Coagulant removes temporary and permanent hardness
Can be used for naturally available water with pH 6 to 8.5
Disadvantages
Costly than alum
Can be used only for natural water with pH range 6 to 8.5
Not suitable for acidic and alkaline water

Coagulant feeding methods

(i) Dry feeding
Simple operation and requires less space
Cheap but dosing control is difficult
(ii) Wet feeding
Dosage can be adjusted automatically
Chemicals of corrosive nature causes problems
(i) Dry feeding
Chemical in powder form is placed in hopper bottom tank
Agitating plates are placed to prevent arching inside tank
Venture device connected to the raw water pipe rotates the toothed wheel or helical
screw according to the flow of the water

Dry feeding methods

(ii) Wet Feeding
Coagulant is prepared to required strength and stored in storage a tank which is fed in
proportion to raw water according to the flow.
The mixing is carried out by regulating devices

(a) Conical Plug and Float

Coagulant solution is stored in constant head feeding tank
Coagulant feed is controlled by conical plug which is connected to float by rod rotated by
rack and pinion arrangement
Raw water channel and float channel are inter connected to maintain same water level
When water level rises the rack and pinion arrangement rotates to raise the conical plug
to feed more quantity of coagulant solution
When water flow is stopped float moves down this rotates conical plug in same direction
through rack and pinion stops flow of coagulant which is automatic

(b) Adjustable weir and float

Adjustable weir in the form of sliding cylinder having rectangular holes in the surface and
its movement is controlled by a lever system moved by the float
When flow increases float moves upwards opening the mouth of wier coagulant flow
increases.
When flow decreases the wier is closed which is automatic
Coagulant Mixing methods
(i) Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pump is used to raise the raw water to the settling tank
Required dose of chemical is passed through suction pipe it mixes at impeller of pump
When water is delivered gentle agitation is required to get good results of coagulation
and sedimentation

(ii) Compressed air agitation

Vigorous agitation is carried out by diffusing compressed air from bottom of tank

Narrow mixing Channel with flume

Coagulant is fed from feeding tank to the narrow mixing channel with vertical baffles
Flume is provided to develop hydraulic jump to cause turbulence and to measure the flow

Channel with baffles

 Channel with overflow wier

Channel with flume for hydraulic jump

Mixing basins with baffle wall

Water flows horizontally for short distance and takes complete turn which causes
turbulence resulting in mixing and this assembly is called as round the end type

Water flows up and down due to vertical baffle walls it is called as vertical or over and
under type
Used in smaller water treatment plants
Mix basins with baffle basins are not used now due to high head loss and velocity
variations

Mixing basins with mechanical devices

Flash mixer is used in water treatment plant now
In flash mixer coagulant is agitated vigorously by a paddle operated by a variable speed
motor
Figure shows vane type flash mixer

Intensity of mixing depends upon temporal mean velocity gradient (G)

Turbulence and mixing intensity depends on power input
Propeller type impeller rotates at 400 to 1400 rpm it is widely used
Impeller speed is between 100 to 250 rpm
Detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is practised
Flash mixer units are circular or square tanks with height to diameter ratio of 1:1 to 3:1
Mean velocity gradient (G) is kept above 300 s-1 to 900 s-1
Power requirements are from 1 to 3 watts per m3/hr of flow
Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter is 0.2:1 to 0.4:1 shaft speed of propeller is
kept that the tangential velocity greater than 3m/s is imparted at the tip of the blades

Mean velocity gradient:

It is defined as the rate of change of velocity per unit distance normal to a section
(metres/ seconds /metres)

G = (P/ (V))
P = power dissipated in watts
= absolute viscosity in N-s/m2
V = the volume to which P is applied in m3
G = temporal mean velocity gradient (s-1)
Flash Mixer types
(a) Mechanical
Vane type
Propeller type
Jet type

(b) Hydraulic
Hydraulic jump
Baffled channel
Design Criteria
Impeller speed is between 100 to 250 rpm
Detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is practised
Flash mixer units are circular or square tanks with height to diameter ratio of 1:1 to 3:1
Mean velocity gradient (G) is kept above 300 s-1 to 900 s-1
Power requirements are from 1 to 3 watts per m3/hr of flow
Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter is 0.2:1 to 0.4:1 shaft speed of propeller is
kept that the tangential velocity greater than 3m/s is imparted at the tip of the blades

Design of mechanical rapid mix unit

# Design of mechanical rapid mix unit for a design flow to be treated equal to 300 m3/h.
Assume suitable permissible values for various parameters of design. Assume a
temperature of 20C

Design parameters
Adopt design parameters
(i) Detention time = 30 secs
(ii)Velocity gradient G = 600 s-1
(iii) Rotational speed of impeller: 125rpm
(iv) Ratio of tank height to diameter = 1.5:1
(v) Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter = 0.04:1

STEP 1
Determination of dimensions of the tank
Volume of tank = flow x detention time
= 300/3600 x 30 = 2.5m3
Volume = Area x depth = (/4 x D2) x (1.5D)
2.5 = /4 x D3
D = 1.285 m
Tank diameter = 1.3
Depth of tank = 1.3 x 1.5 = 1.95m + free board of 0.2 m
= 2.15 m
STEP 2
Computation of power requirements
P = G2V
= 1.0087 x 10-3 at 20C
P = 6002 x 1.0087 x 10-3 x 2.5
= 908 watts
Power per unit volume = 908/2.5 (vol. of tank) = 363 watts/m3
Power per unit flow of water = 908/300 (flow) = 3.03 watts/m3/hr of flow

Determination of dimensions of flat blades and impeller

Diameter of impeller = 0.4 x tank diameter
= 0.4 x 1.3 0.52m
Velocity at the tip of the impeller vp = ((2rn)/60) m/s
= 2 x (0.52/2) x (125/60) = 3.40m/s

Pc = x CD x x Ab x vr3
Ab = area of blades
vr = relative velocity of blades = (1 - k) vp
vp = velocity at the tip of the impeller or blade
Pc = power spent = 908
= density of water = 998 kg/m3 at 20C
k = 0.25
vr = (1 - 0.25) vp = 0.75vp = 0.75 x 3.40 = 2.55 m/s
CD = 1.8 for blades
908 = x 1.8 x 998 x Ab x (2.55)3

Ab = 0.06097 m2, provide six blades of each blades area = 1/6 x 0.06097 = 0.01m2
Each blades size = 0.09 x 0.12 = 9 cm x 12 cm = 108 cm2

# A coagulant sedimentation plant clarifies 50 MLD. The raw water alkalinity equivalent
of 4 mg/l of CaCO3. The filter alum required at the plant is 20 mg/l. Determine the filter
alum and quick lime (containing 88% to CaO) required per year by the plant. Use the
following molecular weights: (Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, Ca = 40, C = 12)
Solution:
Alum required per day = 50 x 106 x 20 = 1000 x 106 mg/day
= 1000 kg/day = 365 tonnes/year
Chemical reactions when water has sufficient alkalinity
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2
Mol. Wt of Al2(SO4)3 18H2O = (2x27) + 3(32 + 4 x 16) + 18(2 + 16) = 666
Mol. Wt of Ca(HCO3)2 = 40 + 2(1 + 12 + 48) = 162
Mol. Wt. of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100
Mol. Wt. of CaO = 40 + 16 = 56
Alum requires 3 x 162 (486) parts of natural alkalinity, Ca(HCO3)2 for every 666 parts of
alum
162 parts of Ca (HCO3)2 natural alkalinity is equivalent to 100 parts of alkalinity as
CaCO3.
Required alkalinity as CaCO3 for water containing alum of 20 mg/l
= (3 x 100 x 20)/ 666 = 9.01 mg/l
Natural alkalinity available as CaCO3 = 4 mg/l
Additional alkalinity required to be added in the form of lime
= 9.01 4 = 5.01mg/l as CaCo3
Since 100 parts of CaCo3 produces 56 parts of CaO, then quantity of CaO required
= (5.01 x 56)/ 100 = 2.806 mg/l
Market available quick lime contains only 88% of CaO
Quick lime required = (2.806 x 100) / 88 = 3.188 mg/l
Quantity of quick lime per day = 50 x 106 x 3.188 mg = 159.4 kg/day
= 58.2 tonnes/day

Flocculation:
Flocculation is slow mixing or agitating process in which destabilised colloidal particles
are brought into intimate contact in order to promote their agglomeration. The operation
of slow mixing is achieved in a basin commonly known as the flocculator.
Factors affecting flocculation
Type of turbidity
Concentration of turbidity
Type of coagulant
Dosage of coagulant
Temporal mean velocity gradient (G)

Flocculation methods:
(i) Gravitation or Hydraulic methods
(a) Horizontal flow baffled flocculator
(b) Vertical flow baffled flocculator
(c) Jet flocculator
(ii) Mechanical methods
(iii) Pneumatic flocculation

Design Criteria for flocculator

Depth of tank : 3 to 4.5 m
Detention time : 10 to 40 minutes, normal 30 min
Velocity of flow : 0.2 to 0.8 m/s, 0.4 m/s normal
Total area of paddles : 10 to 25 % of cross sectional area of tank
Peripheral velocity of blades : 0.2 to 0.6 m/s normal 0.3 to 0.4 m/s
Velocity gradient (G) : 10 to75 s-1
Factor G.td : 104 to 105
Power consumption : 10 to36 kW/MLD
Outlet flow velocity : 0.15 to 0.25 m/s

CD = 1.8 for flat blades

Distance between paddle edge and side of the basin = 15 to 40 cm
K=0.25
Relative velocity is 75% of paddle velocity i.e. vr = 0.75% x vp
Area of paddles = length of blades x width x no. of blades in that compartment
i.e. Ap = lb x w x n
Distance between two paddles in same compartment (in plan) = about 1m
# Design a flocculator for design of flow to be treated equal to 300 m3/h. Assume
suitable permissible values of various parameters of design. Assume a temperature of
20C.
Solution:
Design Parameters
The following design parameters are assumed:
Detention period : 20 minutes
Avg. value of G : 40s-1
Speed of paddles : 4.5 rpm
Area of paddles : 15 % of the cross sectional area of basin
Velocity ratio k = 0.25
= 1.0087 x 10-3 N-s/m2 at 20C
= 998 kg/m3 at 20C
Ratio of length to width of the tank = 2
Distance between paddle edge and side of the basin = 15 to 40 cm

STEP 1
Computation of volume of flocculation tank
Volume of tank V = Design flow x detention time = (300/60) x 20 = 100 m3
Let the depth of the tank = 0.4B
Let the length of the tank = 2B
B x 2B x 0.4B = 100, B = 5 m, L = 5 x 2 = 10 m, H = 0.4 x 5 = 2 m
STEP 2
Computation of power required
P = G2 x V x
= (40)2 x 100 x 1.0087 x 10-3
= 161.4 watts
STEP 3
Computation of velocity difference between the paddle and water
Let us provide paddles attached to three horizontal shafts running parallel to the length.
Let each shaft be located at mid depth of the tank. Let us provide four paddles to each
shaft each running parallel to the shaft
Distance between paddle edge and side of the basin (15 to 40 cm) = 20 cm
Distance between adjacent paddles = 20 cm
Total distance for clearance between three paddles = 4 x 20 cm = 80 cm
Space remaining for three paddles = 5m 0.80 m = 4.2 m
Space for single paddle assembly = 4.2/3 = 1.4 = dia of single paddle assembly
r = 1.4/2 = 0.7, vp = (2 x 0.7 x 4.5) / 60 = 0.3299 m/s
vr = (1-k) vp = (1-0.25) x 0.3299 = 0.2474 m/s

STEP 4
Computation of paddle size
P = x CD x x Ap x vr3 , CD = 1.8 for flat blades
161.4 = x 1.8 x 998 x Ap x (0.2474)3
Ap = 11.87 m2
There are total of 3 x 4 = 12 paddles, Area of each paddle = 11.87/12 = 0.989 m/s
Length of each paddle = 4.8, width of each paddle = 0.989/4.8 = 0.206 m
Provide 25 cm wide paddle with length of 4.8 m.

Sedimentation:
Sedimentation is the removal of suspended particles by gravitational settling
Sedimentation tanks are designed to reduce velocity of flow of water so as to permit
suspended solids to settle out of the water by gravity

Plain sedimentation:
When impurities are separated from water due to action of gravity alone then it is called
plain sedimentation

Sedimentation with coagulation or clarification:

When chemicals or other substances are added to induce the suspended solids to
aggregation to form flocs then it is called as sedimentation with coagulation or
clarification

Chemical precipitation:
When chemicals are added to throw dissolved impurities out of solution it is called as
chemical precipitation

Discrete particles:
A particle that does not alter its size, shape, and weight while settling in water is known
as discrete particle

Types of settling:
Type I: Discrete particle settling Particles settle individually without interaction with
neighbouring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and
settle at a faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone settling The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with
individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can
only occur through compaction of the structure.

In water treatment Type I and Type II settlements are encountered

 Column test for a suspension exhibiting zone-settling behavior of all types of
settling

Type I Settling

Size, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with time.

Settling velocity remains constant.

If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it:
(1) force of gravity: Fg=pgVp
(2) buoyant force quantified by Archimedes as: Fb=gVp

If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is exerted and the
particle is accelerated in the direction of the force:
Fnet=(p-)gVp , This net force becomes the driving force

Once the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous friction. This
force, called the drag force, is quantified by:
Fd=CDApv2/2, CD = drag coefficient, Ap = projected area of the particle

Because the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and increases as
the square of the velocity, acceleration occurs at a decreasing rate until a steady velocity
is reached at a point where the drag force equals the driving force:

(p-)gVp = CDApv2/2
For spherical particles,
Vp=d3/6 and Ap=d2/4

Thus, v2= 4g(p-)d

3CD
Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow regimes. For laminar,
transition, and turbulent flow, the values of CD are:

CD = 24 (laminar)
Re
CD= 24 + 3 + 0.34 (transition)
1/2
Re Re
CD= 0.4 (turbulent)

Where Re is the Reynolds number:

Re=vd

Reynolds number less than 1.0 indicate laminar flow, while values greater than 10
indicate turbulent flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional flow.

Stokes Flow
For laminar flow, terminal settling velocity equation becomes:
v= (p-)gd2
18
which is known as the stokes equation.

Transition Flow
Need to solve non-linear equations:

v2= 4g(p-)d
3 CD
CD= 24 + 3 +0.34
1/2
Re Re
Re=vd

Types of Sedimentation tanks
Depending upon the types of operation there are two types
(i) The Quiescent or fill and draw type
(ii) The continuous flow type

(i) Fill draw type

Sedimentation tank is filled with incoming water and is allowed to rest for a 24 hours
Suspended particles settle down at the bottom of the tank during rest
The clear water is drawn out and the tank is cleaned which takes 6 to 12 hours
Cycle of operation takes 30 to 36 hours
Minimum of three units are required for constant supply

(ii) Continuous flow type tank

In factors controlling settling or sedimentation under gravity, velocity of flow can be
controlled in continuous flow type tanks
In continuous flow type tanks water flows at constant velocity in the tank
The particles settle at bottom during flow of water before it reaches to tank outlet
(a) Horizontal flow tank
(b) Vertical flow tank
The horizontal flow type tank is generally rectangular in plan with length twice as width
and water flows at velocity 0.3 m/sec
Vertical flow type tanks are deep circular or rectangular with hopper bottom

Design of Horizontal flow sedimentation tank

The objective of design is to achieve ideal conditions of equal velocity at all vertical
points in the settling zone

Assumptions
o With in sedimentation zone the particles similarly as it would happen in quiescent tank
of equal depth
o Flow is horizontal, steady with uniform velocity in all parts of settling zone for
detention period
o Concentration of suspended particles of all size is similar at vertical cross section at
the inlet end
o A particle is removed when it reaches the bottom of settling zone
The settling basin can be divided onto four zones
(i) inlet zone in which the influent stream disperse over the cross section at right angles
to flow
(ii) the settling zone
(iii) bottom or sludge zone
(iv) the outlet zone in which the water and remaining suspended particles assemble to
be carried away to effluent conduit

Let L and H be the length and depth of the settling zone. Let Q be discharge and B be
width of the tank. The horizontal discharge velocity Vd is given by
Vd = Q
HB
The time of horizontal flow t0 = L = LBH
Vd Q
Consider a particle entering the tank with vertical falling speed Vs. The time for falling
through distance H will be H. when time of horizontal flow is equal
Vs
to time of fall it should be equal to time of horizontal flow
So, H = LBH. From which Vs = Q = Q = surface flow rate
Vs Q LB A
Surface flow rate or over flow rate is numerically equal to flow divided by the plan area of
the basin
Vd = L , t0 = H
Vs H Vs
Particle with velocity greater than velocity Vs will settle before reaching to outlet end of
tank.
Time of horizontal flow is t0 = H is known as detention period
Vs
If smaller particle falling at speed of Vs < Vs enters the tank at point h, it will settle
through only height h during the detention time t0 is given by
H = t0 = LBH , h = LBH Vs = Vs .H
Vs Q Q Vs
The particle will not settle if it enters above h. the ratio of removal of this particle size to
that of settling value is given by
Xr = h = Vs = Vs (Hazens equation)
H Vs Q/A
Hazens equation states that for discrete particles and unhindered settling, basin
efficiency is solely a function of settling velocity of particles and of the surface area of the
basin relative to the flow rate. Settling efficiency is independent of the basin depth and
detention period

Design Elements
1. Detention period and displacement efficiency
Detention time is theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass between entry and
exit of the settling tank
t0 = Volume of tank
Rate of flow
Rectangular tank = BLH
Q
2
Circular tank = d (0.011d + 0.785H) d = diameter of tank, H = depth at wall
Q
Actual detention period should be twice as the theoretical detention period

Flow through Period (td)

Average time required for a batch of water to pass through the settling tank

Displacement Efficiency (d)

The ratio of flow through period to the detention period is called as displacement
efficiency

Displacement efficiency = Flow through period = td (0.2to 0.5)

Detention period t0

2. Over flow rate and surface loading

The quantity of water passing per hour per unit horizontal area is known as the over flow
rate or surface loading.
Vs (cm/sec) = 1 Q
864000 A

3. Basin Dimension
The surface area of the basin is determined on the basis of the overflow rate or surface
loading rate

Surface area A = Volume of water in litres/ hour

Surface loading rate in litres per hour/m2
Length to width ratio of rectangular tanks = 3:1 to 5:1
Depth = 2.5 to 5 m (preferred 3 m inclusive of sludge and free board)
Horizontal velocity= 0.2 to 0.4 m/minute (0.3 m/minute)
Bottom slope = 1% in rectangular and 8% in circular
Slope of sludge hopper = 1.2:1 to 2:1 (vertical to horizontal)

4. Inlet and outlet arrangements

Inlet and outlet should not cause disturbances due to influent and effluent
Great weight due to turbidity may cause sinking and rising at outlet which may cause
back flow at inlet reducing detention period

Inlet
Ideal inlet properties (i) distribute water uniformly throughout width and depth of tank
(ii) mix it with water in tank to prevent density current (iii) minimise large scale
turbulence (iv) initiate longitudinal or radial flow to achieve high removal efficiency
Inlet must face baffle, uniform velocity is achieved by passing water through dispersion
wall with perforated holes or slots
Slots are placed such that (i) velocity of flow through slots is about 0.2 to 0.3 m/s (ii)
head loss is 1.7 times the velocity head (iii) diameter of the hole no to be larger than the
thickness of the diffuser wall

Outlet
Consists of (i) weirs, notches or orifices (ii) effluent trough or launder (iii) outlet pipe
Weir frequently consists of V notches approximately 50 mm depth placed at 150 300
mm on centres with baffle provided in front of the weir to stop floating matter entering
into effluent

Assuming the curve defined by water surface as parabolic and neglecting friction the
equation formed

H = h2 + 2q2 L2 n2 1/2
gb2h
H = water depth at upstream of launder
h = water depth at down stream end, at distance L
q = discharge per unit length of weir
b = width of launder or trough
h = number of sides the weir receives the flow
In absence of control device we assume that flow at the lower end of the launder will be
at critical depth
h = Q2 1/3 Q = total discharge in the launder = qL
b2 g
Normal weir loadings are up to 300 m3/day/m length

Scour velocity
Flow velocity should not be more than the scour velocity which will cause uplift the
particles in the sludge zone

Scour velocity, Vd = 8 g (G-1) d

f
0.04 for unigranular sand, 0.06 for non uniform sticky material
f = 0.025 to 0.03(Darcy weisbach friction factor)

5. Sludge removal
Sludge is settled particles in basin which is removed mechanically or manually
When sludge quantity is less and cleaning is required once in 2 to 4 months
When sludge is organic septic condition is encountered resulting in odour and foul smell
So sludge is removed with rotating scrapers move sludge to collecting points from there
it is sucked through pumps

Details of Plain Sedimentation tanks

Plain sedimentation tanks are in following shapes
a) Rectangular tanks with Horizontal flow
b) Circular tank with radial flow
c) Hopper bottom with vertical flow

(a) Rectangular tanks with Horizontal flow

Rectangular sedimentation tanks are provided with baffles to avoid short circuiting
Up and down, around the end baffle tanks are provided for sedimentation
Rectangular sedimentation tanks are also designed without baffles but with sludge
hopper and sloping floor
Sludge is scrapped with scrappers and stored in sludge hopper
From sludge hopper sludge is sucked through sludge pipe using sludge pump

Short circuiting
If water currents permit a substantial portion of the water to pass directly through the
tank with out being detained for intended time the flow is said to be short circuited
(b) Circular tank with radial or spiral flow
Circular tanks are costlier to install but installed with mechanical scrappers
Circular tanks have radial or spiral flow
The path of water is from distributor at the centre to decanting weir at the circumference
The influent enters through a central pipe and raises upto the baffle box or influent well
from where it flows radialy towards the circumference
The racking arms move slowly to scrap sludge which is removed through the sludge pipe
connected to the sludge pump
In case of circular tank with spiral flow inlet is provided at the circumference and directed
at an angle between a radius and a tangent
The outlet is provided in the form of a submerged weir is also provided at the outer
circumference but of short length
The inlet velocity rotates the water in the tank and induces spiral path for water from
inlet to outlet

Circular tank with spiral flow

(c) Hopper bottom tank with vertical flow
Water enters through the centrally placed inlet pipe and is deflected downwards by the
action of a deflection box
Water travels downwards
The sludge settles at the bottom of the hopper from where it is removed with the help of
a sludge pipe connected to sludge pump
In upward flow settling tank water enters at top centre and flows downwards through a
mixing compartment
Then the water passes through small openings upward through the outside compartment
which has sloping side which reduces vertical flow
The solids form blanket at the zone where the vertical velocity is reduced which is
sufficient to sustain them
The formed blanket is effective in straining out rising particle which are too small to
settle against the current

Hopper bottom sedimentation tank Hopper bottom tank upward flow

Sedimentation with Coagulation
Particles in relatively dilute concentration with smaller size sometimes will not act as
discrete particles (as the grit particles behave in grit chamber) but these particles will
coalesce during sedimentation. As flocculation occurs, the size of the particle increases
and it settles faster. The magnitude of flocculation will depend upon the opportunity for
contact between the particles, which depends upon overflow rate, temporal mean
velocity gradient in the system (representing mixing) and concentration and size of the
particles. Although, settling rate of particle is independent of depth of basin, the basin
depth will decide liquid detention time in the tank and sufficient depth should be provided
for settling to separate it from sludge settled zone. The effect of these variables on
settling can only be determined by sedimentation tests, and classical laws of
sedimentation are not applicable, due to change in characteristics of the particle during
settling. Settling column is used to determine the settling characteristics of the
suspension of flocculant particles. A column with diameter of 15 cm and height of 3.0 m
can give satisfactory results, with 5 to 6 ports provided over the height for sampling. The
height of the tank should be ideally equal to side water depth of the settling tank for
proper results.
The solution containing suspended solids should be added in the column in such a way
that uniform distribution of solid particles occur from top to bottom. Settling should takes
place under quiescent conditions. It is important to maintain uniform temperature
throughout the experimental column to avoid convection currents. At various time
intervals, samples are withdrawn from the ports and analyzed for suspended solids.
Percentage removal of solids is calculated for each sample analyzed and is plotted as a
number (%) against time and depth.
The curve of equal percentage removal is drawn between the plotted points.
The efficiency of the sedimentation tank, with respect to suspended solids and BOD
removal, is affected by the following:
o Eddy currents formed by the inertia of incoming fluid,
o Wind induced turbulence created at the water surface of the uncovered tanks,
o Thermal convection currents,
o Cold or warm water causing the formation of density currents that moves along the
bottom of the basin, and
o Thermal stratification in hot climates

Because of the above reasons the removal efficiency of the tank and detention time has
correlation R = t/(a+b.t), where a and b are empirical constants, R is expected
removal efficiency, and t is nominal detention time.
To account for the non optimum conditions encountered in the field, due to continuously
wastewater coming in and going out of the sedimentation tank, due to ripples formed on
the surface of the water because of wind action, etc., the settling velocity (overflow rate)
obtained from the column studies are often multiplied by a factor of 0.65 to 0.85, and
the detention time is multiplied by a factor of 1.25 to 1.50. This will give adequate
treatment efficiency in the field conditions as obtained under laboratory test.

Design Criteria
Surface over flow rates = 12 18 m3/day/m2 for plain sedimentation tanks
= 24 30 m3/day/m2 for sedimentation with coagulation
Depth = 1.8 to 6m (normal 3-4.5m)
Volume of tank = Detention time x discharge
Volume of tank = Breadth x Length x Height (Rectangular)
Volume of tank = D2(0.011D + 0.785H)
D = diameter of tank, H = Height of tank at edge of the tank
Detention time = 4-8 hrs for plain sedimentation tank
Detention time = 2-4 hrs for coagulation sedimentation tank
Breadth of tank = 10 12 metres
Length of the tank = 1 to 6 times of breadth (normal 4 times of Breadth)
Horizontal flow velocity = 0.15 0.9 m/min (normal 0.3 m/min)
Sludge deposit heights for plain sedimentation tank = 0.8 1.2 m
Free board = 0.5 m
Surface area of Sedimentation tank = discharge or flow
Surface over flow rate

# Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million litres of raw

water per day. The detention period may be assumed to be 3 hours.

Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106 litres. Detention period is 3h.
Volume of tank = Flow x Detention period = 2.4 x 103 x 3/24 = 300 m3
Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m. Surface area = 300/3 = 100 m2
L/B = 3 (assumed). L = 3B. 3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m
L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 m
Hence surface loading (Overflow rate) = 2.4 x 106 = 24,000 l/d/m2 < 40,000
l/d/m2 (OK) 100

# Design a circular sedimentation tank to treat 3 million litres per day. Assume
detention period to be 4 hrs.

Rate of flow per day = 3 x 106 litres. Detention period 4 hours

Volume of tank = 3 x 106 x 4 = 500 m3
1000 x 24
Assume depth = 3 m. Surface area = 500 = 166.666 = 167 m2
3
A circular sedimentation tank is generally provided with its bottom cone shaped with
slope 1 vertical to 12 horizontal. For this condition volume is given by V = D2 (0.011D +
0.785H)
D = Diameter, H = height in wall side
500 = 0.011D3 + 2.355 D2
0.011D3 + 2.355 D2 500 = 0, by solving
Diameter, D = 14.1 m

Surface overflow rate = 3x106 = 17964.0718 l/m2/d < 40000 l/m2/day

167
Hence safe

# Design a coagulation sedimentation tank with a continuous flow for treating

water for a population of 45,000 persons with an average daily consumption of
135 L/person. Assume a surface loading rate of 0.9 m3m-2h-1 and that the weir
loading rate is within acceptable limits.
Solution
Average consumption = 135 x 45,000 = 6,075,000 L/d.

Allow 1.8 times for maximum daily consumption:

Maximum daily consumption = 1.8 x 6,075,000 = 10,935m3/d.
Therefore, required surface area of the tank = (10,935/24)/0.9 = 506 m2.

Assume minimum depth of tank = 3.5 m.

Therefore, (settling) volume of the tank = 506 x 3.5 = 1772 m3.

Assume a length to breadth ratio of the tank of 3.5:1. Therefore the breadth would be =
506/3.5B2 m = 12m

Therefore, length of tank = 3.5 x 12 = 42 m. Assuming a bottom slope of 1 in 60.

Depth of the deep end (at the effluent end) = 3.5 + (1/60) x 42 = 4.2 m.
Provide sludge deposit height of 0.8 m. and free board of 0.8 m
Height of sedimentation tank = 0.8 + 0.8 + 3.5 = 5.1
Dimensions of sedimentation tank is = 42m x 12m x 5.1m

A floc chamber should be provided, at the entry to the tank, Assume detention time of 30
minutes, then Volume of floc chamber V = discharge x detention period
= 10,935 x 30 = 228 m3
24 x 60
If the depth of floc chamber is 2.5 m and breadth of floc chamber is 12m then length of
the floc chamber = 228 = 7.6m
12 x 2.5
Dimensions of floc chamber is = 7.6m x 12m x 2.5m
Filtration
It is a solid-liquid separation process in which the liquid passes through a porous medium
to remove as much fine suspended solids as possible.

Mechanical Straining
Simplest action during filtration.
Suspended particles having size more than that of filter voids are arrested and
removed, when water passes through filter media.
Takes place in few centimetres of depth of filter media.

Sedimentation
Finer particles are arrested by sedimentation.
Continuous voids of filter media acts as tube settler i.e. shallow depth sedimentation
tank.
All colloids are removed by this action

Biological Action
After few days of working of filter, upper grains of sand layer become coated with a
reddish brown coloured sticky deposit.
It consists of organic matter and Fe, Mg, Al and silica.
Further after 2-3 weeks, a film consisting of algae and protozoa etc is developed.
This film is known as dirty skin or Schmutzdecke.
Organic impurities in water are used as food by this film, thus removing the organic
matter from water.

Electrolytic Action
Particulate matter is removed by electrostatic action.
Charge on filter medium neutralizes charge on floc particles, thereby permitting the floc
to be removed.
During back washing the electrostatically removed material is removed and thus charge
on filter material is replaced.

Classification
1. Slow sand filter
2. Rapid sand filter
- Gravity type
- Pressure type

Filter differs with respect to

i. Head required for filtration
ii. Rate of filtration
iii. Composition of filter media
iv. Method and frequency of cleaning
Filter media
Commonly used filter materials are
i. Sand
ii. Anthracite
iii. Garnet sand or limenite
iv. Other locally available material

Sand
Cheapest and widely used
Sand should be free from clay, silt, loam and Suspended Solids and organic matter.
Effective size: -It is sieve size in mm through which 10% of sand by weight passes.
Uniformity coefficient (Cu):- Ratio of sieve size through which 60% of sand passes to
the effective size of sand. i.e. Cu= D60/D10

Essentials of filter sand

1. Shall be hard
2. Shall be free from clay, fine particles, grains and dirt
3. Ignition loss should not exceed 0.7%
4. Soluble fraction in HCl shall not exceed 5%.
5. Gs= 2.55 to 2.65
6. Wearing loss shall not exceed 7%
7. Effective size shall be
i. 0.2 to 0.3 mm for slow sand filters
ii. 0.45 to 0.7 mm for rapid sand filters
8. The uniformity coefficient shall be
i. 3 to 5 for slow sand filter
ii. Not less than 1.3 and not more than 1.7 for rapid sand filter

Anthracite
Substitute for sand
Can be used in conjunction with sand
Cost is more as compared to sand

Garnet sand
Heavier than normal sand (Gs = 4.2)
Used in mixed media filters.
Locally Available Material
Shredded coconut husk, burnt rice husk, crushed glass and metallic ores can be used
as filter media
Gravel
The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to
move freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.
Should be hard, durable, rounded, free from flat or long pieces and impurities

SLOW SAND FILTER

1. Enclosure tank
Slow Sand Filter is open basin, rectangular shape and built below finished ground level
Floor has Bed slope of 1:100 to 1:200 towards central drain
Surface area (As) of tank varies from 50 to 1000 m2
Filtration rate 100 to 200 lit/m2/hr
Depth 2.5 to 4 m

2. Filter media: Sand

Thickness of sand layer - 90 to 110 cm
Effective size 0.2 to 0.35 (Common value -0.3)
Coefficient of uniformity 2 to 3 (Common value - 2.5)

3. Base material: Gravel

Thickness of gravel bed - 30 to 75 cm
Layer Dept h Size in mm
Topmost 15 cm 3 to 6

Intermediate 15 cm 6 to 20
Intermediate 15 cm 20 to 40

Bottom 15 cm 40 to 65

4. Under drainage system

Base material and filter media are supported by under drainage system.
 Under drainage system collects filtered water and delivers it to thereservoir
Laterals earthenware pipes of 7.5 to 10 cm dia.
Spacing of laterals- 2 to 3 m c/c

5. Appurtenances
Devices are required for
i. Measuring head loss through filter media
ii. Controlling depth of water above filter media
iii. Maintaining constant rate of filtration through the filter

Working of slow sand filter

In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of
processes: sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.

During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer
on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than
the spaces between the sand grains.
As this layer (referred to as Schmutzdecke) develops, it becomes living quarters of
vast numbers of microorganisms which break down organic material retained from the
water, converting it into water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.
Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it
passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below.
The purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the
surface of the filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water
becomes purified and contains less organic material.
 When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter.
They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial
contents.

RAPID SAND FILTER (GRAVITY TYPE)

ESSENTIAL FEATURES

Enclosure tank
Smaller in size, therefore can be placed under roof.
Rectangular in shape and constructed of concrete or masonry.
Depth 2.5 to 3.5

Surface area 20 to 50 m2
 L/B ratio 1.25 to 1.35.
Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000 lit/m2/hr

Filter media
Should be free from dirt, organic matter and other Slow Sand.
It should be hard and resistant.
Depth of sand media 0.6 to 0.9 m
Effective size 0.35 to 0.6 mm (Common value 0.45)
Uniformity coefficient 1.2 to 1.7 (Common value -1.5)

Estimation of sand depth

The depth of sand bed should be such that flocs should not break through the sand
bed.
Depth varies from 60 to 90 cm
Min depth required is given by Hudsons formula
[ (q . D3. H) / l] = Bi x 29323
Where,
q = Filtration rate in m3/m2/hr
[Assumed filtration rate x Factor of safety (2)]
(Factor of safety 2 is taken to cater emergency situation)
D = sand size in mm
H = terminal head loss in m
l = depth of sand bed in m
Bi = Break through index= 4 x 10-4to 6 x 10-3
Base material
Depth 45 to 60 cm
Layer Dept h Size in mm
topmost 15 cm 3 to 6

Intermediate 15 cm 6 to 12
Intermediate 15 cm 12 to 20

Bottom 15 cm 20 to 50
Estimation of gravel size gradation
To start with, a size gradation of 2 mm at top and 50 mm at bottom is assumed.
The required depth (l) in cm of a component of gravel layer of size d (mm) can be
computed by following equation
l = 2.54. K. (log d)
K can be taken as 12 d = gravel size in mm

Under drainage system

Objectives of under drainage system
1. To collect filtered water uniformly over the area of gravel bed
2. It provides uniform distribution of back wash water without disturbing or upsetting
gravel layer and filter media

Appurtenances
1. Wash water troughs
2. Air compressors
3. Rate control device

WORKING AND BACKWASHING OF Rapid Sand Filter

All valves are kept closed except valves A and B.
Valve A is opened to permit water from clarifier
 Valve B is opened to carry filtered water to clear water sump
Head of 2m over sand bed is maintained
Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000 lit/m2/hr
Filter run depends on quality of feed water
Filter run may range between less than a day to several days
Objective of backwash is to remove accumulated particles on the surface and within the
filter medium
Backwash is performed using wash water or air scouring.

Back washing
Filter is back washed when head loss through it has reached the maximum permissible.
RSF are washed by sending air and water upwards through the bed by reverse flow
through the collector system.
2% - 4% filtered water is used for backwashing

Steps in back washing

1. Close influent valve A
2. Close effluent valve B
3. Open air valve F, so that air blows at rate of 1 to 1.5 m
3free air /min/m2of bed area for @ 2 to 3 min. this will break up the scum and loosen the
dirt.
4. Close the air valve F and open the wash water valve E gradually to prevent the
dislodgement of finer gravel.
5. Open the wastewater valve D to carry wash water to drain. Continue backwashing till
wash water appears fairly clear.
6. Close the wash water valve E. Close the wastewater valve D. wait for some time till all
matter in bed settles down.
7. Open valve A slightly, open valve C for carrying filtered water to drains for few
minutes.
8. Close the valve C and open valve B. Open valve A completely to resume normal
filtration

Negative head and filter troubles

When clean bed is put into operation the loss of head will be small usually in order of
15 to 30 cm.
During filtration impurities get arrested in the voids and head loss goes on increasing.
Loss of head can be measured by using two piezometric tubes as shown in figure

As thickness or depth of suspended matter on the sand bed increases, the head loss
increased.
A stage comes when frictional resistance exceeds the static head above the sand bed.
At this stage, lower parts of sand bed and under drainage system are under partial
vacuum or negative head.
Because of negative head water is being sucked rather than being filtered.
In Rapid Sand Filter head loss may be 2.5 to 3.5 m
Permissible negative head may be 0.8 to 1.2 m.
Filter run is terminated and filter is then backwashed when these values are reached.
Frequency of backwashing is 2-4 days for Rapid Sand Filter in normal conditions

FILTER TROUBLES
Following filter troubles are commonly observed
1. Cracking and clogging of filter bed
2. Formation of mud balls
3. Air binding
4. Sand Incrustation
5. Jetting and Sand boils
6. Sand leakage
1. Cracking and clogging of filter bed
Surface clogging and cracking are usually caused by rapid accumulation of solids on the
top of filter media.
Cracks are more at wall junctions.

2. Formation of mud balls

Mud balls are formed because of conglomeration of turbidity, floc, sand and other
binders.
Formed because of insufficient washing of sand grains.
Size may be pea size to 2 to 5 cm or more in dia.

3. Air binding
It is caused by release of dissolved gases and air from water to form bubbles.
These bubbles occupy void space of the filter media sand and drainage system.
It is caused by negative head loss, warm water and increased DO in water.
It can be minimized by avoiding excess head loss, warming of water, control of algal
growth and avoiding super saturation of water with air.

4. Sand Incrustation
It occurs due to accumulation of sticky gelatinous material or crystallization of calcium
carbonate.
Sand grains enlarge in size and effective size changes
Carbonization of water can be done to prevent this problem.
Some times Sodium hexa-meta Phosphate can be added to keep calcium carbonate in
dissolved state

5. Jetting and Sand boils

These are produced when during backwashing water follows path of least resistance
and break through to the scattered points due to small differences in porosity and
permeability.
 Jetting can be avoided by surface wash or air scour.
Use of 8 cm thick layer of coarse garnet is also recommended.

6. Sand leakage
It results when smallest gravels are displaced during backwashing.
Water will enter the under-drainage system unfiltered.
It can be reduced by properly proportioning of sand and gravel layer.
In between sand and gravel garnet layer can be used to tackle this type of problem.

Comparison between Slow and Rapid sand filter

Item Slow sand Filter Rapid sand Filter
Rate of filtration 100 to 200 lit/m2/hr 3000 to 6000
lit/m2/hr
Loss of head 15 cm initial to 100 cm 30 cm initial to 3 m final
final
Surface area large small
Coagulation Not required Required
 Filter media of sand Effective size 0.2 to Effective size 0.35 to
0.35 and Cu= 2 to 3 0.60 and Cu= 1.2 to 1.7
Depth 105 cm Depth 75 cm
Base material of Gravel Size 3 to 65 mm Size 3 to 40 mm
Depth 30 to 75 cm Depth 60 to 90 cm
Under drainage system Split tile laterals or Perforated of laterals
perforated pipe laterals with nozzles or strainer
system
Method of cleaning Scrapping of top layer Backwashing with
15 to 25 mm compressed air and
water
Amount of wash water 0.2 to 0.6 % of filtered 2 to 4 % of filtered
water Water
Period of cleaning 1 to 2 months 2 to 3 days (24 hrs
usually)
Penetration of Superficial Deep
Suspended Solids
Further treatment Chlorination Chlorination
needed
Efficiency Very efficient in Less bacterial
bacterial removal but removal efficiency but
can not remove colour can remove colour and
and turbidity turbidity
Economy High initial cost Less initial cost
Flexibility Not flexible in meeting Quite flexible in meeting
variations in demand variations in demand
Skilled supervision Not required Required as it involves
backwashing
Depreciation cost Relatively low Relatively high

Problems
Slow sand filtration
Design criteria:
Floor bed slope = 1:100 to 1:200
Surface area = 50 1000m2
Filtration rate = 100 200 litres/m2/hr
Depth = 2.5 to 4m
Sand layer for filtration = 90 110cm
Base material with under drain = 30 to 75 cm
Under drainage system:
Lateral pipe diameter = 7.5 10 cm
Spacing of laterals = 1.5 3 m centre to centre
Spacing of holes in lateral pipes = 0.15 m
Size of holes in lateral pipes = 3mm
Maximum velocity in manifold = 0.3 m/s
Manifold pipe area = 2 x Cross sectional area of lateral pipes
Free board = 0.5m
Total depth of filter = free board + supernatant water + sand layer + Base material with
under drain

# Design a slow sand filter for a town of population 60,000 provided water
supply at a rate of 160 lpcd. Take filtration rate as 2.5 litres per minute per sq.
metre. L/B ratio is 2. Maximum demand as 1.8 times as average demand.
Solution:
Given, population = 60,000, lpcd= 160, L = 2B, Maximum demand = 1.8,
Filtration rate = 2.5 l/min/m2 = 2.5 x 10-3 m3/min/m2,
water requirement = 60000 x 160 = 9.6 MLD

Maximum demand = 9.6 x 1.8 = 17.28 MLD = 17280 m3/day = 12 m3/min

Area of filter = 12 = 4800m2
2.5 x 10-3
Since one filter bed maximum area = 1000m2. Divide the available area by 5.
Area per filter bed = 4800 = 960 m2
5
Length to breadth ratio = 2:1, L= 2B, L x B = 960 m2. 2B2 = 960, B = 21.9 = 22m
L= 44m
Area per filter = 44 m x 22 m = 968m2
Assume sand layer of 100 cm, Base material of 50cm with under drains

Under drain system

Provide lateral pipe diameter = 8 cm, Cross section area of lateral pipe = 50.27cm2
Manifold pipe area = 2 x Cross section area of lateral pipe = 100.54 cm2
Diameter of manifold pipe = 11.32= 12cm
Lateral spacing = 2m centre to centre
Hole spacing of lateral pipe = 0.15 m
Size of holes in lateral pipes = 3mm
Velocity of water in lateral and main pipes = 0.2 m/s < 0.3 m/s
Total height of filter = free board + supernatant water + sand layer + base material
= 0.5 + 1 + 1 + 0.5 = 3m < 4.5m

Rapid Sand filter

Design Criteria
Surface area 20 to 50 m2
Length to breadth ratio = 1.25:1 1.35:1
Rate of filtration = 3000 5000 litres/m2/minute
Maximum loss of head = 2.5 3m
Under drains
Length of lateral pipe > 60
Diameter
Diameter of perforations in lateral pipe = 6mm and 13mm at spacing of 7.5 cm and
20cm respectively
Total area of perforation = 0.2% 0.3%
Total filter area
Total area of perforations = 0.25 for diameter of 6mm perforations
Total area of lateral pipe = 0.50 for diameter of 13mm perforations
Spacing of laterals = 30 cm maximum
Total area of manifold = 1.75 2 times the sum of the cross sectional area of laterals
Rate of washing = 15 90 cm rise per minute.
Amount of wash water 2 to 4 percent of the total volume of water filtered
Time of washing = 30minutes between 24 to 48 hours
Wash water pressure = 0.4kg/cm2
Maximum permissible velocity in the manifold = 1.8 2.4 m/s

Problem: Design a rapid sand filter to treat 10 million litres of raw water per day allowing 0.5% of filtered
water for backwashing. Half hour per day is used for backwashing. Assume necessary data.

Solution:

STEP: 1

Total filtered water = 10.05 x 106 = 0.42766 Ml / h

24 - 0.5

Let the rate of filtration be 5000 l / h / m2 of bed.

Area of filter = 10.05 x 106 x 1 = 85.5 m2

23.5 5000

Provide two units. Each bed area 85.5/2 = 42.77. L/B = 1.3; 1.3B2 = 42.77 m2

B = 5.75 m ; L = 5.75 x 1.3 = 7.5 m

Assume depth of sand = 50 to 75 cm.

STEP: 2

Under drainage system:

Total area of holes = 0.2 to 0.5% of bed area.

Assume 0.2% of bed area = 0.2 x 42.77 = 0.086 m2

100
Area of lateral = 2 (Area of holes of lateral)

Area of manifold = 2 (Area of laterals)

So, area of manifold = 4 x area of holes = 4 x 0.086 = 0.344 = 0.35 m2.

Diameter of manifold = x 0.35 1/2 = 66 cm

Assume c/c of lateral = 30 cm. Total numbers = 7.5/ 0.3 = 25 on either side. (50 nos)

Length of lateral = (5.75 - 0.66)/2 = 2.545 m.

C.S. area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral. Take dia of holes = 13 mm

Number of holes: n (1.3)2 = 0.086 x 104 = 860 cm2

4

n = 4 x 860 = 648, say 650

(1.3)2

Number of holes per lateral = 650/50 = 13

Area of perforations per lateral = 13 x (1.3)2 /4 = 17.24 cm2

Spacing of holes = 2.545/13 = 19.5 cm.

C.S. area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral = 2 x 17.24 = 34.5 cm2.

Diameter of lateral = (4 x 34.51/2 = 6.63 cm

Check: Length of lateral < 60 d = 60 x 6.63 = 3.98 m. l = 2.545 m (Hence acceptable).

STEP: 3

Back washing

Rising wash water velocity in bed = 50 cm/min.

Wash water discharge per bed = (0.5/60) x 5.75 x 7.5 = 0.36 m3/s.

Velocity of flow through lateral = 0.36 = 0.36 x 10 4 = 2.08 m/s (ok)

Total lateral area 50 x 34.5

Manifold velocity = 0.36 = 1.02 m/s < 2.25 m/s (ok)

0.35

STEP: 4

Washwater gutter

Discharge of wash water per bed = 0.36 m3/s. Size of bed = 7.5 x 5.75 m.
Assume 3 troughs running lengthwise at 5.75/3 = 1.9 m c/c.

Discharge of each trough = Q/3 = 0.36/3 = 0.12 m3/s.

Q =1.71 x b x h3/2

Assume b =0.3 m

h3/2 = 0.12 = 0.234

1.71 x 0.3

h = 0.378 m = 37.8 cm = 40 cm

= 40 + (free board) 5 cm = 45 cm; slope 1 in 40

STEP: 5

Clear water reservoir for backwashing

For 4 times filter capacity, Capacity of tank = 4 x 5000 x 7.5 x 5.75 x 2 = 1725 m3
1000

Assume depth d = 5 m. Surface area = 1725/5 = 345 m2

L/B = 2; 2B2 = 345; B = 13 m & L = 26 m.

Dia of inlet pipe coming from two filter = 50 cm.

Velocity <0.6 m/s. Diameter of wash water pipe to overhead tank = 67.5 cm.

Air compressor unit = 1000 l of air/ min/ m2 bed area.

For 5 min, air required = 1000 x 5 x 7.5 x 5.77 x 2 = 4.32 m3 of air.

Disinfection
Partial destruction and inactivation of disease-causing organisms from exposure to
chemical agents (e.g., chlorine) or physical processes (e.g.,UV irradiation). (or)
A process that eliminates a defined scope of microrganisms, except most spores, viruses
and prions. The purpose of disinfection prevents transmission of certain microorganisms
with objects, hands or skin and prevent spreading the infection

Principle of Disinfection
Decontamination- removal of microorganisms contaminating an object
Preservation- preventing methods of microbe caused spoilage of susceptible products
(pharmaceuticals, foods)
Sanitisation - removal of microbes that pose a threat to the public health, food industry,
water conditioning sanitizer - an agent, usually a detergent, that reduces the numbers of
bacteria to a safe level
Aseptic techniques- prevent microbial contamination of materials or wounds Antisepsis-
disinfection of living tissues (e.g., in a wound), achieved through the use of antiseptics
Antiseptics are applied (do not kill spores) to reduce or eliminate the number of bacteria
from the skin

Disinfection methods
Chemical agents Physical methods
Alcohols Boiling and pasteurization
Aldehydes Ultraviolet radiation
Halogens
Phenols
Surfactants
Heavy metals
Dyes
Oxidants

Factors influencing Disinfection

Types of organisms
Number of organisms
Concentration of disinfecting agent
Presence of organic material (e.g., serum, blood)
Nature (composition) of surface to be disinfected
Contact time
Temperature
pH
Biofilms
Compatibility of disinfectants and sterilants

Sterilization
Total destruction of disease-causing germs and other organisms.
physical methods are used mainly to achieve sterilization

Sterilization methods
Physical methods Chemical agents
Moist heat in autoclaves Ethylene oxide
Dry-heat in ovens Glutaraldehye (high concentration)
Gamma irradiation
Filtration
Plasma sterilization

Methods of Disinfection
(a) Physical methods
(i) Boiling of water (ii) Solar Disinfection
(b) Chemical methods

(a) Physical methods

Boiling
This is the most effective method of killing bacteria but impracticable in large scale.
Most of bacteria are destroyed when the water has attained of about 80C temperature.
Prolonged boiling is unnecessary and wasteful

Solar Disinfection
Solar disinfection is a thermal process consisting of raising water temperature for a long
enough period of time in containers that have been prepared to absorb the heat
generated by solar radiation for disinfection of water

Installation requirements
Equipment Installation and installation requirements
Solar heaters Solar heaters are fairly easy to install or to adapt to any
other installation. All that is needed is to raise the hot
water collector tank about 60 cm above the highest point of
the collector. No special pressure is required for their
operation. It is enough for the water feeding tank to be
placed next to the collector, which should be on a slant
approximately equivalent to the latitude of the site
(between 15 and 35, for example) and face the sun.
Solar stoves These devices can be easily installed anywhere. Before
and adopting this method, however, it is important to perform
concentrators some tests by taking the water temperature after four or
five hours (in the case of the stoves). The water is
drinkable only if the average temperature is always above
60 C. If solar concentrators are well built, they should
disinfect water more by boiling than by pasteurizing.
Solar stills No special requirements need to be met in the case of solar
stills, which are very simple devices with no movable parts.
It is important to keep animals away from the equipment,
however.
Bottles and Solar disinfection requires clean water with very little
containers turbidity. Otherwise, it must be filtered beforehand using a
household sand filter or very fine fabric. The bottles can be
placed on any reflecting surface, such as aluminium foil.
The use of coloured soft drink bottles is not recommended.
Operation and maintenance
Equipment Operation and maintenance
Solar heaters Operation of this equipment is simple; all that needs to be
 done is to open the line valve during the day and close it at
night. Its maintenance consists of keeping the collector
cover clean; dirt reduces the amount of radiation that can
reach the collector. The frequency of cleaning will depend
on the degree of atmospheric pollution. The use of acrylic
covers is not recommended because they are easily
scratched and deformed.
Solar stoves To operate this device, place the pot inside the solar stove
and and direct the suns rays to the inside of the box using the
concentrators reflector. It is very easy to maintain. All that needs to be
done is to keep the inside, glass and reflectors clean. To
keep the water clean, it is advisable to leave it in the
covered container until it is to be used.
Solar stills This system requires feeding the still with the water for
treatment, either continuously or discretely in other
words in batches. Rural families tend to use the latter
method. Otherwise, the systems can be used by combining
it with preheating using a solar heater. Common household
stills on sunny days produce between three and five litres a
day per square meter. This is equivalent to a reduction in
the depth of the distillant of from 0.3 to 0.5 cm/day, which
means that the feeding process can be done once a day.
The water should be either drunk or thrown out within the
following 24 hours.
Bottles and The plastic container must be very clean before the water it
containers contains can be purified. In this case, as in all of those
described above, the disinfected water must be kept in the
same or another closed container in a cool place.

Monitoring
At effluent temperatures of over 55 C, total coliform inactivation has been demonstrated
in 99% of the cases. For safety reasons, however, the golden rule is to have a margin of
safety and to set 65 C as the minimum temperature for disinfection. Monitoring of these
systems should confirm that the water at the outlet of any of these systems or following
treatment reached 65 C.

In as much as solar heaters were not designed for water disinfection, but merely to heat
it, there is no way to check whether the temperature reached the pasteurization point.
Therefore, it would be advisable to install a thermostat connected to a valve that would
allow the water passage only at a temperature of over 65 C. A thermometer can be
attached to the cover of solar stoves or bottles; in other cases, bottles can be fitted with
small ampoules containing a substance that will melt at a temperature of above 65 C,
ensuring that the required pasteurization temperature has been attained.
Advantages and disadvantages of solar disinfection
Equipment Advantages Disadvantages
Solar heaters Not dependent on conventional energy, Cannot be used on
whose cost rises with the growing cloudy or rainy days.
demand. Offer no residual
Avoid the use of toxic chemicals. protection
Require relatively simple and low-cost
equipment that is easily recovered and
provides drinking water for many years.
Not environmentally damaging.
Solar stoves Do not consume firewood and thus help to Twice as slow as
and avoid deforestation and erosion in rural conventional stoves.
concentrators areas. Cannot be used on
It has been calculated that approximately cloudy or rainy days.
one kilogram of firewood is needed to Provide no residual
raise one litre of water to a boiling point. protection.
Nor do they use fossil fuels. This is
particularly useful in the rural area, where
it is difficult to obtain gas.
Do not smoke like open fires that can
cause respiratory diseases.
Not expensive and easy to build.
Bottles and Extremely simple and inexpensive. Offer no residual
containers Easily accepted by the communities. protection.
Require clean water.
Cannot be used to
disinfect large volumes
of water.

(b) Chemical Methods

Use of Disinfectants as Chemical Oxidants

Oxidation is a chemical reaction where electrons are transferred from one species
(the reducer) to another species (the oxidant)
Disinfectants are used for more than just disinfection in drinking water treatment.
While inactivation of pathogenic organisms is a primary function, disinfectants are
also used oxidants in drinking water treatment for several other functions:

1. Minimization of Disinfection Byproducts formation : Several strong oxidants,

including potassium permanganate and ozone, may be used to control DBP
2. Prevention of re-growth in the distribution system and maintenance of biological
stability;
Removing nutrients from the water prior to distribution;
Maintaining a disinfectant residual in the treated water; and
Combining nutrient removal and disinfectant residual maintenance
3. Removal of color: Free chlorine is used for color removal. A low pH is favored. Color
is caused by humic compounds, which have a high potential for DBP formation

4. Improvement of coagulation and filtration efficiency;

a. Oxidation of organics into more polar forms;
b. Oxidation of metal ions to yield insoluble complexes such as ferric iron
complexes;
c. Change in the structure and size of suspended particles.

5. Oxidation is commonly used to remove taste and odor causing compounds.

Because many of these compounds are very resistant to oxidation, advanced oxidation
processes (ozone/hydrogen peroxide, ozone/UV, etc.) and ozone by itself are often used
to address taste and odor problems. The effectiveness of various chemicals to control
taste and odors can be site-specific.

6. Removal of Iron and Manganese

Oxidant Iron (II) Manganese (II)
(mg/mg Fe) (mg/mg Mn)
Chlorine Cl2 0.62 0.77
Chlorine Dioxide, ClO2 1.21 2.45
Ozone, O3 0.43 0.88*
Oxygen, O2 014 0.29
Potassium 0.94 1.92
Permanganate, KMnO4

7. Prevention of algal growth in sedimentation basins and filters: Prechlorination

will prevent slime formation on filters, pipes, and tanks, and reduce potential taste and
odor problems associated with such slimes.

Factors affecting disinfection effectiveness

Time
pH
Temperature
Concentration of the disinfectant
Concentration of organisms
Nature of the disinfectant
 Nature of the organisms to be inactivated
Nature of the suspending medium

Chlorine
Chlorine has many attractive features that contribute to its wide use in the industry. Four
of the key attributes of chlorine are that it:
Effectively inactivates a wide range of pathogens commonly found in water;
Leaves a residual in the water that is easily measured and controlled;
Is economical; and
Has an extensive track record of successful use in improving water treatment
operations
There are, however, some concerns regarding chlorine usage that may impact its uses
such as:
Chlorine reacts with many naturally occurring organic and inorganic compounds
in water to produce undesirable Disinfectant By Products;
Hazards associated with using chlorine, specifically chlorine gas, require
special treatment and response programs; and
High chlorine doses can cause taste and odor problems.

Chlorine purposes in water treatment
Taste and odor control;
Prevention of algal growths;
Maintenance of clear filter media;
Removal of iron and manganese;
Destruction of hydrogen sulfide;
Bleaching of certain organic colors;
Maintenance of distribution system water quality by controlling slime growth;
Restoration and preservation of pipeline capacity;
Restoration of well capacity, water main sterilization; and
Improved coagulation by activated silica.

Chlorine Chemistry
Chlorine gas hydrolyzes rapidly in water to form hypochlorous acid

Cl2+ H2O = H++ Cl- + HOCl (hypochlorous acid)

Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid (pKa of about 7.5), meaning it dissociates

slightly into hydrogen and hypochlorite ions

HOCl = H++ OCl-

Between a pH of 6.5 and 8.5 this dissociation is incomplete and both HOCl
and OCl- species are present to some extent (White, 1992). Below a pH of 6.5,
 no dissociation of HOCl occurs, while above a pH of 8.5, complete
dissociation to OCl- occurs.
As the germicidal effects of HOCl is much higher than that of OCl-, chlorination
at a lower pH is preferred.

Effect of pH on relative amount of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion at 20C.

Commonly Used Chlorine Sources

Sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite are the most common sources of
chlorine used for disinfection of onsite water supplies.
Sodium Hypochlorite (common household bleach)
Sodium hypochlorite is produced when chlorine gas is dissolved in a sodium
hydroxide solution.
NaOCl (sodium hypochlorite) + H2O = Na++ OH-+ HOCl
Clear to slightly yellow colored liquid with a distinct chlorine odor.
Common laundry bleach - 5.25 to 6.0 percent available chlorine, when bottled.
Do not use bleach products that contain additives such as surfactants, thickeners,
stabilizers, and perfumes.
Always check product labels to verify product content and use instructions.
Higher concentrations of chlorine in sodium hypochlorite solutions are generally not
available.
Above 15 percent, the stability of hypochlorite solutions is poor, and decomposition
and the concurrent formation of chlorate is of concern
Sodium hypochlorite solutions are of an unstable nature due to high rates of
available chlorine loss
Over a period of one year or less, the amount of available chlorine in the storage
container may be reduced by 50 percent or more.
Solutions more than 60 days old should not be counted upon to contain the full
amount of available chlorine originally in solution
Swimming pool chlorine - 10.0 to 12.0 percent available chlorine.
 The stability of hypochlorite solutions is greatly affected by heat, light, pH,
initial chlorine concentration, length of storage, and the presence of heavy
metal cations
These solutions will deteriorate at various rates, depending upon the specific
factors:
The higher the concentration, the more rapidly the deterioration.
The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of deterioration.
The presence of iron, copper, nickel, or cobalt catalyzes the deterioration of
hypochlorite. Iron is the worst offender

Calcium hypochlorite is formed from the precipitate that results from dissolving
chlorine gas in a solution of calcium oxide (lime) and sodium hydroxide.
Ca(OCl)2 + 2H2O = Ca+++ 2OH-+ 2HOCl

Calcium Hypochlorite
Dry white powder, granules, or tablets - 60 to 70 percent available chlorine - 12-
month shelf life if kept cool and dry - If stored wet, looses chlorine rapidly and is
corrosive.

A chlorine test kit should be used to check the final chlorine residual in a prepared
chlorine solution to assure that you have the concentration intended.

Sodium Hypochlorite or Calcium Hypochlorite
Sodium hypochlorite is more effective
This may be associated with the quality of the ground water in the well being
treated rather than with the source of the chlorine itself.
If there is an abundance of calcium based materials in both bedrock wells. Calcium
hypochlorite already has a high concentration of calcium.
At 180 ppm of hardness, water is saturated with calcium to the point that it
precipitates out of the solution, changing from the dissolved state to a solid state.
Introducing a calcium hypochlorite solution into a calcium rich aquifer can cause
the formation of a calcium carbonate (hardness) precipitate that may partially plug
off the well intake.
Sodium hypochlorite does not have the tendency to create the precipitate.
If the calcium carbonate concentration in the ground water is above 100 ppm
(mg/l), the use of sodium hypochlorite is recommended instead of calcium
hypochlorite.

Typical Chlorine Dosages at Water Treatment Plants

DISINFECTANT DEMAND REACTIONS
Reactions with Ammonia
In the presence of ammonium ion, free chlorine reacts in a stepwise manner to
form chloramines

monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2 ), and trichloramine (NCl3), each

contribute to the total (or combined) chlorine residual in a water.
The terms total available chlorine and total oxidants refer, respectively, to the sum
of free chlorine compounds and reactive chloramines, or total oxidating agents.
Under normal conditions of water treatment, if any excess ammonia is present, at
equilibrium the amount of free chlorine will be much less than 1 percent of total
residual chlorine.

Chlorine residual
Chlorine persists in water as residual chlorine after dosing and this helps to
minimize the effects of re-contamination by inactivating microbes which may enter
the water supply after chlorination. It is important to take this into account when
estimating requirements for chlorination to ensure residual chlorine.
The level of chlorine residual required varies with type of water supply and local
conditions.
In water supplies which are chlorinated there should always be a minimum of
0.5mg/l residual chlorine after 30 minutes contact time in water.
Where there is a risk of cholera or an outbreak has occurred the following chlorine
residuals should be maintained:
At all points in a piped supply 0.5mg/l
At standposts and wells 1.0mg/l
In tanker trucks, at filling 2.0mg/l
In areas where there is little risk of a cholera outbreak, there should be a chlorine
residual of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/l at all points in the supply. This means that a chlorine
residual of about 1mg/l when water leaves the treatment plant is needed.

Combined Chlorine
Free chlorine that has combined with ammonia (NH3) or other nitrogen-containing
organic substances.
Typically, chloramines are formed.
 NH3 Present in some source waters (e.g., surface water).
Contamination; oxidation of organic matter

Chloramines still retain disinfect capability (~5 % of FAC, Free Available Chlorine)
Chloramines not powerful enough to form THMs.
Last a lot longer in the mains than free chlorine,
Free chlorine + Combined chlorine = Total Chlorine Residual
Can measure Total Chlorine
Can measure Free Chlorine
Combined Chlorine can be determined by subtraction

pH Effect on Chlorine
Chlorine is a more effective disinfectant at pH levels between 6.0 and 7.0, because
hypochlorous acid is maximized at these pH levels
Any attempt to disinfect water with a pH greater than 9 to 10 or more will not be
very effective.
The pH determines the biocidal effects of chlorine.
Chlorine will raise the pH when added to water.
By increasing the concentration of chlorine, and subsequently raising the pH, the
chlorine solution is actually less efficient as a biocide.
Controlling the pH of the water in the aquifer is not practical. However buffering or
pH-altering agents may be used to control pH in the chlorine solution being placed
in the well.

Temperature Effect on Chlorine

As temperatures increase, the metabolism rate of microorganisms
increases.

With the higher metabolic rate, the chlorine is taken into the microbial cell
faster, and its bactericidal effect is significantly increased.
 The higher the temperature the more likely the disinfection will produce the
desired results.

Virus studies indicate that the contact time should be increased by two to
three times to achieve comparable inactivation levels when the water
temperature is lowered by 10C (Clarke et al., 1962).

Steam injection has been used to elevate temperatures in a well and the
area surrounding the Well bore

Contact time
Time is required in order that any pathogens present in the water are inactivated.
The time taken for different types of microbes to be killed varies widely.
it is important to ensure that adequate contact time is available before water
enters a distribution system or is collected for use
In general, amoebic cysts are very resistant and require most exposure.
Bacteria, including free-living Vibrio cholerae are rapidly inactivated by free
chlorine under normal conditions.
For example, a chlorine residual of 1mg/l after 30 minutes will kill
schistosomiasis cercariae, while 2mg/l after 30 minutes may be required to
kill amoebic cysts.
Contact time in piped supplies is normally assured by passing the water, after
addition of chlorine, into a tank from which it is then abstracted.
In small community supplies this is often the storage reservoir (storage tank). In
larger systems purpose-built tanks with baffles may be used. These have the
advantage that they are less prone to "short circuiting" than simple tanks.

Germicidal Efficiency of Chlorine
The major factors affecting the germicidal efficiency of the free chlorine residual
process are: chlorine residual concentration - contact time pH - water
temperature.
Increasing the chlorine residual, the contact time, or the water temperature
increases the germicidal efficiency. Increasing the pH above 7.5 drastically
decreases the germicidal efficiency of free chlorine.
Chlorine dissolved in water, regardless of whether sodium hypochlorite or calcium
hypochlorite is used as the source of the chlorine, generally exists in two forms,
depending on the pH of the water:
- HOCl - hypochlorous acid (biocidal)
- OCl - hypochlorite ion (oxidative)
Hypochlorous acid is the most effective of all the chlorine residual fractions
Hypochlorous acid is 100 times more effective as a disinfectant than the
hypochlorite ion
Breakpoint Chlorination
The type of chlorine dosing normally applied to piped water supply systems is
referred to as breakpoint chlorination. Sufficient chlorine is added to satisfy all of
the chlorine demand and then sufficient extra chlorine is added for the purposes of
disinfection.
As the applied Cl2: N ratio increases from 5:1 to 7.6:1, breakpoint reaction occurs,
reducing the residual chlorine level to a minimum.
Breakpoint chlorination results in the formation of nitrogen gas, nitrate, and
nitrogen chloride.
At Cl2:N ratios above 7.6:1, free chlorine and nitrogen trichloride are present.

The importance of break-point chlorination lies in the control of taste and odour

Chlorine is Cl2 consumed Chloramines At this

reduced to by reaction broken down & point,THM
chlorides by with organic converted to formation can
easily matter. If NH3 nitrogen gas occur
oxidizable is present, which leaves
stuff (H2S, chloramine the system
Fe2+, etc.) formation (Breakpoint).
begins.
Advantages
Chloramines are not as reactive with organics as free chlorine in forming
Disinfectant By Products.
The monochloramine residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine
or chlorine dioxide, thereby providing better protection against bacterial regrowth
in systems with large storage tanks and dead end water mains. However excess
ammonia in the network may cause biofilming.
Because chloramines do not tend to react with organic compounds, many systems
will experience fewer incidences of taste and odor complaints when using
chloramines.
Chloramines are inexpensive.
Chloramines are easy to make.
Disadvantages
The disinfecting properties of chloramines are not as strong as other disinfectants,
such as chlorine, ozone, and chlorine dioxide.
Chloramines cannot oxidize iron, manganese, and sulfides.
When using chloramine as the secondary disinfectant, it may be necessary to
periodically convert to free chlorine for biofilm control in the water distribution
system.
Excess ammonia in the distribution system may lead to nitrification problems,
especially in dead ends and other locations with low disinfectant residual.
Monochloramines are less effective as disinfectants at high pH than at low pH.
Dichloramines have treatment and operation problems.
Chloramines must be made on-site.

Dechlorination
Dechlorination (removing residual chlorine from disinfected wastewater prior to
discharge into the environment/sensitive aquatic waters or in a treated water to be
lowered prior to distribution
the chlorinated water can be dosed with a substance that reacts with or accelerates
the rate of decomposition of the residual chlorine.
Compounds that may perform this function include thiosulfate, hydrogen peroxide,
ammonia, sulfite/bisulfite/sulfur dioxide, and activated carbon;
Hydrogen peroxide is not frequently used because it is dangerous to handle
only the latter two materials have been widely used for this purpose in water
treatment (Snoeyink and Suidan, 1975).
(1) SO3-2 + HOCl = SO4-2 + Cl- + H+

(2) SO3-2 + NH2Cl+ H20 = SO4-2 + Cl- + NH4+
On a mass basis, 0.9 parts sulfur dioxide (or 1.46 parts NaHSO3 or 1.34 parts
Na2S2O5) is required to dechlorinate 1.0 part residual chlorine.

Advantages
Protects aquatic life from toxic effects of residual chlorine.
 Prevents formation of harmful chlorinated compounds in drinking water through
reaction of residual chlorine with water born organic materials.

Disadvantages
Chemical dechlorination can be difficult to control when near zero levels of residual
chlorine are required.
Significant overdosing of sulfite can lead to sulfate formation, suppressed dissolved
oxygen content, and lower pH of the finished effluent.

Ozone
Nascent oxygen is very powerful in killing bacteria.
Ozone is unstable and doesnot remain in water when reaches the consumer.
Ozoniser:

Dosage of ozone is about 2 to 3 p.p.m. to obtain residual ozone of 0.10 p.p.m

Contact period is about 10 minutes

Uses of Ozone
Ozone is used in drinking water treatment for a variety of purposes including:
Disinfection;

Inorganic pollutant oxidation, including iron, manganese, and sulfide;

Organic micropollutant oxidation, including taste and odor compounds,

phenolic pollutants, and some pesticides; and

Organic macropollutant oxidation, including color removal, increasing the

biodegradability of organic compounds, DBP precursor control, and reduction of
chlorine demand.
Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy
Ozone has a high germicidal effectiveness against a wide range of pathogenic
organisms including bacteria, protozoa, and viruses.
Ozone cannot be used as a secondary disinfectant because the ozone residual
decays too rapidly.
Ozone disinfection efficiency is not affected by pH although because of
hydroxyl free radicals and rapid decay, efficiency is the same but more ozone
should be applied at high pH to maintain C.
Inactivation of bacteria by ozone is attributed to an oxidation reaction. The first
site to be attacked appears to be the bacterial membrane . Also, ozone
disrupts enzymatic activity of bacteria
The first site of action for virus inactivation, particularly its proteins and RNA
aqueous ozone penetrates into the Giardia cysts wall and damages the
plasma membranes, additional penetration of ozone eventually affects the
nucleus, and ribosome
Advantages

Ozone is more effective than chlorine, chloramines, and chlorine dioxide for
inactivation of viruses, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia.

Ozone oxidizes iron, manganese, and sulfides.

Ozone can sometimes enhance the clarification process and turbidity removal.

Ozone controls color, taste, and odors.

One of the most efficient chemical disinfectants, ozone requires a very short
contact time.

In the absence of bromide, halogen-substitutes DBPs are not formed.

Upon decomposition, the only residual is dissolved oxygen.

Biocidal activity is not influenced by pH.

Disadvantages (DBPs = Disinfectant by products)

DBPs are formed, particularly by bromate and bromine-substituted DBPs,

in the presence of bromide, aldehydes, ketones.

The initial cost of ozonation equipment is high.

The generation of ozone requires high energy and should be generated on-site.

Ozone is highly corrosive and toxic.

Biologically activated filters are needed for removing assimilable organic

carbon and biodegradable DBPs.
 Ozone decays rapidly at high pH and warm temperatures.

Ozone provides no residual.

Ozone requires higher level of maintenance and operator skill

ULTRA-VIOLET RAY TREATMENT

For generating these rays, the mercury is enclosed in one or more quartz bulbs and
electric current is then passed through it.
The water should be passed round the bulbs several times.
Depth of water over the bulbs should not exceed 10 cm.

Terms and Dosage

Terms
UV Output - Energy Delivered (W/lamp)
UV Intensity - Rate of Energy Delivery (mW/cm)2
UV Transmittance - Ability of water to transmit UV light
UV Dosage D = I t
Where: D = UV Dose, mWs/cm2
I = Intensity, mW/cm2
t = Exposure time, s

Two main factors affect ultraviolet intensity:

WATER QUALITY - Water quality refers to the clarity of the water to be treated and the
degree to which it allows ultraviolet light to pass through it unobstructed
LAMP OUTPUT - Proper lamp output is easily maintained by regular cleaning of the quartz
sleeve that encases the lamp (generally every six months) and by lamp replacement
once per year.

Measuring UV Dosage
Intensity (Irradiance)
actinometry (instruments used to measure the heating power of radiation)
is a chemical system or physical device which determines the number of
photons in a beam integrally or per unit time.
Radiometers or UV sensors
Mathematical models
Time: The time of exposure to ultraviolet light (retention time) is directly related to
the flow rate of water passing through the disinfection chamber. By changing the
retention time for a given ultraviolet intensity, the dosage can be increased or
decreased as needed.
Bioassay Methods: (is a type of scientific experiment to measure the effects of a
substance on a living organism )

UV Applications in Drinking Water

Disinfection of Surface Water
Disinfection of Ground Water
Oxidation of Organic Chemicals
Oxidation of NOM
By Using UV methods: no natural physiochemical features of the water are changed
and no chemical agents are introduced into the water.
formation of THM or other DBPs with UV disinfection is minimal

Inactivation Mechanism
UV radiation is efficient at inactivating vegetative and sporous forms of bacteria,
viruses, and other pathogenic microorganisms.
Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelengths ranging from 240 to 280nm
effectively inactivates microorganisms by irreparably damaging their nucleic acid.
The germicidal effects of UV light involve photochemical damage to RNA and DNA
within the microorganisms.
DNA damage irreversible over time so UV contactors should be designed to either
shield the process stream or limit the exposure of the disinfected water to sunlight
immediately following disinfection.

Limitations of UV treatment
Point Disinfection
UV units only kill bacteria at one point in a watering system and do not provide any
residual germicidal effect downstream. If just one bacterium passes through
unharmed (100% destruction of bacteria cannot be guaranteed.
Cells Not Removed
Bacteria cells are not removed in a UV unit but are converted into pyrogens. The
killed microorganisms and any other contaminants in the water are a food source
for any bacteria that do survive downstream of the UV unit.

Due to these limitations, the piping in a watering system treated by UV disinfection

will need to be periodically sanitized with a chemical disinfectant.

Benefits of UV
Effective for Crypto/virus
No chemicals added to water
Small footprint
Pressurized system
Cost Effective
No DBPs
Oxidize organic chemicals

Minor Methods of disinfection

EXCESS LIME TREATMENT
Treatment of lime is given to the water for the removal of dissolved salts.
Excess lime added to water works as disinfecting material.
When pH value is about 9.50, bacteria can be removed to the extent of 99.93 per
cent.
Lime is to be removed by recarbonation after disinfection.
IODINE AND BROMINE TREATMENT
Use of iodine or bromine is limited to small water supplies such as swimming pools,
troops of army, private plants, etc.
Dosage of iodine or bromine is about 8 p.p.m.
Contact period with water is 5 minutes.
Available in the form of pellets or small pills.

SILVER TREATMENT
Colloidal silver is used to preserve the quality of water stored in jars.
Metallic silver is placed as filter media. Water get purified while passing through
theses filters.
Dosage of silver varies from 0.05 to 1 p.p.m.
Contact period is about 15 minutes to 3 hours.
It is costly and limited to private individual houses only.

POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE TREATMENT (KMnO4)

It is a powerful oxidising agent, effective in killing cholera bacteria
Restricted to disinfection of water of village wells and ponds
Dosage is about 2.1 ppm
Contact period of 3 to 4 hours
The treated water produces a dark brown coating on porcelain vessels and this is
difficult to remove except with scratching or rubbing

Residue management
Residue Sources, contaminants and disposal methods
VOC = volatile organic compound, SOC = Synthetic organic compounds, TDS = total
dissolved solids, SS = suspended solids
Coagulation/Filtration
Typical Residual Typical Contaminant Typical Disposal
Waste Streams Methods
Generated
Aluminum hydroxide, Metals, suspended Land filling
ferric hydroxide, or solids, organics,
polyaluminum chloride, radionuclides, biological, Disposal to sanitary
sludge with raw water inorganics sewer/WWTP
suspended solids,
polymer and natural Land application
organic matter
(sedimentation basin Surface discharge
residuals)
Spent backwash filter- Metals, organics, Recycle
to-waste suspended solids,
 biological, radionuclides, Surface discharge
inorganics (pumping, disinfection,
Dechlorination)

Disposal to sanitary
sewer/WWTP
Precipitative Softening
Typical Residual Typical Contaminant Typical Disposal
Waste Streams Methods
Generated
Calcium carbonate and Metals, suspended Landfilling
magnesium hydroxide solids organics,
sludge with raw water unreacted lime, Disposal to sanitary
suspended solids and radionuclides sewer/WWTP
natural organic matter
Land application
Spent backwash filter- Metals, organics, Recycle
to-waste suspended solids,
biological, radionuclides, Surface Discharge
inorganics (pumping, disinfection,
dechlorination)

Disposal to sanitary
sewer/WWTP
Membrane Separation
Typical Residual Typical Contaminant Typical Disposal
Waste Streams Methods
Generated
Reject streams Metals, radionuclides, Surface discharge
containing raw TDS, high molecular, (pumping, etc.)
water suspended weight contaminants,
solids nitrates Deep well injection
(microfiltration),
raw water
Discharge to sanitary
(nanofiltration),
brine (RO) sewer/WWTP

Radioactive storage

Ion Exchange
Typical Residual Typical Contaminant Typical Disposal
Waste Streams Methods
Generated
 Brine stream Metals, TDS, hardness Surface discharge
nitrates
Evaporation ponds

Discharge to sanitary
sewer/WWTP
Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
Typical Residual Typical Contaminant Typical Disposal
Waste Streams Methods
Generated
Spent GAC requiring VOCs, SOCs (nonvolatile Landfill
disposal and/or pesticides),
reactivation, spent radionuclides, heavy Regeneration (on/off
backwash, and metals site)
gas-phase emissions
in reactivation systems Incineration

Radioactive storage
Return spent GAC to
supplier
Stripping Process (mechanical or packed tower)
Typical Residual Typical Contaminant Typical Disposal
Waste Streams Methods
Generated
Gas phase emissions VOCs, SOCs, radon Discharge to
atmosphere GAC
adsorption of off-gas
(contaminant type and
concentration
dependent)
Spent GAC if used for VOCs, SOCs GAC adsorption of off-
gas-phase control radionuclides gas (contaminant type
and concentration
dependent)

Return spent to GAC

to supplier

Construction Aspects of WTP

Treatment Plant Layout and Siting
Plant layout is the arrangement of designed treatment units on the selected
site. Siting is the selection of site for treatment plant based on features as character,
topography, and shoreline. Site development should take the advantage of the existing
site topography. The following principles are important to consider:
o A site on a side-hill can facilitate gravity flow that will reduce pumping requirements
and locate normal sequence of units without excessive excavation or fill.
o When landscaping is utilized it should reflect the character of the surrounding area.
Site development should alter existing naturally stabilized site contours and drainage
as little as possible.
o The developed site should be compatible with the existing land uses and the
comprehensive development plan.

Operations and Maintenance Aspects of WTP

Maintenance
Maintenance refers to keeping civil, mechanical and electrical components through
normal repair to function at design capacity for their design period
Operation
Operation refers to the art of handling the plant and equipment optically so that the
designed quality and quantity of water can be produced
Represents hourly and daily operation of plants, equipments, machinery and valves

Features of Operations and maintenances

(1) Availability detailed plans, drawings, operations and manuals
(2) Schedule of daily operations
(3) Equipment and machinery record register
(4) Records of quality of water
(5) Records of key activities of Operations and Maintenance
(6) Staff Position
(7) Inventory of Stores

Operations and Maintenance Aspects of WTP

1. Problems
Fluctuation in the quality of water
Fluctuations in the quantity and changes in the flow pattern
Malfunctioning of the units
Mechanical and electrical equipments

2. Requirements
Plans with details of units and layout
Systematic plan of daily operations
Daily machinery inspection schedule for lubrication
Data record for equipment cleaning and replacement of parts
Record of water analysis at various points to identify effects on quality
Safety measures including house keeping
3. Raw water
4. Flow measuring devices
5. Chemical feeding unit
6. Rapid mixer
7. Slow mixer
8. Clarifier or Sedimentation tanks
9. Rapid gravity filters
Defective gauges
Inadequate media on the filter bed
Air binding
Incrustation of media
Cracking of sand beds
Bumping of filters
Mud balls
Sand boils
Slime growths
Back wash requirements
10. Slow sand filters
11. Chlorinators
12. Clear water sump and reservoir
13. Treated water
14. Aerators
15. Master balancing Reservoirs and elevated reservoirs
16. Distribution system
17. Water quality control
18. Taste and odour control
19. Staff pattern