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Anna G. Stefanopoulou
University of California, Santa Barbara
dx
= f(x(t), u(t), r(t)), x(0) = x 0 , 0 t T.
| i | u max , i = 0,! , n.
dt
total energy consumption being less than zero:
Here x 0 is the initial equilibrium, e.g. corresponding to
the powertrain states in neutral idle when n
i 0 ,
N e (0) = N 0e , r(0) = r 0 , and, u(0) = 0 . i=0
Pem (kW)
0
2
Pem (kW)
2
0 0 5 10 15
20
Wf (kg/hr)
2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
10
20
Wf (kg/hr)
0
0 5 10 15
10
4
Ne (krpm)
0 3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
6 2
Ne (krpm)
4 1
0 5 10 15
2 100
Nv (km/hr)
80
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
60
60
Nv (km/hr)
40
40 0 5 10 15
Seconds
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Seconds
2.5 3 3.5 4
Figure 4. Comparison of TPAS (solid) and conventional
vehicle (dashed) for the third gear acceleration.
Figure 2. Comparison of TPAS (solid) and conventional
vehicle (dashed) for the first gear acceleration.
0.5
1 p2p1 (bar)
p2p1 (bar)
0.5 0
0
0.5
0.5 0 5 10 15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
2
PtPc (kW)
4
PtPc (kW)
2 0
0
2
2 0 5 10 15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
200
Ntc (krpm)
200
Ntc (krpm)
100
100
0
0 0 5 10 15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
1
1 0.9
vol
vol
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.7
0 5 10 15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Seconds
Seconds
Figure 3. Comparison of TPAS (solid) and conventional Figure 5. Comparison of TPAS (solid) and conventional
vehicle (dashed) for the first gear acceleration. vehicle (dashed) for the third gear acceleration.
In this section we illustrate with several case studies how It is of interest to see if changing the maximum power
additional information and constraints can be added to limit has an effect on the acceleration performance. This
the optimization. Several of these case studies also limit was equal to 1.5 kW in all the previous cases. The
illustrate how the dynamic optimization techniques can net energy consumption by the TPAS is, as before,
be used to guide the component selection. constrained to be zero. The minimum acceleration time
as a function of maximum power limit for the first gear
EFFECT OF CHANGING ROTATIONAL INERTIA acceleration to 40 km/hr is shown in Figure 11.
Increasing the maximum power limit decreases the
minimum acceleration time. Increasing the maximum
The addition of the TPAS may lead to a different rotating
power limit has a beneficial effect on the fuel
inertia value of the turbocharger assembly. Since the
consumption, see Figure 12.
inertia value affects the minimum time for the vehicle
acceleration, we have repeated the optimization for the 10
different values of the turbocharger inertia scale factor.
(kW)
0
The turbocharger inertia scale factor is the ratio of the
em
P
20
EFFECT OF TPAS EFFICIENCIES
v
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Seconds
The above developments assumed an ideal situation
with no motor losses. Here we illustrate how the
information about losses can be taken into account. We Figure 6. Comparison of the parallel hybrid vehicle (solid)
and conventional vehicle (dashed) for the acceleration in the
introduce a motoring efficiency q m and a generating
first gear.
2 2
p2p1 (bar)
p2p1 (bar)
1 0
0 2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
100 5
P P (kW)
PtPc (kW)
50 0
l
e
0 5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
400 400
N (krpm)
Ntc (krpm)
200 200
tc
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
1.5 1.5
vol
vol
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Seconds Seconds
Figure 7. Comparison of the parallel hybrid vehicle (solid) Figure 10. Comparison of TPAS (solid) and conventional
and conventional vehicle (dashed) for the acceleration in the (dashed) vehicle for the first gear acceleration. The effect of
first gear. TPAS efficiencies is included.
4 3.7
3 .9
3.6
3 .8
M i nim a l A c c e l. Tim e
3 .7 3.5
M inim al A cce l. Tim e
3 .6
3.4
3 .5
3.3
3 .4
3 .3 3.2
3 .2
3.1
3 .1
3 3
0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
T/C i ne rtia re d uc tio n fa c to r M a x P o wer L im it kW
Figure 8. The minimum acceleration time as a function of Figure 11. The minimum acceleration time as a function
the turbocharger inertia scale factor for the first gear of the maximum power limit for the first gear acceleration
acceleration to 40 km/hr. to 40 km/hr.
2
8.65
(kW)
0
em
P
2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
40
8.6
W (kg/hr)
20
f
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
5 8.55
N (krpm)
e
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 8.5
40
N (km/hr)
20
v
0 8.45
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Seconds
Max Power Limit kW
| ik +1 | max ( N ktc ( t ik +1 ) / 30 ), i = 1, ! , n.
2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
30
W (kg/hr)
20
4
expect the solution to approach the optimal solution. For
2
the application here this approach was used and has
e
0
been shown to work well. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
60
N (km/hr)
40
Under a 0.15 N-m maximum torque limit, in addition, to
20
1.5 kW maximum power limit and net energy
v
0
consumption constrained to zero the results are 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Seconds
summarized in Tables 3-4. As compared to the case of
power limits only the minimum acceleration times have
increased only slightly. As compared to the conventional Figure 13. Comparison of TPAS (solid) and conventional
vehicle (with no TPAS), the improvement in minimum vehicle (dashed) first gear acceleration with the torque
acceleration time is approximately 13.88 percent, and constraint.
the improvement in fuel consumption is approximately
2.28 percent for the first gear acceleration to 40 km/hr
2
the same vehicle with TPAS turned off).
p p (bar)
1
1
0
The increase in inertia of rotating parts of
2
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 turbocharger and TPAS results in the increase in the
5
minimum acceleration time. However, for the case
P P (kW)
300
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 TPAS in terms of acceleration time disappear.
Ntc (krpm)
200
100
Increasing the TPAS maximum supplying and
0
absorbing power levels decreases the minimum
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
1.5 acceleration time and the fuel consumption. This
conclusion is reached although the net energy
vol
1
consumption by the TPAS during the acceleration
0.5 interval is zero, i.e. all the energy spent by the TPAS
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Seconds to accelerate the turbocharger is regenerated.
Figure 14. Comparison of TPAS (solid) and conventional The motoring/regenerating efficiencies have been
vehicle (dashed) first gear acceleration with the torque shown to have a significant effect on the minimum
constraint. acceleration time. Hence, an accurate model for the
TPAS has to be ultimately used to assess more
0.15
precisely TPAS benefits.
0.1
It is also possible to interpret the benefits of the
0.05
TPAS in terms of smoke and particulate emission
reduction. Specifically, by adding a TPAS and
optimally controlling its operation in an existing
em
REFERENCES