ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Part 4
Integral Formulation of Fluid Flow

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
csert@metu.edu.tr

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them.

4-1
 Reynolds Transport Theorem

= +

Rate of change of
Rate of change of
property in the Net rate at which
property within the = +
corresponding CV property exits the CV
system.
(zero for steady flows)

Conservation Eqn Left hand side

Mass 1 Zero
Linear Momentum
Angular Momentum
Energy +
4-2
 Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation)

Taking = and = 1, RTT becomes

= 0 = +

Rate of change of Net rate of mass

mass in the CV exiting through
the CS

< 0 : Mass inside the CV decreases in

time

> 0 : The amount of mass leaving the CV is
in balance with the above term
CV
4-3
 Mass Flow Rate ()
The surface integral of the continuity equation is known as the mass flow rate ().
It has the units of kg/s.

= [kg/s] CS

Usually the CS is separated into parts and CV
the integral over each part is evaluated
one by one.

> 0 if > 0 outflow

= = 0 or flow is
= 0 if = 0
parallel to the CS
< 0 if < 0 inflow = cos()

4-4
 Mass Flow Rate ()
Consider the following pipe branching into two. Section 3 is an exit.
& are positive.
Section 1 is an inlet. 3
& are negative.

1

2 Section 2 is an exit.
& are positive.

Alternative CS
selection at section 3
(prefer this one)

4-5
 Volumetric Flow Rate () and Average Velocity ()
If the density is uniform across a cross section A volumetric flow rate () can be
defined as

= = [m3/s]

Average velocity over a section of a flow field is defined as

=
= = ( is uniform over the section)
=

2
= 1 2

is defined such that these two cases

provide the same flow rate. 4-6
 Volumetric Flow Rate and Average Velocity (contd)
Exercise: Consider the water exiting a pipe of diameter = 2 cm. To find the flow
rate we measured the time it will take to fill a bucket of volume = 10 liters. It
took 65 s to fill it. Determine
a) the volumetric flow rate of water.
b) the mass flow rate of water.
c) Average velocity at the exit.
c) the centerline velocity at the exit if the velocity profile
is parabolic as given in the previous slide.

4-7
 Continuity Equation for Steady Flows

For a steady flow (time independent flow) partial time derivative of RTT is zero,
and the continuity equation reduces to

= 0

Continuity equation for a steady flow is + = 0

For a common case of unidirectional, uniform flow with a single inlet and single
exit
1 inlet

2 Continuity : 1 1 1 + 2 2 2 = 0

1 1 1 = 2 2 2

4-8
 Continuity Equation for Incompressible Flow

For an incompressible flow (not necessarily steady) density is constant and

continuity equation simplifies as

+ = 0

Zero since volume
of a CV is constant

+ = 0 = 0

For a common case of unidirectional, uniform flow with a single inlet and single
exit
1
Continuity : 1 1 + 2 2 = 0
2
1 1 = 2 2

(true even if the flow is unsteady)

4-9
 Mass Conservation Exercises

Exercise : Parabolic velocity profile for the steady, fully developed, laminar flow
in a pipe is as given below. Calculate the mass flow rates at the inlet and exit of
the shown CV and show that they are equal.

60
2

2
= 1 2

Exercise : For the pipe flow given above how much

i) the maximum velocity, and
ii) wall shear stress
will change if the same amount of fluid is forced to pass through a smaller pipe
with a radius that is half of the one given above.
4-10
 Mass Conservation Exercises (contd)

Exercise : A hair dryer can be considered as a duct of constant diameter in which

layers of electric resistors are placed. A small fan pulls the air in and forces it
through the resistors where it is heated. If the density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3 at the
inlet and 1.05 kg/m3 at the exit, determine the percent increase in the velocity of
air as it flows through the dryer (Reference: engels book).

1.2 kg/m3 1.05 kg/m3

4-11
 Mass Conservation Exercises (contd)

Exercise : A cylindrical tank, open at the

top, has a diameter of 1 m. Water is
flowing into the tank through pipe 1,
1
and flowing out through pipe 2. Water 2
Determine the rate at which the water
level is rising / falling in the tank. 1 = 0.2 m 2 = 0.1 m
1 = 3 m/s 2 = 10 m/s

Exercise : A tank of 0.05 m3 volume contains air

at 800 kPa (absolute) and 15 oC. At t = 0, air
begins escaping from the tank through a valve
with a flow area of 65 mm2. The air passing Air
through the valve has a speed of 300 m/s and a
density of 6 kg/m3. Determine the instantane-
ous rate of change of density in the tank at
= 0.
4-12
 Moving CV
Although we defined a CV to be fixed in space, in some problems a moving CV
can be used.
In such a case use a reference frame attached to the moving CV so that it
becomes stationary.
This is the same as using relative velocities at the inlets/exits. Relative velocity
() is the fluid velocity seen by an observer moving with the CV. Absolute
velocity () is the fluid velocity seen by a fixed observer.
: Velocity of the CV

: Relative velocity
: Absolute velocity

Exercise : An airplane moves forward in still air at a speed of 971 km/h. The
frontal area of the jet engine is 0.8 m2 and the entering air density is 1.2 kg/m3.
The exhaust area is 0.558 m2 and the exhaust gas density is 0.515 kg/m3. A
stationary observer on the ground observes that the jet engine exhaust gases
move with a speed of 1050 km/h. Estimate the mass flow rate of fuel into the
engine. 4-13
 Deforming CV
Although a CV is defined to have fixed position and shape, for some problems it
may be useful to consider deforming CVs.

Exercise: Solve the cylindrical tank problem of Slide 4-12 using a deforming CV
such that the CS is attached to the free surface and goes up/down with it.

Exercise: A syringe is used to inoculate a cow. The plunger has a face area of
500 mm2. The liquid in the syringe is to be injected steadily at a rate of
300 cm3/min. The leakage rate past the plunger is 10% of the flow rate out of the
needle. With what speed should the plunger be advanced? (Reference:
Munsons book)

4-14
 Conservation of Linear Momentum

Taking = and = , RTT becomes

= = +

Sum of external Rate of change of Net rate of flow of

forces acting on linear momentum in linear momentum
the CV the CV through the CS

Unlike the mass conservation equation, this one is a vector equation.

For steady flows partial time derivative is zero. First term drops

=

4-15
 Conservation of Linear Momentum (contd)

For the common case of steady, unidirectional, uniform flow with a single inlet
and single exit
1
2

= 1 1 1 = 2 2 2

= 2 22 2 1 121 = (2 1 )

4-16
 Cons. of Linear Momentum Important Points
Direction of momentum flow rate at the inlets/exits is always in the direction of the
outward normal .
In solving problems you can show them with arrows just like forces.
Show the forces on a separately drawn CV (like drawing a free body diagram).

3
1

With this CV, forces acting on the fluid by the pipe can be calculated.
Forces acting on the pipe by the fluid are the reverse of the calculated ones.

4-17
 Cons. of Linear Momentum Important Points (contd)
Which forces to include depend on the selection of the CV.
Work on the previous example, but this time select the CV outside the pipe.

3
1

With this CV, anchoring forces can be calculated. These are usually the desired
ones in practice.
Atmospheric pressure forces come into the picture.

4-18
 Cons. of Linear Momentum Important Points (contd)
Effect of can be simlified.
For the outside CV of the previous slide, concentrate of the pressure forces.

acts 3 3
acts

These two systems are equivalent

2 2 as far as the pressure forces are
1 1
concerned.
acts
When calculating anchoring
forces by selecting outside CVs, it
is better to use gage pressures at
3, 3 inlets/exits. When this is done
s are gone.

1, 1 2, 2

4-19
 Cons. of Linear Momentum Important Points (contd)
Liquid jets exiting freely to atmosphere at subsonic speed are considered to be at
atmospheric pressure.
Exercise: The following vane deflects the liquid jet coming out of a nozzle by an
angle of . The jet exits the nozzle with an average velocity of through an exit
area of . Jets cross sectional area is assumed to remain constant. Select a proper
CV and calculate the anchoring force necessary to hold the vane in its place.

Nozzle Jet 2

Deflecting
1 vane

4-20
 Cons. of Linear Momentum Important Points (contd)
Conservation of linear momentum is a vector equation.
It can be written in component form. Cartesian components are

x component : = +

y component : = +

z component : = +

remains as it is
in the dot product

4-21
 Cons. of Linear Momentum Important Points (contd)
When the velocity is not uniform at a cross section, the calculations can still be done
as if the velocity is uniform and the results can be corrected using the momentum
correction factor ().

2
= 1 2 1

1 Previously we showed 1
Part of
a CV that = 2

Momentum flow rate of the actual velocity profile 1

1 1 1
= =
Momentum flow rate of the uniform velocity profile 12 1

For the parabolic velocity profile of laminar pipe flow given above = 4/3.
For a turbulent flow the velocity profile will be closer to uniform and will be close
to 1 (~ 1.01 - 1.04) and usually neglected.
4-22
 Linear Momentum Exercises

Exercise : A jet engine operates on a test stand with the shown inlet and exit
conditions. Fuel-to-air mass ratio is 1/30. Calculate the horizontal force to be
applied by the stand to hold the engine in its place. Assume that the fuel is
injected in a vertical direction.

Fuel
Combustion
Air products

= 250 = 900
= 20 = 0.4 2
= 0.5 2 = 1
= 1

4-23
 Linear Momentum Exercises (contd)

Exercise : Consider the flow of a fluid inside a converging duct. Determine the
anchoring force force required to hold the duct in its place by using
a) a CV inside the duct
b) a CV outside the duct
Take the pressure at the nozzle exit to be atmospheric.

1 2
2
Nozzle 1 2 =
Chamber 1 2
1 2

4-24
 Linear Momentum Exercises (contd)

Exercise : Water flow inside a constant diameter pipe develops from uniform
profile to parabolic profile. Contact force between the water and the pipe wall is
. Determine an expression for the pressure drop between the inlet and the
exit.

2
= 1 2

=
4-25
 Linear Momentum Exercises (contd)

Exercise : A circular cylinder is immersed in a steady, incompressible flow.

Velocities at the upstream and downstream locations are measured and simplified
as follows. Calculate the drag force acting on the cylinder using the two control
volumes shown below. Assume constant pressure everywhere (which is a
questionable assumption).

Streamline

4 ? 4

Streamline

4-26
 Linear Momentum Exercises (contd)

Exercise : Water exiting a stationary nozzle strikes a flat plate as shown. Water
leaves the nozzle as a circular jet at 15 m/s. Nozzle exit area is 0.01 m2. After
striking the plate water leaves the plate tangentially as a circular disk. Determine
the horizontal component of the anchoring force at the support. Solve the
problem using two different CVs as shown. Which one is easier to use?

Plate

Nozzle

4-27
 Linear Momentum Exercises (contd)

Exercise : Water flows steadily through the 90o reducing elbow. At the inlet to the
elbow, the absolute pressure is 220 kPa and the cross sectional area is 0.01 m2. At
the outlet, cross sectional area is 0.0025 m 2 and the velocity is 16 m/s. The elbow
discharges to the atmosphere. Determine the force required to hold the elbow in
its place.

4-28
 Linear Momentum Exercises (contd)

Exercise : The vane with a turning angle of 60o moves at a constant speed of
= 10 m/s. It receives a jet of water that leaves a stationary nozzle with speed
= 30 m/s. The nozzle exit area is 0.003 m2. Area of the jet leaving the vane is
the same as the jet leaving the nozzle. Determine the force components that act
on the vane by the ground.
Select a CV that moves with the cart, i.e. consider relative velocities at the inlet
and the exit (Reference: Munsons book).

60o

Nozzle

4-29
 Conservation of Angular Momentum

Taking = and = , RTT becomes

= = ( ) + ( )

Sum of external Rate of change of Rate of angular

torques acting on angular momentum in momentum exiting
the CV the CV through the CS

For a steady flow partial time derivative is zero. First term drops

= ( )

4-30
 Conservation of Angular Momentum Exercises

Exercise : Underground water is pumped to the surface through a 10 cm diameter

pipe that consists of a 2 m long vertical and 1 m long horizontal section. Water
discharges to atmospheric air at an average velocity of 3 m/s. Mass of the
horizontal pipe section when filled with water is 12 kg per meter length. The pipe
is anchored on the ground by a concrete base. Determine
a) the moment acting at the base of the pipe (point A)
b) length of the horizontal section that would make the moment at point A zero.

1m = 3 m/s

2m
Diameter : 10 cm
A
4-31
Conservation of Angular Momentum Exercises (contd)

Exercise : A large lawn sprinkler with four identical arms is to be converted into a
turbine to generate electric power by attaching a generator to its rotating head.
Water enters the sprinkler from the base along the axis of rotation at a rate of 20
L/s and leaves the nozzles in the tangential direction. The sprinkler rotates at
300 rpm in a horizontal plane. The diameter of each jet is 1 cm, and the normal
distance between the axis of rotation and the center of each nozzle is 0.6 m.
a) Calculate the torque transmitted to the shaft.
b) Calculate the generated power.
c) Plot a curve of generated power vs. rotation
speed. Determine the maximum possible
power generation and the speed at
which it is obtained.

(Reference: Cengel and Cimbala)

4-32
 Conservation of Energy

Taking = and = , RTT becomes

= + = +

Rate of heat transfer into Rate of change of Rate of energy exiting

the system and rate of energy in the CV through the CS
work done on the system

> 0 if heat is added into the system.

> 0 if work is done on the system.

Specific energy, , includes internal, kinetic and potential energy terms

2
= + +
2
4-33
 Conservation of Energy (contd)

2 2
+ = + + + + +
2 2

Most common forms of work in fluid systems are

shear work : work done on the CS due to viscous stresses. Can be made
negligibly small by a proper CV selection.
shaft work : e.g. energy delivered to the fluid by a pump or energy
extracted from the fluid by a turbine.
flow work : energy necessary to push a certain amount of fluid into the CV
or out of the CV. It depends on the pressure and velocity at an inlet or an
exit.
=

4-34
 Conservation of Energy (contd)

is treated separately from other types of work and it is added to the last
integral of the energy equation.

2 2
+ = + + + + + +
2 2

Using the definition of enthaply = + energy equation becomes

2 2
+ = + + + + +
2 2

no longer Flow work is

includes flow work accounted inside
the enthalpy term
4-35
 Conservation of Energy (contd)

For a steady, single inlet - single exit flow with uniform properties at inlet and exit
sections
exit

inlet
Datum for potential energy

2 2
+ = + + + +
2
2

Dividing both sides by the constant mass flow rate

2 2
+= + + + +
2
2
4-36
 Conservation of Energy Exercises

Exercise : A water pump is powered by a 15 kW electric motor whose efficiency

is 90 %. Water flow rate through the pump is 50 L/s. Diameters of the inlet and
outlet pipes are the same. Elevation difference across the pump is negligible.
The pump is known to be working at 75 % efficiency. If the inlet pressure is
measured as 100 kPa determine the exit pressure. Assume adiabatic conditions.

50 L/s

2 = ?

= 75 % = 90 %

100 kPa 15 kW

4-37
 Conservation of Energy Exercises (contd)

Exercise : A pump delivers water at a steady rate of 1150 L/min. Inlet and exit
pipe diameters are 10 cm and 3 cm, respectively. Inlet and exit pressures are
130 kPa and 400 kPa, respectively. There is no significant elevation difference
between the inlet and exit of the pump. The rise in internal energy of water, due
to the temperature rise across the pump is 250 Nm/kg. Considering adiabatic
pumping process determine the power delivered to the fluid by the pump.

=?
Pump

1150 L/min

Inlet Exit
1 = 10 cm 1 = 3 cm
1 = 130 kPa 1 = 400 kPa

2 1 = 250 Nm/kg
4-38
 Conservation of Energy Exercises (contd)

Exercise : A steam turbine is used to produce electricity. Steam enters the turbine
with a velocity of 30 m/s and enthalpy of 3500 kJ/kg. The steam leaves the turbine
as a mixture of vapor and liquid having a velocity of 60 m/s and enthalpy of
2300 kJ/kg. Assuming adiabatic conditions and negligible elevation changes,
determine the work output of the turbine per unit mass of fluid flowing.

Turbine = ?

Inlet Exit
1 = 30 m/s 2 = 60 m/s
1 = 3500 kJ/kg 1 = 2300 kJ/kg

4-39