John W.

Hancock, DBA, MBA 1

Feminist Theory in Qualitative Research

John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA

Delivered to Dr. Esmerelda De Los Santos

John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 2

Feminist Theory in Qualitative Research

Feminist theory examines gender inequality in a variety of areas of society. As noted in

Meriam (p 36), Critical feminist research focuses on issues of power and oppression in terms of

gender, particularly in the area of the politicization of womens issues.

The origin of feminism could be said to be unclear, as it has been around in some form

almost as long as women have been, with references to feminism in writings as old as the Bible.

In Galatians 3:28, it is written, There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free,

there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.

Historically, feminism has grown through several iterations. Liberal feminism (Tong,

2009) was the first major movement, in which women may maintain equality through their

actions and choices. In Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, written in

1792, women are more than objects. They are true companions to their husbands and humans

deserving of equal rights and consideration as men. As such, unless they are allowed to

participate fully in all areas of society, their potential remains unfulfilled. Betty Friedan wrote

The Feminine Mystique in 1963 and founded the National Organization for Women in the 1960s

as a strong womens rights advocate and supporter of Equal Rights Amendment to constitution.

Radical feminism furthers liberal feminism in a more extreme manner to completely

eliminate male domination in society and economy. Shulamith Firestone wrote The Dialectic of

Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution, in which she challenges traditional Marxist economic
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 3

classes and asserts that the first class division is gender. Women are oppressed by patriarchal

society due to the biology of pregnancy, childbirth, and child rearing (Tong, 1995).

Psychoanalytic feminism proposes that womens oppression is rooted in their psyche,

built on relationships established in infancy and childhood. Sigmund Freuds Three

Contributions to the Theory of Sexuality introduced the idea of penis envy and traditional

mother/father gender roles as a distinction that oppresses women. In Juliet Mitchells

Psychoanalysis and Feminism she furthers and yet distances herself from Freuds ideas with the

postulation that psychosocial development is derived from biology in a social context (Tong,

1995).

Socialist feminism is a combination of Marxist, radical, and psychoanalytic feminism. It

consists of two basic and opposing tenets. The dual-system theory says that patriarchy and

capitalism are distinct areas of society that oppress women when they intersect. In Juliet

Mitchells Womans Estate she notes that women are oppressed by both economic status and

reproductive status. The unified-system theory, however, states that patriarchy and capitalism

should be analyzed together as an oppressor of women, as written in Iris Youngs Beyond the

Unhappy Marriage: A Critique of the Dual Systems Theory (Tong, 1995).

Existential feminism is a critique on the oppression of patriarchy, in that women are not

constrained by their gender and are free to be their true selves, with all consequences, both good

and bad. Simone de Beavuoir is the pioneer in this area with her ideas in The Second Sex, as one

is not born but becomes a woman. (Tong, 1995).

Postmodern feminism is the most recent feminist movement. It strives for equality for all

genders, as well as for racial and sexual equality, and focuses on the interplay between all.
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 4

Because it is critical of other feminist theories as propagating the oppression of women, it is

sometimes unclear. In New Maladies of the Soul, Julia Kristeva postulates that women cannot

be anymore than men can as everyone is always striving to be. She suggests women should

use the female gender identity merely as a tool to advocate for equality (Tong, 1995).

The goal of feminist inquiry is to explore topics from a standpoint of gender equality,

including interpersonal issues, that is, domestic violence, body and health, health and illness,

medical knowledge, and social movements. Policy research is also a newer focus of feminist

inquiry (Hesse-Biber, 2012).

Feminist theory makes several assumptions. An individuals daily experiences provide the

structure for interpretation of society (Marxist). The higher an individual is in hierarchy of

society, the more limited his/her understanding of society. Lower status individuals must

understand their own place in society as well as the standpoint of their superiors in order to be

successful in their daily activities. In other words, the more oppressed a person, the higher her

knowledge. Postmodern feminism aims to empower the oppressed with the ultimate goal of

societal emancipation and equality. (Hesse-Biber, 2012).

Feminist theory seeks to understand knowledge. Who has or owns the knowledge? How

and why was it gathered (Oleson, 2011)?

There is no standard feminist methodology; however, there are several themes. Research

should be not only about women, but also for women and by women. The method has created

innovative methodologies by challenging the status quo in research. Initially, it challenged the

positivist framework common in quantitative methods to find new ways to study and describe the

female experience. More qualitative methods developed out of this challenge. Feminist research

more often focuses on social justice or change. Feminists strive to keep in mind how power
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 5

affects their data and knowledge gains, as the relationship between researcher and subjects is

often unequal. Reflexivity is pivotal in feminist research; most research is openly reflective and

aware of the researchers influence on the outcome of the data/knowledge gained (Doucet and

Mauthner, 2006).

One study that illustrates how feminist inquiry may be used in qualitative research is

Schmied and Luptons study of first-time Australian mothers and their experiences with

breastfeeding. The authors use a semi-structured interview to assess 25 mothers expectations

and experiences with breastfeeding from before birth to 1-2 years after. Their findings include

how long each mother breastfeed, why she chose to continue or stop, whether she returned to

work within 6 months after birth, and her feelings about the various aspects of breastfeeding. The

findings are then analyzed, with various aspects of the different theories of feminism.

The predominant method is psychoanalytic feminism, with mothers finding either

harmony or conflict with the blending of self and other. The minority of mothers felt joy with

breastfeeding as it gave them a sense of giving and connection with their infants. The majority,

however, are conflicted with the loss of autonomy in their schedules and bodies due to the

demands of infant feeding and closeness. Most mothers also felt alone in that their husbands

could not physically help them with breastfeeding, which is in conflict with the basic liberal

feminist ideal of equality.

Many mothers also felt a conflict with existential feminism. They had a change in the

feeling about their bodies, particularly their breasts, from objects of sexual desire to objects of

feeding. The anti-feminist idea that female bodies are inferior due to the uncontrolled and

unclean nature of the female body (as in menstruation) is also perpetuated by the lack of control
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 6

in lactation and untimely leakage of milk. However, in contrast to previous studies cited, these

women do not feel embarrassed to expose their breasts to feed their infants.

Finally, post-modern feminism is ultimately represented in the mothers attitudes toward

breastfeeding. The medical and public health rhetoric is strongly in favor of breastfeeding with

slogans such as, Breast is best. This idea is meant to empower women by making them feel

proud of providing for their infant with their own milk. However, this feminist ideal of

breastfeeding ultimately disempowers and shames women who cannot or do not want to

breastfeed.

The article demonstrates several aspects of feminist methodology. The authors use

reflexivity in their conclusions and discussion. It is also entirely female (researchers and

subjects). The authors focus on the knowledge gained from the womens perspectives on

breastfeeding and challenge prior data on the subject, as well as the public health propaganda in

favor of breastfeeding.
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 7

References

Doucet, A. and Mauthner, N.S. (2006). Feminist methodologies and epistemologies. In Clifton

D. Bryant and Dennis L. Peck (Eds.) Handbook of 21st Century Sociology (36-

42). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.

Hesse-Biber, S.N. (2012). Feminist research: exploring, interrogating, and transforming the

interconnections of epistemology, methodology, and method. In Handbook of

Feminist Research: Theory and Praxis, 2nd ed (1-26). Chicago, IL : Sage

Publications, Inc.

Meriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Oleson, V. (2011). Feminist qualitative research in the milleniums first decade: developments,

challenges, and prospects. In Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln (Eds.)

The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, 4th ed (129-142). Chicago, IL : Sage

Publications, Inc.

Schmied, V. and Lupton, D. (2001). Blurring the boundaries: breastfeeding and maternal

subjectivity. Sociology of Health & Illness, 23 (2), 234-250.

Tong, R. (1995). Feminist thought: a comprehensive introduction. London: Routledge.