e n t at i o n

ge Pr e s
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Biology Kn

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Giffo
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Over long periods of time, many cave-dwelling
organisms have lost their eyes. Tapeworms have
lost their digestive systems, and whales have lost
their hind limbs. How can natural selection
account for these losses?
The Kauai Cave Wolf Spider
These spiders can be found inside five caves in Hawaii where only about two
dozen in total live.

Theyre thought to have lived down there for 3.6 to 5.6 millions years. Over the
years in the darkness, their eyes became useless to them, so over the generations,
their eyes slowly went away, until they had none at all.
Tapeworms
Tapeworms are intestinal parasites that lack a digestive system.

Their head is designed to hold on to the intestinal wall so the organism will not be
washed away with the intestinal contents.

It has no mouth so it uses its body to absorb the already digested nutrients from
the intestine.
Whales
Whales are mammals that have no hind legs at all.

Millions of years ago, they had legs, but due to them being underwater, their
transportation requires only fins. The legs became useless, so they slowly evolved
to have no legs at all.
In 1959, doctors began using the powerful
antibiotic methicillin to treat infections of
Staphylococcus aureus, but within two years,
methicillin-resistant strains of S.aureus
appeared. How did the resistant strains of S.
aureus emerge?
Although we had a medicinal cure for this infection, it reproduces incredibly fast.

Every time it reproduces, there may be mutations that cause the children to be
more or less resistant to certain things.

There must have been a mutation that caused the infection to not be affected by
the medicine. As this child reproduces, the others are eliminated while the
mutated child reproduces.
Detail the differences between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are cells that do not contain a nucleus. These are normally bacteria.

The DNA is simply floating freely in the cytoplasm, not being confined to the
nucleus.
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes do have a nucleus, and thats where the DNA is held.
 Name Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Function
Nucleus Present Absent Where DNA is kept

Lysosome Present Absent Breaks down larger food

molecules into smaller
molecules; digests old cell
parts

Endoplasmic reticulum Present Absent A network of tubules that

carry materials through cell

Mitochondria Present Absent breaks down sugar

molecules into energy

Cytoskeleton Present May be absent Important for cell shape

Ribosomes larger smaller produces proteins

Vesicles Present Present used to transport materials

from one place to another

Golgi apparatus Present Absent It is also involved in the

transport of lipids around the
cell, and the creation of
lysosomes
What are some differences between normal and
cancer cells?
Normal Cells and Cancer Cells
Cancer is a type of cell that multiplies too quickly. Tumors are simply a gathering
of these cells that are quickly replicating.
1. Cells approach G1 and decide whether to divide or not and is checked for DNA
damage.
2. Cells with damaged DNA that cannot be repaired are arrested and "commit
suicide" through apoptosis.
3. A second such checkpoint occurs at the G2 phase following the synthesis of
DNA in S phase but before cell division in M phase.
4. Genetic mutations cause this molecular switch to be turned on, permitting
uncontrollable replication, then creating a gathering, or tumor.
What is carbon chemistry and why is carbon so
important Biologically?
Why is Carbon so Important?
Carbon is so important to life because virtually all molecules in the body
(excluding water) contain carbon. Such as sugars, DNA, proteins, and fats.

Carbon can also hold steady bonds most of the elements around it, including
itself.
Is the production of oxygen gas the purpose of
photosynthesis?
What is the purpose of Photosynthesis?
Many people would say that the production of oxygen gas is the purpose of
Photosynthesis, but this is incorrect.

The main reason why plants conduct photosynthesis is to create food for
themselves.
1. Once the water, carbon dioxide and sunlight reach the leaves, a chemical
reaction starts.
2. The sunlight powers the process of photosynthesis, and the light reactions
are where the water is split, then the glucose is created in the dark reactions.
3. The plant uses the sugars for food, sending them throughout the rest of the
plant via the tissue phloem.
4. The oxygen is excreted from the plant, which is then distributed throughout
the atmosphere.
Explain and review Sickle-cell anemia
Polygenic Traits and Heredity
A polygenic trait is a trait controlled by more that one gene. For example, the
height of humans.

Height is controlled by at least three genes.

Continued.
Sickle Cell Anemia
Sickle cell anemia is a disease where red blood cells become thin and elongated.

If a person has one copy of the sickle cell allele, half of their red blood cells will be
misshapen. In this way, the allele is codominant, since both normal and sickled
shapes are seen in the blood.

Continued.
Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy is where one gene affects many different traits, in an organism.

1. One gene that's supposed to make our blood hemoglobin is mutated.

different from what it's supposed to be.

2. Because of this mutation, the person has Sickle Cell Anemia.

This is where their red blood cells curl up into a weird shape,
and their blood cannot carry oxygen, the way it should.

Continued.
And because their red blood cells have a weird shape,
they can also block up blood vessels.

3. Because their blood cannot carry enough oxygen,

and can block blood vessels,
other parts of the person's body can become damaged.
Like their heart, their bones, and their kidneys.

In Sickle Cell Anemia,

all it took was for one gene to become mutated.

And because of this one mutated gene,

many parts of the body were affected.
Explain Mendels law of segregation and
independent assortment and why they are
important for understanding heredity
Segregation
When an organism makes gametes, each gamete receives just one gene copy,
which is selected randomly.
Independent Assortment
It's the great randomizer in biology. Basic concept - you've got 1 copy of each gene from each parent. The
Law states that when you pass on the genes to your kids, where 1 gene goes has nothing to do with where
another gene goes.
Imaging you're shuffling cards and the ace of hearts is stuck to the seven of clubs. Whenever you shuffle,
those two are gonna end up together. It's not truly random.
The Law of Independent Assortment states that no gene can be stuck to any other gene. Whenever you
shuffle up the genes to put them in a kid, it's random what goes where.
Why are they important?
The law of segregation lets us predict how a single feature associated with a
single gene is inherited.

Independent assortment is the great randomizer, so no two genes stay together.

Protein function is determined in large part by its
structure, explain this to your grandmother. What
happens if there is a mutation in DNA, list and
describe the types of mutation, and how they
affect the phenotype/protein. Are mutations
harmful, helpful, or both? Explain.
DNA is like binary, but instead of two digits, its 4 A, T, C, G

Adenine pairs with Thymine and

Cytosine pairs with Guanine.

Just like writing code/binary, when these are being copied and reviewed by
proteins, they can make mistakes, leading to mutations in the clone.
Good or Bad?
Mutations could be either good or bad.

Good:

- Creates genetic diversity in a community

- Causes evolution over time

Bad:

- Can cause diseases such as cancer

Explain the connection between DNA, gene,
chromosome, allele, and protein.
DNA
- DNA carries the genetic code that determines the characteristics of a living
thing.

Genes
- A gene is a short section of DNA.
- Each gene codes for a specific protein by specifying the order in which amino
acids must be joined together.

Chromosomes

- The cells nucleus contains chromosomes made from long DNA molecules.
Alleles
- Different forms of the same gene are called alleles.
- The gene for eye color has an allele for blue eye color and an allele for brown
eye color.

Proteins
- Each gene codes for a specific protein by specifying the order in which amino
acids must be joined together.
Works Cited
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