BIOTITE

General Formula: System:

Sample: PT-104
K2(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH,O,F2)2 Monoclinc

Biotite Porphyroblasts
Biotite Porphyrobalsts
The biotite porphyroblasts display
Randomly oriented biotite porphyroblasts,
a range of interference colours, and
exhibiting a range of pleochroic colours, in Block diagram showing the relationship
"bird's eye" extinction where the
a pelite collected from the Meguma Group, between the crystallographic axes and the
cleavge traces are parallel or nearly
Nova Scotia. Note the higher relief garnet indicatrix axes.
parallel to the polars (NS and EW).
grain in the lower left corner
Field of view = 4 mm, crossed
Field of view = 4 mm, plane light
polars

Optical Properties
 Colour typically brown, browhish green or Form tabular crystals parallel to {001} with a rough
Pleochroism reddish brown hexagonal shape, also as micaceous or tabular
distinctly pleochroic grains or grains with irregular outlines

Relief moderate to moderately high positive Cleavage perfect cleavage on {001}

RI nalpha = 1.522-1.625
nbeta = 1.548-1.672
ngamma = 1.549-1.696

Birefringence 0.03-0.07 Twinning rarely visible

Interference up to third or fourth order, a strong
Colours mineral colour may mask the
interference colour

Interference biaxial Optic extinction is parallel or nearly parallel, with a

Figure negative Orientation maximum extinction angle of a few degrees.
Optic Sign 0-25 Cleavage traces are length slow.
2V

Composition variable composition Alteration alters to chlorite, clay minerals, and/or

sericite, iron-titanium oxides, epidote, calcite,
and sulphides

Occurrence common in a wide range of igneous and Distinguishing colour, pleochroism, "birds-eye" extinction,
metamorphic rocks and may be an Features nearly parallel extinction
important detrital mineral in sediments

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ACTINOLITE-TREMOLITE
General Formula: System:
Sample: M-14
Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)5Si8O22(OH)2 Monoclinic

Actinolite Actinolite Block diagram showing the relationship

Low to medium grade amphibolite consisting Low to medium grade between the crystallographic axes and the
 amphibolite, notet the range of
essentailly of actinolite-tremolite. The large
interference colurs displayed
grain in the centre of the image displays two
by the actinolite in the image. indicatrix axes.
cleavages which intersect at 56 - 124.
Field of view 2.7 mm, crossed
Field of view 2.7 mm, plane light
polars

Optical Properties
Colour colourless to pale green to dark green, darker
Pleochroism colours and stronger pleochroism associated with
high Fe contents
X = colourless, pale yellow green
Y = pale yellow-green, pale blue-green
Z = pale green, green, blue-green
Form occurs as columnar, bladed or acicular
grains, elongated parallel to c axis,
may be fibrous, basal sections are
diamond shaped, with typical
amphibole cleavage

Relief moderate to high positive Cleavage two amphibole cleavages on {110},

RI nalpha = 1.599-1.688 intersect at 56 and 124
nbeta = 1.612-1.697
ngamma = 1.622-1.705

Birefringence 0.017-0.027 Twinning simple and lamellar twins

Interference maximum interference colours are upper 1st to mid
Colours 2nd order

Interference biaxial Optic X ^ a = +5 to -6

Figure negative Orientation Y = b,
Optic Sign 2VX = 75-88 Z ^ c = +10 to +21
2V optic plane = (010)
elongate sections are length slow

Composition the primary compositional variation is the relative Alteration alters to talc, chlorite and carbonates
 proportion of Fe2+ and Mg

Occurrence common occurrence is in contact and regional
metamorphosed limestone and dolomite. Also
found in metamoprhosed mafic and ultramafic
rocks. It is the common fine-grained alteration
product of pyroxenes.
Distinguishing actinolite closely resembles
Features hornblende, however the latter usually
has a smaller 2V angle and may have
a higher extinction angle.

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 CLINOPYROXENE
General Formula: System:
Sample: AUPI 33
(Ca,Mg,Fe,Al)2(Si,Al)206 Monoclinic

Clinopyroxene Phenocrysts Clinopyroxene Phenocrysts Block diagram showing the relationship

Euhedral, 8 sided, clinopyroxene Note the black areas in the right between the crystallographic axes and the
 grain due to plucking of the
phenocryst, exhibiting two cleavages, in a
sample during preparation of the
fine grained matrix of plagioclase microlites,
thin section. indicatrix axes.
clinopyroxene and olivine.
Field of view 2.7 mm, crossed
Field of view 2.7 mm, plane light
polars

Optical Properties
Colour usually colourless, gray, pale green or pale Form crystals form stubby prisms elongate
Pleochroism brown, darker colours associated with Fe-rich along the c-axis, basal sections are 4
varieties or 8 sided and show two cleavages at
Titanaugite is more distinctly coloured from ~90
brown/pink to violet.

Relief high positive Cleavage typical pyroxene cleavages parallel to

RI nalpha = 1.664-1.745 {110}, which intersect at ~90
nbeta = 1.672-1.753
ngamma = 1.694-1.771

Birefringence 0.018-0.034 Twinning simple and lamellar twins and

Interference lower to middle second order composition planes, which in
Colours combination may form a herringbone
pattern

Interference Biaxial Optic sections parallel to (100) show parallel

Figure positive Orientation extinction
Optic Sign 25-70 sections parallel to (010) show
2V maximum birefringence, a single
cleavage and Z^c of 35 to 48

Composition All clinopyroxenes crystallize with the same Alteration commonly alter to uralite (a fg, light
 structure and there is complete solid solution coloured amphibole), or may alter to
among all species and they cannot be serpentine, chlorite, biotite, carbonates
distinguished reliably based on their optical and /or other silicates
properties

Occurrence common in mafic igneous rocks, alkali-rich Distinguishing inclined extinction, higher
varieties may be found in more silicic rocks, Features birefringence, 2nd order interference
often associated with olivine, orthopyroxene, and colours, low 2V, optically positive in
plagioclase comparison with opx

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 ORTHOPYROXENE
General Formula: System:
Sample: W-3
(Mg,Fe)2Si2O6 Orthorhombic
 Orthopyroxene
Orthopyroxene
The similar appearence in plane light of
The low interference colours
orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene are
characteristic of orthopyroxene Block diagram showing the relationship
highlighted in this image. Note that both
compared to clinopyroxene are between the crystallographic axes and the
grains lack any clear colour, although
evident in this image. indicatrix axes.
coloured and pleochroic varieties are
Field of view = 4 mm, crossed
common.
polars
Field of view = 4 mm, plane light

Optical Properties
Colour pale coloured in thin section Form euhedral crystals are usually stubby prisms,
Pleochroism with subtle pinkish to greenish basal sections are 4 or 8 sided, with two primatic
pleochroism cleavages at 90 longitudinal sections are
rectangular, exhibit one cleavage and parallel
extinction

Relief moderate to high Cleavage two good cleavages parallel to the {210} prism
RI nalpha = 1.649-1.768 faces that intersect at 88
nbeta = 1.653-1.770
ngamma = 1.657-1.788
Generally increasing with increasing Fe
content

Birefringence 0.007-0.020 Twinning rare

Interference usually first order yellow or lower
Colours

Interference Biaxial Optic X=b, Y=a, Z=c

Figure positive or negative Orientation optic plane parallel to (100)
 Optic Sign 2VZ = 50-132 elongate fragments exhibit parallel extinction
2V and are length slow

Composition the effects of the substituion of Fe for Alteration alters to serpentine, talc or fine grained
Mg in orthopyroxene on the optical amphibole
properties is evident in examining
Figure 13.4 in Nesse.

Occurrence Mg-rich opx is common in mafic
intrusive rocks (gabbro, norite, etc.).
Fe-rich opx is found in more siliceous
igneous rocks (diorite, syenite etc.).
opx is common in high grade regional
metamorphic rocks
Distinguishing distinguished from cpx by: 1) lower
Features birefringence, 2) parallel extinction, 3) pale
colour, weak pleochroism, 4) most common opx
is optically negative, and 5) high 2V angle.

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 SANIDINE

General (K,Na)AlSi3O
System: Monoclinic
Formula: 8
 Block diagram showing the relationship between the crystallographic axes and the
indicatrix axes.

Optical Properties

Colour colourless Form Common as phenocrysts or tabular

Pleochroism crystals
non pleochroic
Relief Low negative Cleavage Perfect parallel to {001}
RI
nalpha = 1.514 - 1.526 Good parallel to {010}

nbeta= 1.518 - 1.530 Cleavages intersect at 90

ngamma = 1.521 - 1.533

Birefringence 0.005 0.008 Twinning Carlsbad twins with a composition

Interference Colours plane parallel to (010), dividing the
No higher than first order white crystal into two segments.

Interference Figure Biaxial Optic Orientation Two Orientations possible:

Optic Sign
2V Negative High Sanidine:

2VX = 040 (Low Sanidine) Optic plane is parallel to (010)

2VX = 047 (High Sanidine) X^a = ~+5, Y=b, Z^c = + 21

Low Sanidine:

Optic plane is perpendicular to (010)

X^a = +5 to 9, Y^c = + 21 to +17,

Z=b
 Extinction is inclined to cleavage

Composition Data Alteration Alters to clay minerals and sericite

Occurrence Common K-feldspar in silicic volcanic Distinguishing
rocks, eg. rhyolite, rhyodacite, Features
phonolite and trachyte and in dykes of
shallow intrusives. May occur in high
temperature contact metamorphic
rocks.
Low Sanidine is distinguished from
morthoclase by a smaller 2VX angle.
High Sanidine is distinguished from
low Sanidine and orthoclase by the
orientation of the optic plane.

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 STAUROLITE
General Formula: System:
Sample: PT-104c
Fe2Al9O6(SiO4)4(OH)2 Monoclinic
 Staurolite Porphyroblast
Staurolite Poikiloblast
Staurolite grain at extinction,
Euhedral staurolite poikiloblast, with
where the diamond shape is
inclusions of biotite and quartz, from a Block diagram showing the relationship between
clearly visible.
Meguma Group pelite. the crystallographic axes and the indicatrix axes.
The long axis of the staurolite
The long diagonal of the staurolite grain
grain measures 7.5 mm, crossed
measures 7.5 mm, plane light
polars

Optical Properties
Colour pale honey yellow or brown Form crystals are usually prismatic and elongated
Pleochroism distinct pelochroism parallel to the c axis, basal sections are 6
X = colourless or pale yellow sided, with {110} prism faces dominant.
Y = pale yellow to yellowish brown
Z = golden yellow to reddish brown
Relief high positive Cleavage one poor cleavage, not observed in thin
RI nalpha = 1.736-1.747 section
nbeta = 1.740-1.654
ngamma = 1.745-1.762

Birefringence 0.009 - 0.015 Twinning not obvious in thin section

Interference up to 1st order white or yellow
Colours

Interference Biaxial Optic X=b

Figure positive Orientation Y=a
Optic Sign 2VZ = 80-90 Z=c
2V optic plane = (100)
parallel extinction in longitudinal sections,
symmetrical in basal sections
longitudinal sections are length slow

Composition Mg, Al, Ti, Zn, and Si may substitute for Alteration alters to sericite or chlorite
Fe

Occurrence common in medium grade pelitic Distinguishing colour, pleochroism, relief, and habit
compositions Features
may be associated with garnet, andalusite,
sillimanite, kyanite, cordierite, chloritoid,
chlorite, muscovite, and biotite

ANDALUSITE
General Formula: Sampl: BUPM 17 System:
 Al2SiO5
Andalusite, var. Chiastolite
Andalusite porphyroblast showing the
development of the chiastolite cross
with arms radiating out from the
centre of the grain.
The andalusite is 6 mm wide, plane
light view.
Orthorhombic
Andalusite, var. Chiastolite
The andalusite is altering to fine
grained muscovite and chlorite along Block diagram showing the relationship
the edges, and is hosted within a very between the crystallographic axes and the
fine grained pelitic matrix. indicatrix axes.
The andalusite is 6 mm wide, crossed
polar view.
Optical Properties
 Colour colourless, rarely pink Form usually elongate prisms with nearly square
Pleochroism coloured varieties are weakly pleochroic cross sections. var. chiastolite contains
dark inclusions that form a cross along the
diagonals of the prism.

Relief moderate high positive Cleavage two good prismatic cleavages {110} nearly
RI nalpha= 1.629-1.640 at 90
nbeta= 1.633-1.644
ngamma= 1.638-1.650

Birefringence 0.009-0.013 Twinning rare

Interference firsrt order grey to white
Colours

Interference biaxial Optic elongate sections display parallel

Figure negative Orientation extinction, cross sections exhibit
Optic Sign 71-88 symmetrical extinction, generally length
2V fast

Composition relatively pure Al2SiO5, but significant Alteration to sericite, chlorite or other phyllosilicates,
amounts of Mn3+ and Fe3+ may substitute for or as reactant in metamorphic reactions
octohedral aluminium

Occurrence common in contact and regional Distinguishing moderate high relief, large 2V, parallel
metamorphsim, associated with cordierite, Features extinction, and length fast
garnet, sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite,
muscovite, biotite, chlorite and plagioclase

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CALCITE
 General Formula: System:
Sample: M-24
CaCO3 Hexagonal (trigonal)

Calcite
Calcite
Extreme inteference colours of
Irregular calcite crystals within a marble. Block diagram showing the relationship
calcite and the presence of twinning
Note the rhombohedral cleavage displayed between the crystallographic axes and the
in the top right grain.
by the grain just left of center. indicatrix axes.
Field of View = 2.7 mm, crossed
Field of View = 2.7 mm, plane light
polars

Optical Properties
Colour colourless Form variety of habits, but usually coinsist of
 Pleochroism non pelochroic scalenohedron and rhombohedron
combinations. In most rocks calcite forms
anhedral grains or grain aggregates

Relief moderate negative to high positive, Cleavage perfect rhombohedral cleavage, angle between
RI marked change with stage rotation cleavages 7457'
nw = 1.658
ne = 1.486

Birefringence 0.172 Twinning lamellar twins parallel to one edge of the

Interference extreme, creamy high order colours cleavage rhomb or along the long diagonal of
Colours the rhomb

Interference uniaxial Optic extinction is inclined or symmetrical to

Figure negative Orientation cleavage traces, the fast ray is parallel to the
Optic Sign short diagonal of the rhombohedral faces
2V

Composition dominantly CaCO3, but substitution of Alteration altered to dolomite during diagenesis, calcite is
Mg, Fe, Mn, or Zn and minor Sr and Ba soluble in natural waters and may be removed
by solution

Occurrence common and widespread as a major Distinguishing cleavage, variable relief, extreme interference
mineral in limestones, and an accessory Features colours
in igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks

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MICROCLINE
 General
KAlSi3O8 System: Triclinic
Formula:

TITLE TITLE
Block diagram showing the relationship between the crystallographic axes and the
DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION
indicatrix axes.
SCALE SCALE

Optical Properties
Colour colourless Form Anhedral to euhedral in many igneous
Pleochroism and metamorphic rocks
non pleochroic

Relief Low negative Cleavage Perfect parallel to {001}

RI
nalpha = 1.514 - 1.526 Good parallel to {010}

nbeta= 1.518 - 1.530 Cleavages intersect at 9041

ngamma = 1.521 - 1.533

Birefringence 0.005 0.008 Twinning Distinctive cross hatched or tartan

Interference Colours plaid twinning
No higher than first order yellow

Interference Figure Biaxial Optic Orientation Optic plane parallel to (001)

Optic Sign
2V Negative X^a ~18, Y^c ~ 18, Z^b ~18

65 88 Extinction is inclined to cleavage

Composition Data Alteration Alters to sericite and clay minerals

Occurrence Found in granite, granodiorite, Distinguishing Tartan plaid twinning.
pegmatite, syenite and related plutonic Features
rocks. Not normally found in volcanic
rocks.

Common in regional metamorphic

rocks of fairly high grade.

Common in immature clastic rocks.

OLIVINE

General Formula: System:

Sample: PT-96
(Fe,Mg)2SiO4 Orthorhombic
 Euhedral to subhedral olivine
phenocrysts, exhibiting irregular
fractures, in a plagioclase microlite
matrix
Field of View = 4.0 mm, plane light
Olivine phenocrysts
exhibiting 2nd to 3rd order
Block diagram showing the relationship between the
interference colours
crystallographic axes and the indicatrix axes.
Field of View = 4.0 mm,
Crossed polars
Optical Properties
Colour usually colourless, darker colours Form generally subequant anhedral grains or
Pleochroism correspond to higher iron content aggregates in intrusive and metamorphic
non pleochroic rocks. Equidimensional or elongated euhedral
grains in volcanics

Relief high positive Cleavage not observed

RI n = 1.636-1.827
n = 1.651-1.869
n = 1.669-1.879

Birefringence 0.033-0.052 Twinning not common

Interference up to third order
Colours

Interference biaxial Optic elongate grains have parallel extinction and

Figure positive or negative Orientation may be either length fast or slow
Optic Sign 46-98
2V

Composition minor substitution of Mn, Zn, Ca, Ni, Cr or Alteration commonly alters to iddingsite and
Al for Fe and Mg chlorophaeite, which are really mixtures of
various minerals which cannot be identified,
and serpentine. Alteration progresses from the
 edge and along cracks

Occurrence pure Fo (Mg-rich) is restricted to Distinguishing high birefringence, distinctive fracturing, lack
metamorphosed carbonates, intermediate Features of cleavage, and alteration products.
Fe-Mg olivine is common in mafic and
ultramafic igneous rocks, Fe-rich olivine
occurs in felsic rocks.

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 PLAGIOCLASE
General Formula: System:
Sample: PT-10C
NaAlSi3O8-CaAl2Si2O8 Monoclinic

Click here

Ophitic Texture Ophitic Texture

Colourless plagioclase grains, note
cleavage to right of label, surrounded
by a large oikocryst of clinopyroxene
Field of View = 4 cm, plane light
The above image presents a series of block
Albite, pericline and Carlsbad twinned
diagrams showing the variation in indicatrix
plagioclase grains enclosed within a
axes and crystallographic axes position with
second order green clinopyroxene.
composition.
Field of View = 4 cm, crossed polars

Optical Properties
Colour colourless Form occurs as both euhedral and anhedral grains;
Pleochroism non-pleochroic crystals are tabular parallel to (010), i.e. lath
shaped, and elongated parallel to the c or a axis.
Chemical zoning is common and is expressed as
a variation in the extinction angle from one zone
to another.

Relief low positive or negative, dependant on Cleavage {001} perfect cleavage, {010} good cleavage.
RI composition nalpha = 1.527 - 1.577 The cleavages intersect at 93 to 94.
nbeta = 1.531 - 1.585
ngamma = 1.534 - 1.590

Birefringence 0.007-0.013 Twinning polysynthetic twinning is characteristic. Common

Interference first order grey or white twin laws are:
Colours
1. albite (010) composition plane,
polysynthetic, found in all compositions

2. pericline: (h01) composition plane,

polysynthetic, found in intermediate to
calcic compositions

3. Carlsbad: (010) composition plane,

penetration, found in intermediate to
calcic compositions

Interference biaxial Optic Optic orientation varies in a regular manner with

Figure Orientation composition. Except by chance none of the
Optic Sign positive or negative indicatrix axes coincides with any of the
2V varies systematically with composition crystallographic axes.
Composition plagioclase shows continuous solid Alteration commonly partially altered to sericite, clay or
solution from albite to anorthite with zeolites. Plagioclase also may alter to saussurite,
NaSi replacing CaAl. a fine grained aggregrate of epidote group
minerals, albite, sericite and other minerals.

Occurrence widespread mineral found in nearly all Distinguishing low relief, colourless, biaxial figure,
igneous rocks, in many metamorphic Features polysynthetic twinning.
rocks and some sediments. The
composition of igneous plagioclase will
reflect the composition of the melt from
which the mineral formed.

SILLIMANITE
General Formula: System:
Smaple: PT-78(2)
Al2SiO5 Orthorhombic

Sillimanite var. prismatic

Acute Bisectrix
Euhedral prismatic sillimanite,
Note the low, first order grey, interference colours. The
displaying a single cleavage. Block diagram showing the
grains are oriented such that the view is looking down the c
This is one of two common relationship between the
crystallographic axis and the Z indicatrix axis - the acute
forms of sillimanite, the other is crystallographic axes and the
bisectrix. The rock type is a high grade pelite from the
fibrolite. indicatrix axes.
Grenville Province.
Field of View 2.7 mm, plane
Field of View 2.7 mm, crossed polars
light

Optical Properties
 Colour colourless, mats of fibrolite may be pale brown Form commonly occurs as slender prismatic
Pleochroism non pleochroic crystals or as fine fibrous cyrstals called
fibrolite

Relief high positive Cleavage one single good cleavage {010} parallel
RI nalpha= 1653-1.661 to the length of crystals
nbeta= 1.657-1.662
ngamma= 1.672-1.683

Birefringence 0.018-0.022 Twinning none reported

Interference lower second order
Colours

Interference biaxial Optic elongate sections show parallel

Figure positive Orientation extinction and are length slow
Optic Sign 20-30
2V

Composition relatively pure Al2SiO5 with minor Fe3+, Ti4+ or Alteration may alter to sericite. May be involved in
Cr3+ a variety of metamorphic reactions and
display reaction textures with andalusite,
sillimanite, staurolite, cordierite and
garnet.

Occurrence common mineral in medium to high grade Distinguishing higher relief, moderate birefringence,
pelitic schist, gneiss and related metamoprhic Features parallel extinction, and habit
rocks. Associated with kyanite, andalusite,
staurolite, muscovite, biotite, K-feldpsar,
cordierite, corundum, and garnet.

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APATITE
General Formula: System:
Sample: PT-10C
Ca5(PO4)3(F,OH,Cl) Hexagonal
Hexagonal and elongated Apatite
Hexagonal and elongated Apatite needles
needles
The hexagonal grains are cross sections of
Fine grained hexagonal and
apatite needles, cut perpendicular to the
elongated needles of apatite Block diagram showing the relationship
long axis which also corresponds to the c
included in plagioclase and between the crystallographic axes and the
crystallographic axis and the optic axis,
clinopyroxene within an olivine indicatrix axes.
thus the needles appear black.
diabase.
The long axis of the image is 0.9
The long axis of the image is 0.9
mm,crossed polar view
mm, plane light view
 Optical Properties
Colour usually colourless Form small euhedral to subhedral elongate prismatic
Pleochroism non pleochroic in thin section crystals with hexagonal cross sections are most
common, also found as anhedral grains and
granular or columnar aggregates

Relief/ moderate high positive Cleavage poor basal and prismatic, not readily visible in
RI nw = 1.633-1.667 thin section
ne = 1.629-1.665

Birefringence 0.001 - 0.007 Twinning rare

Interference first order grey
Colours

Interference uniaxial Optic elongate sections show parallel extinction and are
Figure negative Orientation length fast
Optic Sign
2V

Composition widest variation in composition is Alteration stable in most geologic environments

associated with the hydroxyl site, e.g.
F for OH for Cl

Occurrence present as an accessory in a wide Distinguishing moderate to high relief, low birefringence and
variety of igneous and metamorphic Features uniaxial character
rocks and as detrital grains in
sedimentary rocks

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CHLORITE
General Formula: System:
Sample: PT-115D
(Mg,Fe,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2*(Mg,Fe,Al)3(OH)6 Monoclinic and Triclinic
 Chlorite Porphyroblast
Chlorite Porphyroblast
The interference colour displayed
A relict chlorite porphyroblast within a Meguma Group
by the chlorite is masked to some Block diagram showing the relationship between
pelite, from Nova Scotia. Note the very weak colour
degree by the colour of teh grain. the crystallographic axes and the indicatrix axes.
visible in plane light.
Field of view = 2.7 mm, crossed
Field of view = 2.7 mm, plane light
polars

Optical Properties
Colour light to medium green Form commonly found as plates similar to micas
Pleochroism pleochroic, expressed in shades of green,
darker varieties are Fe-rich

Relief moderate to moderately high positive Cleavage perfect on {001}

RI nalpha = 1.55-1.67
nbeta = 1.55-1.67
 ngamma = 1.55-1.69

Birefringence 0.0-0.015 Twinning none

Interference first order white to yellow, may exhibit
Colours anomalous blue or purplish interference
colours

Interference biaxial Optic extinction angle up to 9, cleavage trace in

Figure positive or negative Orientation optically positive varieties is length fast
Optic Sign 0-60 (positive) and in optically negative varieties is length
2V 0-40 (negative) slow

Composition highly variable Alteration oxidation may produce iron stains, but
chlorite is relatively stable.

Occurrence widespread mineral in contact and regional Distinguishing colour, weak pleochroism, and weak
metamorphic rocks of low grade, as an Features birefringence
alteration product of mafic minerals in
igneous rocks

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EPIDOTE
This description is for epidote, however note that there exist several varieties of epidote, e.g., zoisite, clionzoisite, each of which have different
optical properties and may all be present in the same thin section. Var. epidote represent the more Fe-rich compositions of the clinozoisite (Al-
rich) -epidote series.
General Formula: System:
Sample: GF-83-21A
Ca2Fe3+Al2O(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH) Monoclinic

Epidote
Epidote
Note the range of
Equigranular epidote, with actinolite and
interference colours Block diagram showing the relationship between the
hornblende within a metamorphosed mafic
exhibited by the epidote. crystallographic axes and the indicatrix axes.
lithology.
Field of view = 2.7 mm,
Field of view = 2.7 mm, plane light
crossed polars

Optical Properties
Colour higher Fe epidote produces a light yellow-green Form found as anhedral grains or
Pleochroism colour granular aggregates
 X = colourless to pale yellow or pale green
Y = yellow-green
Z = colourless to pale yellow-green

Relief high positive Cleavage a poor cleavge on {100} is not

RI nalpha = 1.715-1.751 usually seen
nbeta = 1.725-1.784
ngamma = 1.734-1.797

Birefringence 0.012-0.049 Twinning rare

Interference Maximum interference colours up to 3rd order,
Colours depending on composition

Interference biaxial Optic optic orientation varies strongly

Figure negative Orientation with composition. in all cases Y =
Optic Sign 2VX = 90-64 b and the optic plane is (010)
2V

Composition epidote is the Fe-rich end member of a continuous Alteration no consistent alteration
solid solution series with clinozoisite (Al-rich)

Occurrence common accessory mineral in a wide variety of Distinguishing epidote is distinguished from
regional and contact metamorphic rocks. A wide Features clinozoisite by optic sign,
variety of igneous rocks contain epidote as a primary birefringence, and colour.
accessory mineral.

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 HORNBLENDE
General Formula: System:
Sample: AUPI-37
(Na,K)0-1Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2 Monoclinic

Euhedral Hornblende Phenocrysts Euhedral Hornblende Block diagram showing the relationship
Numerous hornblende phenocrysts, exhibiting a Phenocrysts between the crystallographic axes and the
range of pleochroic colours, euhedral shapes Note that the interference indicatrix axes.
and two cleavages which intersect at 56-124:. colour exhibited by the

Field of View = 2.7 mm, plane light
individual hornblende grains
is masked to some degree by
the dark colour of the grain.
Field of view = 2.7 mm,
crossed polars

Optical Properties
Colour distinctly coloured, shades of green, Form found as slender prismatic to bladed crystals,
Pleochroism yellow-green, blue-green and brown with a 4 or 6 sided cross section which exhibit
X = light yellow, light yellow green, amphibole cleavage at 56 and 124, also as
light blue green anhedral irregular grains
Y = green, yellow green, gray-green,
brown
Z = dark green, dark blue-green, dark
gray-green, dark brown

Relief moderate to high Cleavage amphibole cleavages on {110} intersect at 56-

RI nalpha = 1.60-1.70 124 fragment shape is controlled by cleavage
nbeta = 1.61-1.71
ngamma = 1.62-1.73

Birefringence 0.014-0.034 Twinning simple and lamellar twins on {100} are not
Interference usually upper first or lower second uncommon
Colours order, but may be masked by mineral
colour

Interference biaxial Optic X^a = +3 to -19, Y = b, Z^c = +12 to +34,

Figure positive or negative Orientation optic plane = (010)
Optic Sign 35 - 130 basal sections exhibit symmetrical extinction
 2VX with the slow ray parallel to the long diagonal
between the cleavages, longitudinal sections are
length slow

Composition exhibits a wide range of compositions Alteration may be altered to biotite, chlorite or other Fe-Mg
silicates

Occurrence common mineral found in a variety of Distinguishing cleavage and grain shape, inclined extinction,
geological environments, i.e. in Features pleochroism
igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks

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General Formula:
KAl2(Al,Si3O10)(OH)2
Muscovite Flakes
Elongated, colourless flakes of
muscovite, in a pelite from the
Grenville Supergroup, Central
Metasedimentary Belt of the
Grenville Province.
Field of view = 2.7 mm, plane
light
MUSCOVITE
System:
Sample: PT-51
Monoclinic
Muscovite Flakes
The flakes of muscovite display the
characteristic second order blue
Block diagram showing the relationship
interference colour. Note that the
between the crystallographic axes and the
muscovite flakes define the fabric in the
indicatrix axes.
sample, with all exhibiting an EW
orientation.
Field of view = 2.7 mm, crossed polars
 Optical Properties
Colour colourless Form found as micaceous flakes or
Pleochroism non pleochroic tablets with irregular outlines

Relief moderate positive Cleavage perfect on {001}

RI nalpha = 1.552-1.580
nbeta = 1.582-1.620
ngamma = 1.587-1.623

Birefringence 0.036-0.049 Twinning rare

Interference vivid second order blues and greens
Colours

Interference biaxial Optic parallel extinction, cleavage

Figure negative Orientation traces are length slow
Optic Sign 30-47
2V

Composition highly variable Alteration not generally altered

Occurrence common in a wide variety of metamorphic rocks, Distinguishing colourless, parallel extinction,
felsic igneous rocks and as detrital grains in Features "birds-eye" extinction
sedimentary rocks

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ORTHOCLASE

General KAlSi3O
System: Monoclinic
Formula: 8

Block diagram showing the relationship between the crystallographic axes and the indicatrix
 axes.

Optical Properties

Colour colourless Form Common as anhedral to euhedral

Pleochroism grains in igneous rocks.
non pleochroic

Relief Low negative Cleavage Perfect parallel to {001}

RI
nalpha = 1.514 - 1.526 Good parallel to {010}

nbeta= 1.518 - 1.530 Cleavages intersect at 90

ngamma = 1.521 - 1.533

Birefringence 0.005 0.008 Twinning Range of twins may be present, eg.

Interference Colours Carlsbad, Baveno, Mandebach.
No higher than first order white
Polysynthetic twins, as in plagioclase
and microcline are not found.
Interference Figure Biaxial Optic Orientation Optic plane is perpendicular to (010)
Optic Sign and inclined between 5 and 13 to
2V Negative (001).

40 ~70 X^a = +5 to +13, Y^c = + 21 to

13, Z=b

Extinction is inclined to cleavage

Composition Data Alteration Alters to clay minerals and sericite

Occurrence Widespread in granite, granodiorite, Distinguishing Distinguished from sanidine based on

pegmatite, syenite and related felsic Features 2V and from microcline by the lack of
rocks, emplaced at shallow depths. tartan twinning.

Sanidine is more common in volcanic

rocks and microcline more common in
deep seated intrusives.

Common in contact and regional

metamorphic rocks.

As a detrital grain in clastic sediments.

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QUARTZ
General Formula: System:
Sample: M-20
SiO2 Hexagonal (trigonal)
 Orthoquartzite
Subrounded quartz grains cemented in a
matrix of silica. The grain boundaries are
clearly marked by the fine grained
inclusions.
Field of View 2.7 mm, plane light
Orthoquartzite
Note the variety of orientations
present in the randomly Block diagram showing the relationship between
oriented quartz grains. the crystallographic axes and the indicatrix axes.
Field of View 2.7 mm, crossed
polars

Optical Properties
Colour colourless Form typically anhedral to highly irregular in
Pleochroism non-pleochroic igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Detritial grains are are more or less
equant.

Relief/ low positive relief Cleavage not observed

RI nw = 1.544
ne = 1.553

Birefringence 0.009 Twinning non observed

Interference Maximum interference colour range up to first
Colours order white, with a tinge of yellow

Interference unixial positive, but strained displaying Optic optic axis is the c axis. Elongate crystals
Figure/ undulatory extinction may show a biaxial Orientation cut from end to end are length slow.
Optic Sign interference figure with a small separation of
2V the isogyres.

Composition essentially pure SiO2, although trace amounts Alteration not readily altered and is very stable in
of Ti, Fe, Mn, Al may be present. weathering environments.

Occurrence one of the most widely abundant minerals, Distinguishing low relief, low birefringence, lack of
present in a wide variety of environments. Features cleavage, uniaxial positive.

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General Formula:
CaTiOSiO4
Sphene
Note the high relief of the sphene
grain compared to the other minerals
in the field of view.
Field of view = 2.7 mm, plane light
SPHENE/TITANITE
System:
Sample: 88-18
Monoclinic
Sphene
Note the high interference colour, of Block diagram showing the relationship
the sphene, which may be masked by between the crystallographic axes and the
the colour of the grain. indicatrix axes.
Field of view 2.7 mm, crossed polars
Optical Properties
 Colour shades of brown, less commonly colourless or Form euhedral to subhedral grains with a
Pleochroism yellow wedge or diamond shaped cross
non to weakly pleochroic section

Relief very high positive Cleavage good prismatic cleavage {110}, but
RI nalpha = 1.843-1.950 not usually obvious in thin section
nbeta = 1.870-2.034
ngamma = 1.943-2.110

Birefringence 0.100-0.192 Twinning simple twins on {100} and lamellar

Interference extreme birefringince produces upper order twins on {221}
Colours white/cream interference colours

Interference biaxial Optic X ^ a =-6 to -21

Figure positive Orientation Y=b
Optic Sign 2VZ = 17-40 Z ^ c = +35 to 51
2V optic plane = (010)

Composition Al3+ and Fe3+ may substitute for Ti4+, a wide Alteration alters to leucoxene
variety of other cations, e.g. REE, U and Th, may
substitute for Ti.

Occurrence a common accessory in a wide variety of igneous Distinguishing very high relief and extreme
and metamorphic rocks. Features birefringence

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NEPHELINE
General Formula: Sample: Nepheline System:
Na3K(Al4Si4O16) Syenite Hexagonal

TITLE
TITLE Block diagram showing the relationship between the crystallographic axes and
DESCRIPTION
DESCRIPTION SCALE the indicatrix axes.
SCALE

Optical Properties
Colour colourless Form anhedral to sudhedral in intrusive
Pleochroism non pleochroic rocks, subhedral to euhedral in
 extrusive rocks

Relief low negative to low positive Cleavage rarely seen in thin section,
RI nw = 1.529-1.546 irregular fractures
ne = 1.526-1.544

Birefringence 0.003 - 0.005 Twinning not observed

Interference first order grey
Colours

Interference uniaxial Optic longitudinal sections through

Figure negative Orientation euhedral crystals as length fast,
Optic Sign with parallel extinction
2V

Composition most nepheline has a 3:1 ratio of Na:K. At high Alteration alters to clay minerals, analcime,
temperatures complete solid solution exists between sodalite, calcite, and cancrinite
pure nepheline (100% Na) and kalsilite (100% K)

Occurrence common in syenite, nepheline syenite and related Distinguishing low relief, looks like quartz but
alkalic rocks. Nepehiline is never associated with Features may be altered and is uniaxial
primary quartz. negative.

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