38

Chapter III
Generalized Performance Characteristics of
Instruments
Static characteristics
The characteristics of instruments involve the measurement
of quantities that are constant or vary only quite slowly.
Dynamic characteristics
The characteristics of instruments involve the
measurement of rapidly varying quantities or the quantities
under dynamic conditions.
1. Static Characteristics
1.1 Static Calibration
A Calibration is the act of applying a known value
of input to measurement system (instrument) for the purpose
of observing output. The relationship between the input and
output is established during a calibration.
 39

Figure 3.1 Representative static calibration curve

Procedure of Calibration
1. Examine the construction of the instrument and list all the possible
inputs.
2. Decide significant inputs for which the instrument is to be
calibrated.
3. Procure apparatus that will allow you to vary all significant inputs
over the ranges considered necessary.
4. Using the calibration standards to be significant inputs.
5. By varying significant inputs, holding another input constant, and
recording the output, developing input-output relations.
6. Remember that it is impossible to calibrate an instrument to
accuracy greater than that of the standard with which it is
compared.
 40

1.2 Accuracy, Precision and Bias

Error The difference between the measured value and
the corresponding true value.
Accuracy Lack of error, ability to indicate a true value.
Repeatability Ability to indicate a value upon repeated
calibration (or measurement).
Bias error The difference between the averages
measured value and the true value upon repeated calibration
(or measurement).
Precision error A measure of random variation found
during repeated calibration (or measurement).

Figure 3.2 Throws of a dart: illustration of precision and bias errors.

 41

Figure 3.3 Effects of precision and bias errors on calibration reading.

1.3 Probability and Statistics

1.3.1 Finite Statistics (N<60)
Sample mean value, X
N
Xi
X i 1
N
Xi individual value
N total number of value

Sample standard deviation, s

N
(X i X )2
s i 1
N 1
 42

Standard deviation of mean, s X

s
sX
N 1

Probability density ( Z )

(number of value in an interval, n )/(total number of value, N )

Z
width of interval , X

Example 1 The Pressure gage, as Fig. 3.4, is calibrated by

applying a given constant pressure (10 kPa) and recurs again
20 times. The output data is shown in table.

Figure 3.4 Pressure gage.

 43

Trial number Scale reading, Trial number Scale reading,

kPa kPa
1 10.02 11 10.05
2 10.20 12 10.17
3 10.26 13 10.42
4 10.20 14 10.21
5 10.22 15 10.23
6 10.13 16 10.11
7 9.97 17 9.98
8 10.12 18 10.10
9 10.09 19 10.04
10 9.90 20 9.81

Determine
a) Sample mean value, X
b) Sample standard deviation, s
c) Standard deviation of mean, s X

d) Plot the histogram which has interval X equal

0.05 kPa.
Solution
i Xi ( X i X )2
1 10.02 0.0081
2 10.20 0.0081
3 10.26 0.0225
4 10.20 0.0081
5 10.22 0.0121
6 10.13 0.0004
7 9.97 0.0196
8 10.12 0.0001
9 10.09 0.0004
 44
10 9.90 0.0441
11 10.05 0.0036
12 10.17 0.0036
13 10.42 0.0961
14 10.21 0.0100
15 10.23 0.0144
16 10.11 0.0000
17 9.98 0.0169
18 10.10 0.0001
19 10.04 0.0049
20 9.81 0.0900
202.23 0.3631

N
Xi
a) X i 1
N

202 . 23
20
10 . 11 kPa
N
(X i X )2
b) s i 1
N 1

0 . 3631
20 1
0 . 14 kPa
c) sX
s
N 1

0 . 14
20 1
0 . 032 kPa
d)
Number of
Interval (X)
reading (n) Z
9.80 xi <9.85 1 1
9.85 xi < 9.90 1 1
9.90 xi < 9.95 0 0
9.95 xi < 10.00 2 2
10.00 xi < 10.05 3 3
10.05 xi < 10.10 2 2
10.10 xi < 10.15 3 3
10.15 xi < 10.20 3 3
10.20 xi < 10.25 3 3
10.25 xi < 10.30 1 1
10.30 xi < 10.35 0 0
10.35 xi < 10.40 0 0
10.40 xi < 10.45 1 1
10.45 xi < 10.50 0 0
Sum 20 20
 45

Figure 3.5 Distribution of data.

 46

Using MATLAB
Function mean and std (found the sample mean value
and sample standard deviation)
>> Pressure=[10.02 10.2 10.26 10.2 10.22 10.13 9.97 10.12 ...
10.09 9.90 10.05 10.17 10.42 10.21 10.23 10.11 9.98 10.10 ...
10.04 9.81];

>> mean(Pressure)
ans =
10.1115
>> std(Pressure)
ans =
0.1382

Function hist
>> hist(Pressure,[9.825:0.05:10.475])
>> ylabel('Number of readings in interval')
>> xlabel('Scale reading,kPa')
>> grid
3

2.5
Number of readings in interval

1.5

0.5

0
9.7 9.8 9.9 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6
Scale reading,kPa
 47

1.3.2 Infinite Statistics (N)

Probability density function, f (x )
n /N
f (x ) lim Z lim
N , X 0 N , X 0 X

Cumulative distribution function, F (x ) 0 F (x ) 1

F ( x ) f ( x )dx
x

= area under the graph of the

probability density function between
- to x

Figure 3.6 Probability distribution function.

 48

Probability lying between a and b

P (a x b ) a f ( x )dx
b

F ( b ) F (a )

= area under the graph of the

probability density function
between a to b
Normal or Gaussian function the most useful density
function
1
e ( x ) /( 2 )
2 2
f (x ) x
2

Mean of infinite sample

Standard deviation of infinite sample

Figure 3.7 Normal distribution curve.

 49

Normally we can compute probability or cumulative

distribution function, which has Gaussian distribution, by
using dimensionless term ( z ) and table of standard normal
curve.
x
Where z
or x z

Example 2 If data distribution has 20 and 5 , find

P (17 . 5 x 23 . 35 ) and P (23 . 35 x )

Solution
17.5 20
x 17 . 5 z
5
0.5
23.35 20
x 23 . 35 z
5
0.67

P(17.5 x 23.35) P(0.5 z 0.67)

F (0. 67 ) F ( 0. 5)

F (0. 67 ) 1 F (0. 5)

0. 7486 (1 0. 6915 )

0. 4401 or 44 .01 % Ans.

P(23.35 x ) P(0.67 z )

F ( ) F (0. 67 )
 50

Table 3.1 Areas under the standard normal curve.

Second Decimal Place in z

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
3.5 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998
3.6 0.4998 0.4998 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.7 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.8 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.9 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000
 51

1. 0000 0. 7486
0. 2514 or 25 .14 % Ans
Confidence level
The confidence level is the probability of occurrence of
the measured value x in the range z to z .

Figure 3.8 Confidence levels for different range of measured values.

68 % of the readings (data) lie within

P ( x ) 0. 68

95 % of the readings (data) lie within 2

P ( 2 x 2) 0. 95

99.7 % of the readings (data) lie within 3

P ( 3 x 3) 0. 997
 52

Figure 3.9 Pictorial representation of Gaussian distribution with given

confidence limits.

Figure 3.10 Rectification of Gaussian curve.

 53

Using statistics toolbox of MATLAB

Function normspec
p=normspec(specs,mu,sigma) plots the normal density between a
lower and upper limit defined by the two elements of the vector
specs, where mu and sigma are the parameters of the plotted
normal distribution.
Probability Between Limits is 0.68269
0.4

0.35

>> p=normspec([-1 1],0,1) 0.3

p =
0.6827 0.25

Density
0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Critical Value

Probability Between Limits is 0.9545

0.4

0.35

>> p=normspec([-2 2],0,1) 0.3

p =
0.9545 0.25
Density

0.2

2 0.15

0.1

0.05

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Critical Value

Probability Between Limits is 0.9973

0.4

>> p=normspec([-3 3],0,1) 0.35

p = 0.3

0.9973
0.25
Density

3
0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Critical Value
 54

From Example 2.
Probability Between Limits is 0.44003
0.08

0.07
>> p=normspec([17.5 23.35],20,5)
p = 0.06

0.4400 0.05

Density
0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Critical Value

Probability Greater than Lower Bound is 0.25143

0.08

0.07
>> p=normspec([23.35 inf],20,5)
p = 0.06

0.2514 0.05
Density

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Critical Value
 55

Qualitative test of distribution

Normal or Gaussian distribution, instead of real data
distribution, is bring to estimate probability of precision error
(may be imprecision) after finishing calibration. Although
actual data may not conform exactly to Gaussian distribution,
very often they are sufficiently close to allow use of the
Gaussian model in engineering work. However, we should be
fit-test especially for calibration which has a few numbers of
data.
There are many qualitative test for decide whether data
are close to Gaussian. However we will study only one
method that is using probability graph paper.
The procedure of this method
- Plot data and probability F (x ) on graph paper.
- Compare with perfect Gaussian line.
- Judge visually and qualitatively (close or far).
 56

For example, consider example 1

Estimate and from the sample mean X
(10.11 kPa) and Sample standard deviation s
(0.14 kPa) respectively.
Draw approximate Gaussian line pass point ( X ,
50%) and ( X s , 84.1 %).
Plot all data and their probability.
Compare them and judging.

Figure 3.11 Graphical check of Gaussian distribution.

 57

Using statistics toolbox of MATLAB

Function normplot

H = normplot(X) makes a normal probability plot of the data in

X. For matrix, X, NORMPLOT displays a plot for each column. H is
a handle to the plotted lines.

>> h=normplot(Pressure)
h =
176.0032
175.0032
174.0037
 58

1.3.3 Statistical t distribution

We can use the statistical t distribution to estimate
refine probability base on small samples (data).
P ( x X t n , p s ) p

p probability
n degree of freedom = N-1
t n ,p percentile value (table 3.2)

Table 3.2 t-distribution

n
 59

User-function for finding student t-value

function t=t_dist(P,V)
%---------------------------------------
% Program Student t distribution
% Must be installed Statistics Toolbox
% t ==> t-value
% P ==> percent of probability
% V = N-1 ==> degree of freedom
%---------------------------------------
t=tinv((1+P./100)./2,V);

From Example 3.
>> t_dist(90,19)
ans =
1.7291

Example 3 Determine range of data in example 1 if

probability requirement is 90 %
Solution p 0.90 and n 20 1 19

From table 3.2 t 1.73

n ,p

Therefore 10 .11 (1.73)( 0.14 ) 10 .11 0.2422

90 % of reading data are in range 10.11 0.2422 kPa Ans.
 60

Example 4 The Pressure gage, in example 1, is to be used to

measure constant pressure of fluid in pipe and get the reading
pressure value as 10.35 kPa. Estimate true pressure of fluid.
Solution Find bias error
Bias error 10 .00 10 .11 0.11 kPa
Imprecision = 30.14 0.42 kPa ( 3s limits)
Therefore
True pressure = (10 .35 0.11) 0.42
= 10 .24 0.42 kPa (probability 99.7%)
Ans.
1.4 Calibration for Linear Relationship
In an actual calibration, the true value is varied, in
increments, over some range, causing the measured value also to
vary over a range. The procedure is merely to cover the desired
range in both the increasing and the decreasing directions. The
average calibration curve for almost instrument generally is taken
as a straight line which fits the scattered data points best as define
by some chosen criterion.
 61

1.4.1 Linear regression

q o mq i b

where qo output quantity (dependent variable)

q i input quantity (independent variable)
m slope of line

b intercept of line on vertical axis

Using the least-squares method.
N q i q o ( q i )( q o )
m
N q i2 ( q i ) 2
( q o )( q i2 ) ( q i q o )( q i )
b
N q i2 ( q i ) 2

Where N total number of data points

The standard deviations of m , b and q may be found from
o

1
sq2o
N 2
(mqi b qo ) 2

Nsq2o
sm2
N qi2 ( qi ) 2
sq2o qi2
s
2

N qi2 ( qi ) 2
b

In using the calibration results, the situation is such that q

o

(the indicated pressure) is known and we wish to make a statement

about q (the true pressure). The least-squares line gives
i
 62

qo b
qi
m
These can be computed the standard deviation of qi from

2 2
1 q b s
sq2i o
N 2 m
qi o2
m
q

Example 5 The pressure gage of Fig. 3.4 is calibrated for the

relationship between the desire input (pressure) and the output
(scale reading). Figure 3.12 gives the data for such a calibration
over the range 0 to 10 kPa. Determine
a) the equation of relationship
b) s and s
m b

c) If we got a reading of 4.32 kPa, estimate the true pressure

by using 3s limits.
 63

Figure 3.12 Pressure-gage calibration.

Solution
a)
i qi qo q i2 q o2 q iq o
1 0 -1.12 0 1.2544 0
2 1 0.21 1 0.0441 0.21
3 2 1.18 4 1.3924 2.36
4 3 2.09 9 4.3681 6.27
5 4 3.33 16 11.0889 13.32
6 5 4.5 25 20.25 22.5
7 6 5.26 36 27.6676 31.56
8 7 6.59 49 43.4281 46.13
9 8 7.73 64 59.7529 61.84
10 9 8.68 81 75.3424 78.12
11 10 9.8 100 96.04 98
12 0 -0.69 0 0.4761 0
13 1 0.42 1 0.1764 0.42
14 2 1.65 4 2.7225 3.3
 64
15 3 2.48 9 6.1504 7.44
16 4 3.62 16 13.1044 14.48
17 5 4.71 25 22.1841 23.55
18 6 5.87 36 34.4569 35.22
19 7 6.89 49 47.4721 48.23
20 8 7.92 64 62.7264 63.36
21 9 9.1 81 82.81 81.9
22 10 10.2 100 104.04 102
110 100.42 770 716.9482 740.21

22(740.1) (110)(100.42)
m 1.082
22(770) (110) 2
(100.42)(770) (740.21)(110)
b
22(770) (110) 2
0.847 kPa
qo 1.082qi 0.847 kPa Ans.

b) sqo
1
22
(0.8716) 0.208 kPa
22(0.208) 2
sm
22(770) (110) 2
0.014 Ans.
(0.208) 2 (770)
sb
22(770) (110) 2
0.083 kPa Ans.

qo 0.847 4.32 0.847

c) qi
1.082

1.082
4.78 kPa
sq2o
0.2082
sqi
m2

1.0822
0.192 kPa
3sqi 3(0.192) 0.58 kPa
 65

Therefore true pressure would be 4.78 0.58 kPa if we wished

to use the 3s limits (probability 99.7%).

1.4.2 Accuracy and Error

Bias error = Reading value True value (maybe remove
by calibration)
Imprecision = Error variation (precision error)
In example 5, a calibration allows decomposition of the
total error of a measurement process into two parts, the bias and
the imprecision. That is, if we get a reading of 4.32 kPa, the true
value is given as 4.78 0.58 kPa, the bias would be -0.46 kPa,
and the imprecision 0.58 kPa ( 3s limits).

Figure 3.13 Bias error and imprecision.

 66

In actual engineering practice, the error (imprecision) of an

instrument may be taken as the largest deviation of any data point
from the fitted line. In Fig. 3.13 this occurs at q 0 and amounts
i

to 0.25 kPa. The inaccuracy in this case thus might be quoted as

2. 5 percent of full scale.

Some forms of accuracy specification may be illustrated by

instrument manufactory.
percent of full scale
Ex. 0.1 percent of full scale
percent of reading
Ex. 0.5 percent of reading
percent of reading or constant, whichever is greater
Ex. 0greater
. 5 percent of reading or 0.1 N, whichever is
 67

Calibration curve with 95% confidence interval

We can draw 95 percent confidence interval, defined by
two hyperbolas on either side of the least-squares lines. When we
read the instrument (qo), we draw a horizontal line through that
value. This line intersects the two hyperbolas, and the qi values at
these two intersections define the ends of a 95 percent confidence
interval for the true value. The vertical location of the two
hyperbolas as a function of qi is computed from

N qi qi
2
1 1
qo t95, N 2 sqo
n N N qi2 qi 2

Where is t value from table 3.2

t95, N 2

N-2 is the degree of freedom

n is the number qo reading for repeat measurement
,and use for qo value the average of n readings.
That is, the upper hyperbola is plotted by adding the positive
q to the best-fit line, and the lower one is plotted by adding the
o

negative one. From example 5, you can plot the calibration curve
with 95% confidence interval as shown in Fig. .
 68

10

Upper 95% confidence interval

8

6
qo

Lower 95% confidence interval

0 2 4 6 8 10
qi

Figure 3.14 The calibration curve with 95 % confidence interval.

1.5 Combination of Calculation Errors in Overall System-

Accuracy Calculations
y f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn )

where y known function

x independent variation

The x s are the measured quantities and are in error by

u x1 , u , u , ... , u respectively at same confidence interval.
x2 x3 xn
 69

We can calculate overall uncertainty (probable error) by using the

root-sum square (rss) formula
2 2 2
f f f
U y u x1 u x 2 ... u xn
x1 x2 xn

The overall uncertainty U has the same confidence interval

y

as the individual uncertainties. That is, if all u has 95% xi

confidence interval, then the confidence interval of U must be y

equal 95 % too.
For the method of equal effect, we can estimate the
individual uncertainty if we know the overall uncertainty.
Uy
u xi
n (f / u xi )

Example 6 Consider an experiment for measuring, by mean

of a dynamometer, the average power transmitted by a rotating
shaft. The formula for power can be written as
2 RFL 2 RFL
Watts or hp
t 550 t
where R revolutions of shaft during time t
F force at end of torque arm, lbf (N)
L length of torque arm, ft(m)
t time length of run, s
 70

Figure 3.15 (a) Dynamometer test setup. (b) Revolution-counting error.

A sketch of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3.15 .
For a specific run, if the data with 95% uncertainties are
R 1,202 1.0 rev
F 10.12 0.040 lbs
L 15.63 0.050 in
t 60.0 0.50 s

Then the calculation proceeds as follows:

 71

2 FLR FLR
hp K (inch units)
(550 )( 12 ) t t
K 0 . 000952
Then, computing the various derivatives to three
significant figures gives
(hp ) KLR ( 0 . 000952 )( 15 . 63 )( 1,202 )
0 . 298 hp/lbf
F t 60
(hp ) KFL ( 0 . 000952 )( 10 . 12 )( 15 . 63 )
0 . 00251 hp/rev
R t 60
(hp ) KFR ( 0 . 000952 )( 10 . 12 )( 1,202 )
0 . 193 hp/in
L t 60
(hp ) KFLR ( 0 . 000952 )( 10 . 12 )( 15 . 63 )( 1,202 )
2
t t 60
0 . 0500 hp/s

If the individual errors are treat as 95% uncertainties, we

can compute overall uncertainty as
U 0.0400.2982 10.002512 0.0500.1932 0.5 0.05002
0.029 hp

Therefore
hp 3.017 0.029 hp (95% confidence interval)

Finally, suppose we wish to measure hp to 0.5 percent

accuracy, we can compute the accuracies of measurement by
using the method of equal effect
 72

( 3 . 02 )( 0 . 005 )
F 0 . 025 lbf
4 ( 0 . 298 )
( 3 . 02 )( 0 . 005 )
R 3 . 0 rev
4 ( 0 . 0025 )
( 3 . 02 )( 0 . 005 )
L 0 . 039 in
4 ( 0 . 193 )
( 3 . 02 )( 0 . 005 )
t 0 . 15 s
4 ( 0 . 05 )
All uncertainties (error) base on 95% confidence interval.
Example 7 The various dimensions and densities of the body,
shown in the Fig. , are estimated as follows:
L 10.0 0.1 cm

R 4.00 0.05 cm
3
= density of cylindrical portion = 3.50 0.10 g/cm
1

3
= density of hemispherical portion = 2.50 0.05 g/cm
2

Calculate the total mass of the body and its overall uncertainty.

Figure 3.16 A typical composite mass consisting of a cylinder and a

hemisphere.
 73

Solution Total mass of the body is given by

M T M cylinder M hemisphere
14
R 2 L1 R 3 2
23
Substituting the mean value of R , L , and ,we get
1 2

M T av 42 103.5 1 4 43 2.5
23
1759.29 335.10
2094.39 g

The overall uncertainty can be written as:

2 2
M T M T M T M T
2 2

U MT
R
uR
L
u L
1
u 1
2
u 2

(a)
The various partial derivatives are obtained
M T
2RL1 R 2 2 410 3.5 4 2.5 282.743
R
M T
L

R 2 1 42 3.5 175.929

M T
1

R 2 L 42 10 502.655

M T 2 3 2
2 3 3

R 43 134.041

Substituting these values in Eq. (a) we get

U MT 282.743 0.052 175.929 0.12 502.655 0.12 134.041 0.052
55.51 g

Thus, the total mass of the composite body can be found as:
M T 2094.39 55.51 g
 74

Alternatively, the uncertainty is also expressed in percentage:

% Uncertainty in total mass 2094
55.51
.39
100% 2.65%

Example 8 From example 7, if R , L , and are measured

1 2

with an uncertainty of 1%, Calculate its overall uncertainty

again.
Solution From Eq. (a) in example 7, we can rewrite it to
fraction form of uncertainty.
2 2
M T u M T u M T M T
2 2
U MT 1 u u
R R L L 1 1 2 2
MT MT R R L L 1 1 2 2
u R u L u 1 u 2
Because R

L 1 2
0.01 , therefore
2 2
1 uR M T M T M T M T
2 2
U MT
R L 1 2
MT M T R R L 1 2

Substituting all known value to the above equation, we get

U MT

0.01
282.743 42 175.929 102 502.655 3.52 134.041 2.52
MT 2094.39
U MT
0.0131
MT

The overall uncertainty express in percentage as:

% Uncertainty in total mass 1.31%
 75

1.6 Static sensitivity

The static sensitivity is the slope of the calibration curve
(input-output relationship curve). The output must be the
actual physical output.

Figure 3.17 Stati sensitivity of linear and nonlinear instrument.

change of output signal qo

Static sensitivity, K
change in input signal

qi

Example in Fig 3.4, the actual physical output is the

angular rotation of the pointer. Suppose this is 5 angular
degree/kPa. Since we already calculated the slope in
kilopascals per kilopascal as 1.08 in last example, so we get
the intrument static sensitivity as (5)(1.08)=5.40 angular
degrees/kPa.
 76

An interfering input will change in output. This effect

is often called a zero drift
The modifying input will change in static sensitivity.
The second effect is a sensitivity drift or scale-factor
drift

Figure 3.18 Zero and sensitivity drift effects on instrument characteristics.

1.7 Linearity
The linearity is simply a measure of the maximum
deviation of any calibration points from the straight line. The
linearity is often specified in one of the following ways.
 77

1. Independent of the input This may be expressed as a

percentage of full-scale reading.
2. Proportional to the input This expressed as a
percentage of the actual reading.
3. Combined independent and proportional to the input

Figure 3.19 Typical specification of nonlinearity.

For example linearity = A percent of reading or
= B percent of full scale,
whichever is greater
 78

Figure 3.20 linearity specification.

1.8 Hysteresis
The hysteresis error refers to deference between an
upscale sequence calibration and a downscale sequence
calibration. This error exists because all the energy, put into
the instrument upon loading, is not recovered upon unloading.

Figure 3.21 Typical output-input curves showing hysteresis effects.

 79

1.9 Threshold
Threshold of the instrument is the minimum input value
which no output change can be detected.

1.10 Dead space, Dead band and Dead zone

It is defined as the largest change of the measured (input)
to which the instrument does not respond.

1.11 Resolution
The smallest increment of change in the measured value
(input) that can be determined from the instruments readout
scale (output). In terms of a measured system, it is quantified
by the smallest scale increment or least count (least significant
digit) of the output readout indicator.

Figure 3.22 Resolution.

 80

1.12 Range and Span

It means the range of variable that an instrument is
designed to operate for measuring.

Example 9. A load cell calibrated at a temperature of 20 C

has the following output/input characteristics:
F, load in kN 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
x, deflection of meter in mm 0 10 20 30 40 50
When it is used in an environment of 40 C , its characteristics
change to the following:
F, load in kN 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
x, deflection of meter in mm 3 14 25 36 47 58
a) Determine (i) zero drift, (ii) sensitivity drift, and (iii)
sensitivity drift per C change in ambient temperature.
b) If 0.5 mm of scale division can be read with a fair degree
of certainty, then determine the resolution of the
instrument in both cases, i.e., at 20 C and 40 C
Solution
 81

60

20 degree C
40 degree C
50

x, Deflection of meter in mm
40

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
F, Load in kN

Figure 3.23 The linear curve at 20 C and 40 C.

By using linear regression, the linear relationship can be
found as
x 25F mm at temperature 20 C

and x 27.5F 3 mm at temperature 40 C

a) (i) The zero drift which represents no load deflection is

found to be 3 mm.
(ii) static sensitivity K at 20 C = 25 mm/kN
static sensitivity K at 40 C = 27.5 mm/kN
Hence the sensitivity drift = 27.5-25 = 2.5 mm/kN
(iii) Sensitivity drift/C = 20 0.125 (mm/kN)/ C
2.5
 82

b) Inverse sensitivity at 20 C
1 1
kN/mm 0.04 kN/mm
K 25
Resolution of load cell corresponding to 0.5 mm meter
scale reading = 0.5 0.04 0.02 kN 20 N
Further, inverse sensitivity at 40 C
1 1
kN/mm 0.036 kN/mm
K 27.5
Resolution of load cell corresponding to 0.5 mm meter
scale reading = 0.5 0.036 0.018 kN 18 N

Example 10 An instrument of pressure measurement is

shown in Fig.

Figure 3.24 A typical diaphragm pressure gauge using electrical resistance

strain gauges.
 83

It has the specification of static characteristics as follows:

1. Maximum bridge excitation = 20 V dc
2. Recommended bridge excitation = 12 V dc
3. Pressure range = 200 kPa
4. Bridge output = 0.1 mV/V/kPa
5. Accuracy = 0.5% of FS (Full Scale)
6. Repeatability = 0.2% of FS
7. Linearity and hysteresis = 0.4% of FS
8. Thermal zero shift = less than 0.02% FS/C
9. Thermal sensitivity shift = less than 0.02% /C
10. Bridge resistance = 350
11. Minimum required impedance of output for indicating/recording
unit to be used =2k
12. Overload capacity = 250% of FS

Determine
a) The static sensitivity when the excitation is 12 V.
b) Full scale output at this recommended excitation
c) Accuracy
d) Maximum deviation in linearity and hysteresis
e) Overload capacity
 84

Solution
a) The static sensitivity = (12 Vdc)(0.1 mV/V/kPa)
= 1.2 mV/kPa
b) Full scale output = 1.2 mV/kPa200 kPa
= 240 mV
c) Accuracy = 0.005200 kPa
= 1.0 kPa
d) Maximum deviation in linearity and hysteresis
= 0.004200 kPa
= 0.8 kPa
e) Overload capacity up to = 2.5200 kPa = 500 kPa

Example 11
A voltmeter is to be used to measure the output from a
pressure transducer that outputs an electrical signal. The
nominal pressure expected will be about 3 psi. Estimate the
uncertainty in this combination. The following information is
available.
 85

Voltmeter
Resolution: 10 V
Accuracy: within 0.01 % of reading
Transducer
Range: 5 psi

Sensitivity: 2 V/psi

Input power: 10 VDC 1%

Output: 10 V

Linearity: within 2.5 mV/psi over range

Repeatability: within 2 mV/psi over range
Resolution: negligible
Assumption
Error of resolution = 1 Resolution
2
All error base on 95% confidence interval
Solution
- Transducer
For a nominal pressure of 3 psi, we expect to
measure an output of (2)(3) = 6 V. Using RSS formula
ET (2.5 mV/psi 3 psi)2 (2 mV/psi 3 psi)2
9.61 mV 95%
 86

- Voltmeter
EV (6 V 0.0001) 2 (5 10 6 V) 2
600 V 95%

Combination
Earss (9.61) 2 (0.600) 2
9.63 mV 95%
Therefore uncertainty = 9.63 mV or 0.005 psi (95%
confidence interval) Ans.