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Chapter I
Types of Applications of Measurement
Instrumentation
1.1 Definition
Measurement
A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a
physical variable. That physical variable becomes the
measured variable.

Figure 1.1 Common devices that involve measurement.

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Measurement Instrumentation
It means the application or use of measuring devices.
Sensor
A physical element employs some natural phenomenon
by which it senses the variable being measured.
Transducer
An element converts the sensed information into a
detectable form, which might be electrical, mechanical,
optical, or otherwise.
1.2 Type of Applications
1. Monitoring of process and operation
The measuring device is being used to keep track of some
quantity.
The certain applications of measuring instruments may be
characterized as having essentially a monitoring function,
e.g., thermometers, barometer, and water, gas, and
electric meters, automotive speedometer and fuel gage,
and compass.
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Figure 1.2 The monitoring of process and operation.

2. Control of process and operations

Sensors are used in feedback-control systems and many
measurement system themselves use feedback principles
in their operation.
Sensors are used in feedback systems and feedback
systems are used in sensors.
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Figure 1.3 Feedback-control systems

Figure 1.4 Air conditioning system.

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Figure 1.5 Antenna azimuth position control system.

3. Experimental engineering analysis
In solving engineering problem, two general methods are
available: theoretical and experimental analysis. Many
problems require the application of both methods and theory
and experiment should be thought of as complimenting each
other.
Features of theoretical methods:
Often give results that are of general use rather than for
restricted application.
Invariably require the application of simplifying
assumptions. The theoretically predicted behavior is
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always different from the real behavior, as a simplified

mathematical model of the system is studied rather
than the actual physical system.
In some cases, may lead to complicated mathematical
problems.
Require only pencil, paper, computer, etc. Extensive
laboratory facilities are not required.
No time delay engendered in building models, assembling
and checking instrumentation, and gathering data.

Figure 1.6 Some applications of the finite element method (FEM) and
the computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
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Features of experimental methods:

Often give results that apply only to the specific system
being tests. However, techniques such as dimensional
analysis may allow some generalization.
No simplifying assumptions necessary if tests are run on
an actual system. The true behavior of the system is
revealed.
Accurate measurements necessary to give a true picture.
This may require expensive and complicated equipment.
Actual system or a scale model required. If a scale model
is used, similarity of all significant features must be
preserved.
Considerable time required for design, construction, and
debugging of apparatus.
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Figure 1.7 The chassis dynamometer.

Figure 1.8 The crashing test.

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Chapter II
Generalized Configurations and Functional
Descriptions of Measuring Instruments
2.1 Functional elements of an instrument
For studying the operation of measuring instruments, so
we must break down instrument into types of elements
according to the generalized function performed by the
element.
Type of functional elements
1. Primary sensing element
The first element that receives energy form the measured
medium and produces an output (some physical variable such
as displacement or voltage etc.) depending in some way on the
measured quantity (measurand).
2. Variable-conversion element
The element is used to convert original variable to another
more suitable variable while preserving the information
content of original signal.
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3. Variable-manipulation element
Variable-manipulation element is the element that
changes the numerical value (variable) according to some
definite rule but preserving the physical nature.
4. Data-transmission element
Data-transmission element is the element that transmits
the data from one to another.
5. Data-presentation element
This element is used to present measured quantity to a
human. It must be put into a form recognizable by one of the
human senses (visual, hearing or touch).
6. Data storage/playback element
Such as pen/ink recording, magnetic tape/disk recorder
etc.
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Figure 2.1 Functional elements of an instrument or a measurement system.

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Figure 2.2 Rudimentary pressure gage.

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Figure 2.3 Pressure thermometer.

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Figure 2.4 Digital revolution counter.

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Figure 2.5 Arsonval galvanometer.

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2.2 generalization of instruments

It is possible to classify measuring instruments by
common criterion as:
energy supply
output signal representation
the method of operation
the services of human operator

1. Energy Supply
1.1 passive transducer
A transducer whose output energy is supplied
entirely or almost entirely by its input signal is commonly
called a passive transducer. The output and input signal
may involve energy of the same form (say, both mechanical),
or there maybe an energy conversion from one form to another
(say, mechanical to electrical).
Example Fig. 2.2 rudimentary pressure gage.
Fig. 2.3 pressure thermometer.
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Figure 2.6 Electronic amplifier.

Figure 2.7 Instrument servomechanism.

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1.2 active transducer

An active transducer has an auxiliary source of
power which supplies a major part of the output power while
the input signal supplied only an insignificant portion.
Example Fig 2.6 electronic amplifier.
Fig 2.7 Instrument servomechanism.

2. Representation of output signal

2.1 Analog signal
The magnitude of output signal is continuous and thus
can have any value within the operating time.

Figure 2.8 Analog signal concept.

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2.2 Discrete time signal

The magnitude of output signal is available only at
discrete points in time.

Figure 2.9 Discrete time signal concept.

2.3 Digital signal

Both the magnitude of output signal and time are
discrete.

Figure 2.9 Digital signal and representation waveform.

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3. The method of operation

3.1 Null method
This method attempts to maintain deflection at
zero (unchanged) by suitable application of an effect opposing
that generated by the measured quantity.

Figure 2.10 Deadweight pressure gage.

Figure 2.11 Equal arm beam balance.

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3.2 Defection method

The measured quantity produces some physical
effect that engenders a similar but opposing effect in some part
of instrument. The opposing effect increase until a balance is
achieved, at which point the deflection is measured and the
value of the measured quantity inferred from this.

Figure 2.12 A deflection type of weight measuring instrument.

4. The services of human operator

4.1 Manually operated type
Any instrument which requires the services of human
operator is a manual type of instrument.
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Figure 2.13 Manual type null-bridge resistance thermometer.

4.2 Automatic type
The automatic instruments are replaced the manual
operation by an auxiliary device incorporated in the
instrument.

Figure 2.14 Automatic type null-bridge resistance thermometer.

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2.3 Input Output Configuration

Input quantities are classified into three categories:
desired inputs, interfering inputs and modifying inputs.
Desired inputs the quantities that the instrument is
specifically intended to measure.
Interfering inputs the quantities that the
instrument is unintentionally sensitive.
Modifying inputs the quantities that cause a
change in the input-output relations for the desired and
interfering inputs.

Figure 2.15 present input-output relationship by Draper, McKay and

Lees.
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Figure 2.16 Shown spurious input of manometer.

The desired input the pressure difference p p .
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The interfering input acceleration and tilt angle

The output x
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Figure 2.17 Interfering input for strain-gage circuit.

As example, consider the electric-resistance strain-gage
setup shown in Fig. 2.11. The voltage e is given by
o

eo GF Rg Eb
Ra
Rg Ra 2 (2.1)
where unit strain, cm/cm
Rg gage resistance when unstrained,
GF gage factor, dimensionless
Eb exciting voltage, V
eo output voltage, V
Ra given resistance,
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The desired input the tensile strain.

The interfering input the 60-Hz magnetic field
(induced output voltage), the
temperature of specimen (create
thermal strain).
The modifying input the temperature of strain gage
(change gage factor).

2.4 Methods of Correction for Interfering and Modifying

Inputs
1. method of inherent insensitivity
Design the elements of instrument should
inherently be sensitive to only the desired inputs.

2. method of high-gain feedback

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Figure 2.18 Use of feedback to reduce effect of spurious input.

For open-loop system:

xo K Mo K SP ei (2.2)
where K and K are appropriate constants.
Mo SP

For Close-loop system:

ei eo K AM K Mo K SP ei K FB xo K AM K Mo K SP xo (2.3)
ei K AM K Mo K SP 1 K AM K Mo K SP K FB xo (2.4)
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K AM K Mo K SP
xo
1 K AM K Mo K SP K FB
ei (2.5)
Suppose we design K FB to be very large (a high-gain
system), so K K K
AM Mo SP K 1 . Then
FB

1
xo
K FB
ei (2.6)
The effect of variations in K , K and K
AM SP Mo has been made
negligible.

3. method of calculated output corrections

Measure or estimate the magnitudes of the
interfering and/or modifying inputs and to know quantitatively
how they affect the output. With this information, it is possible
to calculate corrections which may be added to or subtracted
from the indicated output so as to leave only that component
associated with the desired input.

Figure 2.19 Barometer and sea level correction chart.

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4. method of signal filtering

Use filters to block the spurious signal (undesired
signal),so that their effects on the output are removed or
reduced.

Figure 2.20 General principle of filtering.

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Figure 2.21 Examples of filtering.

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Figure 2.22 Examples of filtering (continued).

Figure 2.23 Vibration isolation table.

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Figure 2.24 Vibration

isolation platform.

Figure 2.25 Liquid filled pressure

gauge or Glycerine filled gauge.

Figure 2.26 Electromagnetic shielded enclosure.

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Figure 2.27 Basic filter types.

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5. method of opposing input

Use intentionally introduced interfering and/or
modifying input that tend to cancel the bad effects of the
unavoidable spurious inputs.

Figure 2.28 Method of opposing inputs.

Figure 2.29 Example of method of opposing inputs (A millivoltmeter).

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Figure 2.30 Example of method of opposing inputs (a static-pressure-

probe).
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Figure 2.31 Example of method of opposing inputs (the measurement of

the mass flow rate).
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Figure 2.32 Example of method of opposing inputs (the measurement of

the angular velocity).