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1. Consumer Behavior and Marketing Research

Consumer Behavior: introduction, Factors influencing consumer behaviour,
Personality, Psychographics, Family, Society, Values of perception, Attitude and life
styles, Different models of consumer behaviour Economic, Learning, Psychoanalytical,
Sociological, Howard Shett, Nicosia, Webster and Wind, Engel, Blackwell and Minard
models.

People buy things to satisfy two basic needs (1) Physical or Material, and
(2) Psychological or Mental. The buying decision is influenced by these two basic
factors in various combinations, of course along with certain other external
factors. Persons buying the same product may have diff erent reasons to
do so, and persons having same reasons may buy diff erent products. The
study of these Physical & Psychological factors along with various other factors that
influence the consumer to make a buying decision is therefore of utmost
important for marketers, and these constitute the subject matter of Consumer
Behaviour. Consumer Behaviour ( or Buyer Behaviour ) is defined as :
1.The acquisition, consumption and disposition of products,
s e r v i c e s , t i m e a n d i d e a s b y decision making units (individual or
organisational)
2.It is the body of knowledge which studies various aspects of
p u r c h a s e a n d c o n s u m p t i o n o f products and services by individuals with
various social and psychological variables at play.
3.The behaviour that the consumers display in searching for, purchasing,
using, evaluating and disposing of products and services that they expect will
satisfy their needs.

4.The study of consumer behaviour involves search, evaluation, purchase,

consumption andpost purchase behaviour of the consumers and includes the
disposal of purchased products keeping environment and personal characteristics in
mind.
How reacts a consumer? What are the motivations and aspirations that guide him? What are the
factors that influence him? Why he will choose a product or brand over another?

Lets focus on the factors influencing consumer behavior: what are they? How do they work?
What is their level of importance to the consumer and how he reacts to it?

Factors Influencing Consumer Behavior:

There are 4 main types of factors influencing consumer behavior: cultural factors, social factors,
personal factors and psychological factors.

I. Cultural factors
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Cultural factors are coming from the different components related to culture or cultural
environment from which the consumer belongs.

Culture and societal environment:

Culture is crucial when it comes to understanding the needs and behaviors of an individual.

Throughout his existence, an individual will be influenced by his family, his friends, his cultural
environment or society that will teach him values, preferences as well as common behaviors to
their own culture.

For a brand, it is important to understand and take into account the cultural factors inherent to
each market or to each situation in order to adapt its product and its marketing strategy. As these
will play a role in the perception, habits, behavior or expectations of consumers.

For example, in the West, it is common to invite colleagues or friends at home for a drink or
dinner. In Japan, on the contrary, invite someone home does not usually fit into the local
customs. It is preferable to do that this kind of outing with friends or colleagues in restaurant.

A significant specificity to take into account for the brands in markets such as savory snacking or
sodas and alcoholic beverages. Usage and consumption moments are not the same in all regions
of the world.

While if a Japanese offer you a gift, the courtesy is to offer him an equivalent gift in return.

McDonalds is a brilliant example of adaptation to the specificities of each culture and each
market. Well aware of the importance to have an offer with specific products to meet the needs
and tastes of consumers from different cultures, the fast-food giant has for example: a
McBaguette in France (with french baguette and Dijon mustard), a Chicken Maharaja Mac and a
Masala Grill Chicken in India (with Indian spices) as well as a Mega Teriyaki Burger (with
teriyaki sauce) or Gurakoro (with macaroni gratin and croquettes) in Japan.

While all the ingredients used by McDonalds in arabic and muslim countries are certified halal.
The fast food chain not offering, of course, any product with bacon or pork.

Sub-cultures :

A society is composed of several sub-cultures in which people can identify. Subcultures are
groups of people who share the same values based on a common experience or a similar lifestyle
in general.

Subcultures are the nationalities, religions, ethnic groups, age groups, gender of the individual,
etc..

The subcultures are often considered by the brands for the segmentation of a market in order to
adapt a product or a communication strategy to the values or the specific needs of this segment.

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For example in recent years, the segment of ethnic cosmetics has greatly expanded. These are
products more suited to non-Caucasian populations and to types of skin pigmentation for african,
arab or indian populations for example.

Its a real brand positioning with a well-defined target in a sector that only offered makeup
products to a caucasian target until now (with the exception of niche brands) and was then
receiving critics from consumers of different origin.

Brands often communicate in different ways, sometimes even create specific products
(sometimes without significant intrinsic difference) for the same type of product in order to
specifically target an age group, a gender or a specific sub-culture.

Consumers are usually more receptive to products and marketing strategies that specifically
target them.

Social classes:

Social classes are defined as groups more or less homogenous and ranked against each other
according to a form of social hierarchy. Even if its very large groups, we usually find similar
values, lifestyles, interests and behaviors in individuals belonging to the same social class.

We often assume three general categories among social classes : lower class, middle class and
upper class.

People from different social classes tend to have different desires and consumption patterns.
Disparities resulting from the difference in their purchasing power, but not only. According to
some researchers, behavior and buying habits would also be a way of identification and
belonging to its social class.

Beyond a common foundation to the whole population and taking into account that many
counterexample naturally exist, they usually do not always buy the same products, do not choose
the same kind of vacation, do not always watch the same TV shows, do not always read the same
magazines, do not have the same hobbies and do not always go in the same types of retailers and
stores.

For example, consumers from the middle class and upper class generally consume more balanced
and healthy food products than those from the lower class.

They dont go in the same stores either. If some retailers are, of course, patronized by everyone,
some are more specifically targeted to upper classes such as The Fresh Market, Whole Foods
Market, Barneys New York or Nordstrom. While others, such as discount supermarkets, attract
more consumers from the lower class.

Some studies have also suggested that the social perception of a brand or a retailer is playing a
role in the behavior and purchasing decisions of consumers.

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In addition, the consumer buying behavior may also change according to social class. A
consumer from the lower class will be more focused on price. While a shopper from the upper
class will be more attracted to elements such as quality, innovation, features, or even the social
benefit that he can obtain from the product.

Cultural trends:

Cultural trends or Bandwagon effect are defined as trends widely followed by people and
which are amplified by their mere popularity and by conformity or compliance with social
pressure. The more people follow a trend, the more others will want to follow it.

They affect behavior and shopping habits of consumers and may be related to the release of new
products or become a source of innovation for brands.

By social pressure, desire to conformity or belonging to a group, desire to follow fashion

trends or simply due to the high visibility provided by media, consumers will be influenced,
consciously or unconsciously, by these trends.

For example, Facebook has become a cultural trend. The social network has widely grew to the
point of becoming a must have, especially among young people.

It is the same with the growth of the tablet market. Tablets such as iPad or Galaxy Tab have
become a global cultural trend leading many consumers to buy one. Even if they had never
specially felt the need before.

For a brand, create a new cultural trend from scratch is not easy. Apple did it with the tablets
with its iPad. But this is an exception. However, brands must remain attentive to the new trends
and bandwagon effects. Whether to accompany it (create a page on Facebook) or to take part
in the newly created market (create its own tablet).

II. Social factors

Social factors are among the factors influencing consumer behavior significantly. They fall into
three categories: reference groups, family and social roles and status.

3.Reference groups and membership groups :

The membership groups of an individual are social groups to which he belongs and which will
influence him. The membership groups are usually related to its social origin, age, place of
residence, work, hobbies, leisure, etc..

The influence level may vary depending on individuals and groups. But is generally observed
common consumption trends among the members of a same group.

The understanding of the specific features (mindset, values, lifestyle, etc..) of each group allows
brands to better target their advertising message.

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More generally, reference groups are defined as those that provide to the individual some points
of comparison more or less direct about his behavior, lifestyle, desires or consumer habits. They
influence the image that the individual has of himself as well as his behavior. Whether it is a
membership group or a non-membership group.

Because the individual can also be influenced by a group to which he doesnt belong yet but
wishes to be part of. This is called an aspirational group. This group will have a direct influence
on the consumer who, wishing to belong to this group and look like its members, will try to buy
the same products.

For example, even if he doesnt need it yet, a surfing beginner may want to buy advanced
brands or products used by experienced surfers (aspirational group) in order to get closer to this
group. While a teen may want the shoe model or smartphone used by the group of popular
guys from his high school (aspirational group) in order to be accepted by this group.

Some brands have understood this very well and communicate, implicitly or not, on the social
benefit provided by their products.

Within a reference group that influence the consumer buying behavior, several roles have been
identified:

The initiator: the person who suggests buying a product or service

The influencer: the person whose point of view or advice will influence the buying
decision. It may be a person outside the group (singer, athlete, actor, etc..) but on which
group members rely on.

The decision-maker: the person who will choose which product to buy. In general, its
the consumer but in some cases it may be another person. For example, the leader of a
soccer supporters group (membership group) that will define, for the whole group, which
supporters scarf buy and bear during the next game.

The buyer: the person who will buy the product. Generally, this will be the final
consumer.

Many brands look to target opinion leaders (initiator or influencer) to spread the use and
purchase of their product in a social group. Either through an internal person of the group when it
comes to a small social group. Or through a sponsorship or a partnership with a reference leader
(celebrity, actor, musician, athlete, etc..) for larger groups.

2.Family:

The family is maybe the most influencing factor for an individual. It forms an environment of
socialization in which an individual will evolve, shape his personality, acquire values. But also
develop attitudes and opinions on various subjects such as politics, society, social relations or
himself and his desires.

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But also on his consumer habits, his perception of brands and the products he buys.

We all kept, for many of us and for some products and brands, the same buying habits and
consumption patterns that the ones we had known in our family.

Perceptions and family habits generally have a strong influence on the consumer buying
behavior. People will tend to keep the same as those acquired with their families.

For example, if you have never drunk Coke during your childhood and your parents have
described it as a product full of sugar and not good for health. There is far less chance that you
are going to buy it when you will grow up that someone who drinks Coke since childhood.

For brands especially for Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) or Consumer Packaged
Goods (CPG) successfully integrate the family is both a real challenge and an opportunity to
develop a strong consumer loyalty among all the family members.

Thats why its important for brands to be seen as a family brand in order to become a consumer
habit for parents and children when they will become adults.

3.Social roles and status:

The position of an individual within his family, his work, his country club, his group of friends,
etc.. All this can be defined in terms of role and social status.

A social role is a set of attitudes and activities that an individual is supposed to have and do
according to his profession and his position at work, his position in the family, his gender, etc..
and expectations of the people around him.

Social status meanwhile reflects the rank and the importance of this role in society or in social
groups. Some are more valued than others.

The social role and status profoundly influences the consumer behavior and his purchasing
decisions. Especially for all the visible products from other people.

For example, a consumer may buy a Ferrari or a Porsche for the quality of the car but also for the
external signs of social success that this kind of cars represents. Moreover, it is likely that a CEO
driving a small car like a Ford Fiesta or a Volkswagen Golf would be taken less seriously by its
customers and business partners than if he is driving a german luxury car.

And this kind of behaviors and influences can be found at every level and for every role and
social status.

Again, many brands have understood it by creating an image associated with their products
reflecting an important social role or status.

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III. Personal factors:
Decisions and buying behavior are obviously also influenced by the characteristics of each
consumer.

1.Age and way of life:

A consumer does not buy the same products or services at 20 or 70 years. His lifestyle, values,
environment, activities, hobbies and consumer habits evolve throughout his life.

For example, during his life, a consumer could change his diet from unhealthy products (fast
food, ready meals, etc..) to a healthier diet, during mid-life with family before needing to follow
a little later a low cholesterol diet to avoid health problems.

The factors influencing the buying decision process may also change. For example, the social
value of a brand generally play a more important role in the decision for a consumer at 25 than
at 65 years.

The family life cycle of the individual will also have an influence on his values, lifestyles and
buying behavior depending whether hes single, in a relationship, in a relationship with kids, etc..
As well as the region of the country and the kind of city where he lives (large city, small town,
countryside, etc..).

For a brand or a retailer, it may be interesting to identify, understand, measure and analyze what
are the criteria and personal factors that influence the shopping behavior of their customers in
order to adapt.

For example, it is more than possible that consumers living in New York do not have the same
behavior and purchasing habits than the ones in Nebraska. For a retailer, have a deep
understanding and adapt to these differences will be a real asset to increase sales.

2.Purchasing power and revenue:

The purchasing power of an individual will have, of course, a decisive influence on his behavior
and purchasing decisions based on his income and his capital.

This obviously affects what he can afford, his perspective on money and the level of importance
of price in his purchasing decisions. But it also plays a role in the kind of retailers where he goes
or the kind of brands he buys.

As for social status, some consumers may also look for the social value of products they buy in
order to show external indications of their incomes and their level of purchasing power..

3.Lifestyle:

The lifestyle of an individual includes all of its activities, interests, values and opinions.

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The lifestyle of a consumer will influence on his behavior and purchasing decisions. For
example, a consumer with a healthy and balanced lifestyle will prefer to eat organic products and
go to specific grocery stores, will do some jogging regularly (and therefore will buy shoes,
clothes and specific products), etc..

4.Personality and self-concept:

Personality is the set of traits and specific characteristics of each individual. It is the product of
the interaction of psychological and physiological characteristics of the individual and results in
constant behaviors.

It materializes into some traits such as confidence, sociability, autonomy, charisma, ambition,
openness to others, shyness, curiosity, adaptability, etc..

While the self-concept is the image that the individual has or would like to have of him and
he conveys to his entourage. These two concepts greatly influence the individual in his choices
and his way of being in everyday life. And therefore also his shopping behavior and purchasing
habits as consumer.

In order to attract more customers, many brands are trying to develop an image and a personality
that conveys the traits and values - real or desired of consumers they are targeting.

For example, since its launch, Apple cultivates an image of innovation, creativity, boldness and
singularity which is able to attract consumers who identify to these values and who feel valued
in their self-concept by buying a product from Apple.

Because consumers do not just buy products based on their needs or for their intrinsic features
but they are also looking for products that are consistent and reinforce the image they have of
themselves or they would like to have.

The more a product or brand can convey a positive and favorable self-image to the consumer, the
more it will be appreciated and regularly purchased.

IV. Psychological factors

Among the factors influencing consumer behavior, psychological factors can be divided into 4
categories: motivation, perception, learning as well as beliefs and attitudes.

1.Motivation:

Motivation is what will drive consumers to develop a purchasing behavior. It is the expression of
a need is which became pressing enough to lead the consumer to want to satisfy it. It is usually
working at a subconscious level and is often difficult to measure.

Motivation is directly related to the need and is expressed in the same type of classification as
defined in the stages of the consumer buying decision process.

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To increase sales and encourage consumers to purchase, brands should try to create, make
conscious or reinforce a need in the consumers mind so that he develops a purchase motivation.
He will be much more interested in considering and buy their products.

They must also, according to research, the type of product they sell and the consumers they
target, pick out the motivation and the need to which their product respond in order to make them
appear as the solution to the consumers need.

2.Perception:

Perception is the process through which an individual selects, organizes and interprets the
information he receives in order to do something that makes sense. The perception of a situation
at a given time may decide if and how the person will act.

Depending to his experiences, beliefs and personal characteristics, an individual will have a
different perception from another.

Each person faces every day tens of thousands of sensory stimuli (visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
olfactory and gustatory). It would be impossible for the brain to process all consciously. That is
why it focuses only on some of them.

The perception mechanism of an individual is organized around three processes:

Selective Attention: The individual focuses only on a few details or stimulus to which he
is subjected. The type of information or stimuli to which an individual is more sensitive
depends on the person.

For brands and advertisers successfully capture and retain the attention of consumers is
increasingly difficult. For example, many users no longer pay any attention, unconsciously, to
banner ads on the Internet. This kind of process is called Banner Blindness.

The attention level also varies depending on the activity of the individual and the number of
other stimuli in the environment. For example, an individual who is bored during a subway trip
will be much more attentive to a new ad displayed in the tube. It is a new stimuli that breaks the
trip routine for him.

Consumers will also be much more attentive to stimuli related to a need. For example, a
consumer who wishes to buy a new car will pay more attention to car manufacturers ads. While
neglecting those for computers.

Lastly, people are more likely to be attentive to stimuli that are new or out of the ordinary. For
example, an innovative advertising or a marketing message (Unique Value Proposition) widely
different from its competitors is more likely to be remembered by consumers.

Selective Distortion: In many situations, two people are not going to interpret an
information or a stimulus in the same way. Each individual will have a different

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 perception based on his experience, state of mind, beliefs and attitudes. Selective
distortion leads people to interpret situations in order to make them consistent with their
beliefs and values.

For brands, it means that the message they communicate will never be perceived exactly in the
same way by consumers. And that everyone may have a different perception of it. Thats why its
important to regularly ask consumers in order to know their actual brand perception.

Selective distortion often benefits to strong and popular brands. Studies have shown that the
perception and brand image plays a key role in the way consumers perceived and judged the
product.

Several experiments have shown that even if we give them the same product, consumers find that
the product is or tastes better when theyve been told that its from a brand they like than when
theyve been told its a generic brand. While it is exactly the same product!

Similarly, consumers will tend to appreciate even less a product if it comes from a brand for
which they have a negative perception.

Selective Retention: People do not retain all the information and stimuli they have been
exposed to. Selective retention means what the individual will store and retain from a
given situation or a particular stimulus. As for selective distortion, individuals tend to
memorize information that will fit with their existing beliefs and perceptions.

For example, consumers will remember especially the benefits of a brand or product they like
and will forget the drawbacks or competing products advantages.

Selective retention is also what explains why brands and advertisers use so much repetition in
their advertising campaigns and why they are so broadcasted. So that the selective retention can
help the brand to become a top of mind brand in the consumers mind.

3.Learning:

Learning is through action. When we act, we learn. It implies a change in the behavior resulting
from the experience. The learning changes the behavior of an individual as he acquires
information and experience.

For example, if you are sick after drinking milk, you had a negative experience, you associate the
milk with this state of discomfort and you learn that you should not drink milk. Therefore, you
dont buy milk anymore.

Rather, if you had a good experience with the product, you will have much more desire to buy it
again next time.

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The learning theories can be used in marketing by brands. As the theory of operant conditioning
which states that you can build a good image and high demand for a product by associating it
with a positive reinforcement (or rather a bad image with a negative reinforcement).

4.Beliefs and attitudes:

A belief is a conviction that an individual has on something. Through the experience he acquires,
his learning and his external influences (family, friends, etc..), he will develop beliefs that will
influence his buying behavior.

While an attitude can be defined as a feeling, an assessment of an object or idea and the
predisposition to act in a certain way toward that object. Attitudes allow the individual to develop
a coherent behavior against a class of similar objects or ideas.

Beliefs as well as attitudes are generally well-anchored in the individuals mind and are difficult
to change. For many people, their beliefs and attitudes are part of their personality and of who
they are.

However, it is important to understand, identify and analyze the positive attitudes and beliefs but
also the negative ones that consumers can have on a brand or product. To change the brands
marketing message or adjust its positioning in order to get consumers to change their brand
perception.

Many factors influencing consumer behavior

As we have just seen, many factors, specificities and characteristics influence the individual in
what he is and the consumer in his decision making process, shopping habits, purchasing
behavior, the brands he buys or the retailers he goes.

A purchase decision is the result of each and every one of these factors. An individual and a
consumer is led by his culture, his subculture, his social class, his membership groups, his
family, his personality, his psychological factors, etc.. And is influenced by cultural trends as
well as his social and societal environment.

By identifying and understanding the factors that influence their customers, brands have the
opportunity to develop a strategy, a marketing message (Unique Value Proposition) and
advertising campaigns more efficient and more in line with the needs and ways of thinking of
their target consumers. A real asset to better meet the needs of its customers and increase sales.

Models of Consumer Buying Behaviour Process:

Different approaches are attempted to understand and explain the complex buying behaviour
process. In addition several models have been propounded by marketing experts and practioners
to explain the buying process. They are explained below.

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Economic Model
The economic model of consumer behavior focuses on the idea that a consumers buying
pattern is based on the idea of getting the most benefits while minimizing costs. Thus,
one can predict consumer behavior based on economic indicators such as the consumers
purchasing power and the price of competitive products. For instance, a consumer will
buy a similar product that is being offered at a lower price to maximize the benefits; an
increase in a consumers purchasing power will allow him to increase the quantity of the
products he is purchasing.

Learning Model
This model is based on the idea that consumer behavior is governed by the need to satisfy
basic and learned needs. Basic needs include food, clothing and shelter, while learned
needs include fear and guilt. Thus, a consumer will have a tendency to buy things that
will satisfy their needs and provide satisfaction. A hungry customer may pass up on
buying a nice piece of jewelry to buy some food, but will later go back to purchase the
jewelry once her hunger is satisfied.

Psychoanalytical Model
The psychoanalytical model takes into consideration the fact that consumer behavior is
influenced by both the conscious and the subconscious mind. The three levels of
consciousness discussed by Sigmund Freud (id, ego and superego) all work to influence
ones buying decisions and behaviors. A hidden symbol in a companys name or logo
may have an effect on a persons subconscious mind and may influence him to buy that
product instead of a similar product from another company.

Sociological Model
The sociological model primarily considers the idea that a consumers buying pattern is
based on his role and influence in the society. A consumer's behavior may also be
influenced by the people she associates with and the culture that her society exhibits. For
instance, a manager and an employee may have different buying behaviors given their
respective roles in the company they work for, but if they live in the same community or
attend the same church, they may buy products from the same company or brand.

Howard Sheth model of consumer behavior

John Howard and Jagadish Sheth put forward the Howard Sheth model of consumer behavior
in 1969, in their publication entitled, The Theory of buyer Behaviour.

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The Howard Sheth Model is a sophisticated integration of the various social, psychological and
marketing influences on consumer choice into a coherent sequence of information processing. It
aims not only to explain consumer behavior in terms of cognitive functioning but to provide an
empirically testable depiction of such behavior and its outcomes (Howard 1977).

The logic of the Howard Sheth model of consumer behavior summarize like this. There are
inputs in the form of Stimuli. There are outputs beginning with attention to a given stimulus and
ending with purchase. In between the inputs and the outputs there are variables affecting
perception and learning. These variables are termed hypothetical since they cannot be directly
measured at the time of occurrence.

The Howard Sheth model of consumer behavior suggests three levels of decision making:

1. The first level describes the extensive problem solving. At this level the consumer does
not have any basic information or knowledge about the brand and he does not have any
preferences for any product. In this situation, the consumer will seek information about
all the different brands in the market before purchasing.

2. The second level is limited problem solving. This situation exists for consumers who
have little knowledge about the market, or partial knowledge about what they want to
purchase. In order to arrive at a brand preference some comparative brand information is
sought.

3. The third level is a habitual response behavior. In this level the consumer knows very
well about the different brands and he can differentiate between the different
characteristics of each product, and he already decides to purchase a particular product.

According to the Howard Sheth model of consumer behavior there are four major sets of
variables; namely:

1. Inputs: These input variables consist of three distinct types of stimuli (information
sources) in the consumers environment. The marketer in the form of product or brand
information furnishes physical brand characteristics (significative stimuli) and verbal or
visual product characteristics (symbolic stimuli). There are impersonal sources like mass
media communication and advertising, over which the firm has no control. However, the
information sources also include sales and service personnel who can add and help the
marketing efforts of the firm. The third type is provided by the consumers social
environment (family, reference group, and social class). This social source is personal and
the company/marketer has no control over this source. All three types of stimuli provide
inputs concerning the product class or specific brands to the specific consumer.

2. Perceptual and Learning Constructs: The central part of the model deals with the
psychological variables involved when the consumer is contemplating a decision. Some
of the variables are perceptual in nature, and are concerned with how the consumer
receives and understands the information from the input stimuli and other parts of the
model. For example, stimulus ambiguity happened when the consumer does not

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 understand the message from the environment. Perceptual bias occurs if the consumer
distorts the information received so that it fits his or her established needs or experience.
Learning constructs category, consumers goals, information about brands, criteria for
evaluation alternatives, preferences and buying intentions are all included. The proposed
interaction In between the different variables in the perceptual and learning constructs
and other sets give the model its distinctive advantage.

3. Outputs: The outputs are the results of the perceptual and learning variables and how the
consumers will response to these variables (attention, brand comprehension, attitudes,
and intention).

4. Exogenous(External) variables: Exogenous variables are not directly part of the

decision-making process. However, some relevant exogenous variables include the
importance of the purchase, consumer personality traits, religion, and time pressure.

The decision-making process, which Howard-Sheth Model tries to explain, takes place at three
Inputs stages: Significance, Symbolic and Social stimuli. In both significative and symbolic
stimuli, the model emphasizes on material aspects such as price and quality. These stimuli are not
applicable in every society. While in social stimuli the model does not mention the basis of
decision-making in this stimulus, such as what influence the family decision? This may differ
from one society to another.

Most scholars agree that the study of consumer behavior was advanced and given an impetus by
Howard Sheth Model. The major advantage and strength of the model lied in the precision with
which a large number of variables have been linked in the working relationships to cover most

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aspects of the purchase decision and the effective utilization of contribution from the behavioral
sciences.

Finally, no direct relation was drawn on the role of religion in influencing the consumers
decision-making processes. Religion was considered as external factor with no real influence on
consumer, which give the model obvious weakness in anticipation the consumer decision.

Nicosia Model of Consumer Behavior was developed in 1966, by Professor

Francesco M. Nicosia, an expert in consumer motivation and behavior. This model focuses on
the relationship between the firm and its potential consumers. The model suggests that messages
from the firm (advertisements) first influences the predisposition of the consumer towards the
product or service. Based on the situation, the consumer will have a certain attitude towards the
product. This may result in a search for the product or an evaluation of the product attributes by
the consumer. If the above step satisfies the consumer, it may result in a positive response, with
a decision to buy the product otherwise the reverse may occur. Looking to the model we will find
that the firm and the consumer are connected with each other, the firm tries to influence the
consumer and the consumer is influencing the firm by his decision.

The Nicosia model of Consumer Behavior is divided into four major fields:

1. Field 1: The firms attributes and the consumers attributes. The first field is divided
into two subfields. The first subfield deals with the firms marketing environment and
communication efforts that affect consumer attitudes, the competitive environment, and
characteristics of target market. Subfield two specifies the consumer characteristics e.g.,
experience, personality, and how he perceives the promotional idea toward the product in
this stage the consumer forms his attitude toward the firms product based on his
interpretation of the message.

2. Field 2: Search and evaluation. The consumer will start to search for other firms brand
and evaluate the firms brand in comparison with alternate brands. In this case the firm
motivates the consumer to purchase its brands.

3. Field 3: The act of the purchase. The result of motivation will arise by convincing the
consumer to purchase the firm products from a specific retailer.

4. Field 4: Feed back of sales results. This model analyses the feedback of both the firm
and the consumer after purchasing the product. The firm will benefit from its sales data as
a feedback, and the consumer will use his experience with the product affects the
individuals attitude and predispositions concerning future messages from the firm.

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With this model Nicosia was able to represent consumers behavior when receivers of a message
and has agents in the buying process generated by that flow of information from a company.

The Nicosia model of consumer behavior offers no detail explanation of the internal factors,
which may affect the personality of the consumer, and how the consumer develops his attitude
toward the product. For example, the consumer may find the firms message very interesting, but
virtually he cannot buy the firms brand because it contains something prohibited according to
his beliefs. Apparently it is very essential to include such factors in the model, which give more
interpretation about the attributes affecting the decision process.

Webster and Wind Model

This is quite a comprehensive model which explains organization buying behaviour. It considers
four sets of variables which affect the buying-decision making process in a firm. These are
environmental, organizational, buying center, and individual.

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The environmental variables include (a) physical, (b) technological, (c) economic, (d) political,
(e) legal, (f) labour unions, (g) cultural, (h) customer demands, (i) competition, and (j) supplier
information. For example, in a recessionary economic condition, industrial firms minimize the
quantity of items purchased. The environmental factors influence the buying decisions of
individual organizations.

The organizational variables include (a) objectives, (b) goals, (c) organization structure, (d)
purchasing policies and procedures, (e) degree of centralization in purchasing, and (f) evaluation
and reward system. These variables particularly influence the composition and functioning of the
buying centre, and also, the degree of centralization or decentralization in the purchasing
function in the buying organization.

The functioning of buying centre is influenced by the organizational variables, the environmental
variables, and the individuals variables. The output of the group decision-making process of the
buying centre includes solutions to the buying problems of the organization and also the
satisfaction of personal goals of individual members of the buying centre.

The strengths of the model, developed in 1972, are that it is comprehensive, generally applicable,
analitytical, and that it identifies many key variables which could be considered while
developing marketing strategies by industrial marketers. However, the model is weak in
explaining the specific influence of the key variables.

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Engel, Blackwell and Miniard (EBM) Model:
This model consists of four sections viz., information input; information
processing; decision process and variables influencing the decision process.
The variables and the working relationship is similar to the EKB but has been
slightly modified. Information received from marketing and non-marketing
stimuli feeds into the information-processing section of the model.

The information section of the model comprises various stages like exposure,
attention, comprehension, acceptance and retention. After passing through
these stages, it goes into the memory. Then this information that is stored in
the memory acts as an initial influence on the need recognition stage. If
internal information is inadequate there is a search for external information.
The model focuses on the decision process stages: need recognition, search,
pre-purchase alternative evaluation, purchase, consumption, post-purchase
alternative evaluation and divestment. Divestment as a construct was

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additionally added as a modification over the EKB model. Divestment relates
to options of disposal, recycling or remarketing. The entire process is
influenced by environmental influences and individual differences

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