Continuous-Wave Modulation

Purpose of Communication: The purpose of a communication

system is to transmit information-bearing signals or baseband signals
through a communication channel separating the transmitter from the
receiver.
Baseband: Baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies
representing the original signal as delivered by a source of information.
Communication Channel: The communication channel may be
a transmission line (as in telephony and telegraphy), an optical fiber (as in
optical communications) or merely free space in which the information-
bearing signal is radiated as an electromagnetic wave (as in radio and
television broadcasting).
The proper utilization of the communication channel requires a shift
of the range of baseband frequencies into other frequency ranges suitable
for transmission, and a corresponding shift back to the original frequency
range after reception.
A shift of the range of frequencies in a signal is accomplished by
using modulation.
Need For Modulation: Several difficulties are involved in the
propagation of electromagnetic waves at frequencies corresponding to the
audio spectrum. The greatest of these is that for efficient radiation and
reception the transmitting and receiving antennas would have to have
heights comparable to quarter-wavelength of the frequency used. This is 75
m at 1 MHz, in the broadcast band, but at 15 kHz it has increased to 5000
m. A vertical antenna of this size in unthinkable.
There is an even more important argument against transmitting
signal frequencies directly: all sound is concentrated within the range from
20 Hz to 20 kHz, so that all signals from the different sources would be
hopelessly and inseparably mixed up. So it is difficult to retrieve the
original or message signal.
The radiation problem of low frequency can be overcome by using
high frequency carrier signal in modulation process.

Modulating wave and Modulated wave: The baseband signal

is referred to as the modulating wave, and the result of the modulation
process is referred to as the modulated wave.
 Modulation is performed at the transmission
end of the communication system.

Modulation: Modulation is defined as the process

by which some characteristic of a carrier is varied
in accordance with a modulating wave (signal).
In the process of modulation, some
characteristic of a high-frequency sine wave (the
carrier) is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the (modulating) signal.
A common form of the carrier is a sinusoidal
wave.
 Demodulation: The receiving end of the system, we usually
require the original baseband to be restored. This is accomplished by
using a process known as demodulation, which is reverse of the
modulation process.

Since a common form of the carrier is a sinusoidal wave, in

which case the modulation process referred as continuous-wave
modulation.

Classification of Modulation:
There are two forms of the continuous-wave modulations:
(a) Amplitude modulation (AM), and(b) Angle Modulation.

There are also two forms angle modulations:

(a) Phase modulation (PM) and (b) Frequency
modulation (FM).
 Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation (AM) is
defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is varied about
a mean value, linearly with the baseband signal m(t).
Let, a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by

c(t)=Accos(2fct) (3.1)
where, Ac is the carrier amplitude and fc is the carrier frequency.
Let m(t) denote the baseband signal that carries the specification of the
message. Then, an amplitude modulated (AM) wave may thus be described, in its
most general form, as a function of time as follows:

s(t)=Ac[1+Kam(t)]cos(2fct) (3.2)
where, Ka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity.

The carrier amplitude Ac and the message signal measured in volts,

which case the amplitude sensitivity Ka is measured in volt-1.
 Fig. 3.1(a) shows a baseband signal m(t),
and Figs. 3.1(b) and (c) show the
corresponding AM wave s(t) for two values
of amplitude sensitivity Ka and a carrier
m(t ) amplitude Ac=1 volt.
We observe that the envelope of
s(t) has essentially the same shape as the
baseband signal m(t) provided that two
requirements are satisfied:

kam(t ) <1 1. The amplitude of Kam(t) is always less

than unity, that is,
Kam(t)<1 for all t (3.3)
When the amplitude sensitivity Ka of the
modulator is large enough to make for any
t, the carrier wave becomes overmodulated,
resulting in carrier phase reversals whenever
kam(t ) >1 the factor [1+Kam(t)] crosses zero. The
modulated wave then exhibits envelope
distortion, as in Fig. 3.1c.
 2. The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the highest frequency component
W of the message signal m(t), that is
fc>>W (3.4)
where, W is the message bandwidth.
If the condition (3.4) is not satisfied, an envelope cannot be visualized
satisfactorily.

From Eq. (3.2), we find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t) is given by
A k A
S ( f ) = c [ ( f f c ) + ( f + f c )] + a c [M ( f f c ) + M ( f + f c )]
2 2
Fig. 3.2 shows the spectrum of baseband signal M(f), which is band-limited to
the interval W f W , and amplitude modulated signal S(f).

Fig. 3.2 (a) Spectrum of baseband signal, and (b) Spectrum of AM.
This spectrum consists of two delta functions weighted by the factor Ac/2 and
occurring at fc, and two versions of the baseband spectrum translated in frequency
by fc and scaled in amplitude by kaAc/2.

From the spectrum of Fig. 3.2, we note the following:

1. T spectrum of the message signal m(t) for negative frequencies
extending from W to 0 becomes completely visible for positive (i. e., measurable)
frequencies, provided that the carrier frequency satisfies the conditions fc>W.

2. For positive frequencies, the portion of the spectrum of an AM

wave lying above the carrier frequency fc is referred to as upper sideband, whereas
the symmetric portion below fc is referred as the lower sideband.
For negative frequencies , the upper sideband is represented by the portion
of the spectrum below - fc and the lower sideband by the portion above fc.
 The condition fc>W ensures that the sidebands do not overlap.

3. For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component

of the AM wave equals fc+W, and the lowest frequency component equals fc-W.
The difference between these two frequencies defines the transmission
bandwidth BT for an AM wave, which is exactly twice the message bandwidth W,
BT =(fc+W)-(fc-W)=2W
 Single-Tone Modulation
Single Tone Signal: The signal which has only one frequency is called single tone
signal.

Consider a modulating wave m(t) that consists of a single tone or frequency

component and a carrier wave c(t) can be written as follows:
m(t)=Amcos(2fmt) c(t)=Accos(2fct)
where, Am and Ac are the amplitude of modulating wave and carrier wave, and fm
and fc are the frequency of modulating wave and carrier wave.

The corresponding AM wave is therefore given by:

s(t)= Ac[1+Ka Amcos(2fmt)]cos(2fct)=Ac[1+cos(2fmt)]cos(2fct) (3.7)
Where, modulation factor, =Ka Am
To avoid envelope distortion due to overmodulation, the modulation
factor must be kept below unity (i.e. <1).

Fig. 3.3 illustrate the time-domain (left-side) and frequency-domain (right-

side) characteristics of standard amplitude modulation produced by a single-tone (a)
Modulating wave, (b) Carrier wave, and (c) AM wave. [where, <1]
 Let Amax and Amin denote the maximum and
minimum values of the envelope of the modulated wave.
Then, from Eq. (3.7) we get
Amax Ac (1+ ) Amax A
= From the previous equation,
= min
A Ac (1 ) we obtain: Amax + A
min min

Expressing the product of the two cosines in Eq. (3.7) as the sum of two sinusoidal
waves, one having frequency fc+fm and the other having frequency fc-fm, we get
s(t ) = Ac cos(2f ct ) + 1 Ac cos[2 ( f c + f m )t ] + 1 Ac cos[2 ( f c f m )t ]
2 2
It is seen from above equation that the first term is identical of carrier wave
and the two additional terms are produced two sideband outlined. The frequency of
the LSB is fc-fm and the frequency of the USB is fc+fm.
The Fourier transform of s(t) is therefore
S ( f ) = 1 Ac[ ( f f c ) + ( f + f c )]
2
+ 1 Ac[ ( f f c f m ) + ( f + f c + f m )]
4
+ 1 Ac[ ( f f c + f m ) + ( f + f c f m )]
4
 Power Relation in the AM Wave
In practice, the AM wave s(t) is a voltage or current wave. In either case, the average
power delivered to a RL=1 resistor by s(t) is comprised of three components:
( Ac / 2 )2 Ac2 1 2
Carrier Power, Pc = = = Ac where, R = 1
R 2R 2 L
L L

(Ac / 2 2 )2 2 Ac2 2 Ac2

USB and LSB Power, P =P = = = where, R = 1
USB LSB R 8R 8 L
L L

Ac2 2 2 Ac2 Ac2 2 2

Total Power, Pt = Pc + P +P = + = (1+ ) = Pc (1+ )
USB LSB 2 8 2 2 2

The ratio of the total sideband power to the total power in the modulated
wave is equal to Pt
= 1+ 2
Pc 2
which depends only on the modulation factor .
Example: A 0.2 kW carrier is modulated to a modulation factor 0.6. Calculate:
(a) Amplitude of carrier wave, (b) maximum and minimum values of
modulated wave, and (c) low sideband or upper sideband power and (d) total
power of the modulated wave. (Assume load resistance RL= 1 ).
Solution: (a) we know that Pc = 1 Ac2; Ac = 2P = 2 200 = 20 V
2 c
(b) Amax = Ac (1+ ) = 201.6 = 32 V; A = A (1 ) = 20 0.4 = 8 V
min c
(0 . 6) 2 (20)2 0.36 400
(c) LSB Power, P = = = 18 W
LSB 8 8
2
(d) Total Power, Pt = Pc (1+ ) = 200 (1+ 0 .6 2
) = 2.36 kW
2 2
Example: A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kW when the modulation
percentage is 60. How much of this is carrier power?
Solution: Given, Pt=10 kW and =0.6, We have to find out, Pc=?
We know that, Total Power, Pt = Pc (1+ )
2
2
P 10 kW
Pc = t = = 8.47 kW
2
1+ (0.6) 2
1+
2 2
Example: A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier unmodulated,
and 10.125 kW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the
modulation factor.

Solution: Given, Pt=10.125 kW and Pc=9 kW, We have to find out, =?

We know that, Total Power, Pt = Pc (1+ )
2
2
P 10.125
= 2( t 1) = 2( 1) = 0.5
Pc 9
 Current Calculation
Let Ic be the unmodulated current and It the total or modulated current pf an AM
transmitter, both beings rms values. If RL is the resistance in which these currents
flow then

2
P It R
t= L = 1+ 2 I
t = 1+
2
Pc I 2 R 2
c L Ic 2

2
I

2 = 2 t 1

It = Ic 1+ I
2 c

Example: The antenna current of an AM broadcast transmitter, modulated to a
modulation factor 49% by an audio sine wave, is 11 A. It increases to 12 A as
a result of simultaneous modulation by another audio sine wave. What is the
modulation factor due to this second wave?
I 2
Solution: we know that, t = 1+
Ic 2

I 11
Ic = t = =10.58 A
1+ ( 2 / 2) 1+ (0.42 / 2)

For the second case: We obtain as follows

2
I 2
12
= 2 t 1 = 2
1 = 0.757
10.58
I
c

 Generation of AM waves

The AM waves can be generated by using

two devices namely (a) the square-law modulator,
and (b) the switching modulator.

To implement these two modulator, a

nonlinear element is required. And these two
devices are well-suited for low power modulation
purpose.
 Square-Law Modulator
A square-law modulator requires three features:
(a) A means of summing the carrier and modulating waves,
(b) A nonlinear element, and
(c) A band-pass filter for extracting the desired modulation
products.
These features of the modulator are illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
Nonlinear Devices: Semiconductor diodes and transistors are the most common
nonlinear devices used for implementing square-law modulators.

When a nonlinear element such as a diode is suitably biased and

operated in a restricted portion of its characteristic curve, that is, the signal
applied to the diode is relatively weak, we find that the transfer characteristic of
the diode-load resistor combination can be represented closely by a square law:
v (t ) = a v (t ) + a v2(t ) (3.13) where a1 and a2 are constant.
2 11 21

The input voltage v1(t) consists of the carrier wave plus the modulating
wave, that is v (t ) = Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t ) (3.14)
1

Substituting Eq. (3.14) in (3.13), the resulting voltage developed across the
primary winding of the transformer is given by:
v (t ) = a [ Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t )] + a [ Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t )]2
2 1 2
 The above equation can be written as follows:
2a
v (t ) = a Ac[1+ 2 m(t )]cos(2f ct ) + a m(t ) + a m2 (t ) + a Ac2 cos2 (2f ct ) (3.15)
2 1 a 1 2 2
1
AM wave: s(t ) = Ac[1+ Kam(t )]cos(2f ct ) (3.16)

Comparing Eq. (3.15) with the AM wave as Eq. (3.16), it is seen that he first term
in Eq. (3.15) is the desired AM wave with Ka=(2a2/a1).
2a
First term : a Ac[1+ 2 m(t )]cos(2f ct ) (3.15)
1 a
1

The remaining three terms are unwanted terms that must be removed by filtering.
Other terms : a m(t ) + a m2 (t ) + a Ac2 cos2 (2f ct )
1 2 2

The unwanted terms may be removed from v2(t) by designing the

tuned filter at the modulator output of Fig. 3.5 to have a mid-band fc and
band-width 2W which is satisfy the requirement fc>2W.
 Switching Modulator
Details of the switch modulator are We may thus approximate the transfer
shown in the following Fig. 3.5 (a), characteristic of the diode-load resistor
where it is assumed that the carrier combination by a piecewise-linear
wave c(t) applied to the diode is large characteristic, as shown in Fig. 3.7b.
in amplitude, so that it swings right
across the characteristic curve of the
diode.

Accordingly, for an input voltage v1(t)

consisting of the sum of the carrier and
We assume that the diode acts as an the message signal:
ideal switch, that is, it presents zero v (t ) = Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t ) (3.18)
1
impedance when it is forward-biased
[corresponding to c(t)>0). where, m(t)<<Ac,
 The Expression for the load voltage v2(t) is given by:
v (t ), c(t ) > 0
v (t ) = 1 (3.19)
2

0, c(t ) < 0

We may express Eq. (3.19) mathematically as :

v (t ) = [ Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t )]g p (t ) (3.20)
2

where gp(t) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one-half, and period
T=1/fc, as in Fig. 3.8.

Representing this gp(t) by 1 2 (1)n1

g p (t ) = + cos[2f ct (2n 1)] (3.21)
its Fourier series, we have: 2 n=1 2n 1
 Therefore, substituting Eq. (3.21) in (3.20), we find that the load voltage
v2(t) consists of the sum of two components:

1. The components
Ac
[1+ 4 m(t )]cos(2f ct )
2 Ac

which is the desired AM wave with amplitude sensitivity

ka=4/Ac. The switching modulator is therefore made more sensitivity by
reducing the carrier amplitude Ac; however, it must be maintained large
enough to make the diode act like an ideal switch.

2. Unwanted components, the spectrum of which contains delta

functions at 0, 2fc, and 4fc so on, and which occupy frequency intervals of
width 2W centered at 0, 3fc, 5fc, and so on, where W is the message
bandwidth.
The unwanted terms are removed from the load voltage v2(t) by
means of a band-pass filter with mid-band frequency fc, and bandwidth
2W, provided that fc>2W.
 Envelope-Detector

The process of demodulation is used to recover the original

modulating wave from the incoming modulated wave; in effect,
demodulation is the reverse of the modulation process.

The demodulation of an AM wave can be accomplished

using various devices; here, we describe a simple and yet highly
effective device known as the envelop-detector.

An envelop detector of the series type is shown in Fig. 3.7,

which consists of a diode and a resistor-capacitor (RC) filter. The
operation of this envelope detector is as follows.
 On a positive half-cycle of
the input signal, the diode is forward-
biased and the capacitor C charges up
rapidly to the peak value of the input
signal.

When the input signal falls

below this value, the diode becomes
reverse-biased and the capacitor C
discharges slowly through the load
resistor Rl.

The discharging process

continues until the next positive half-
cycle. When the input signal becomes
greater than the voltage across the
capacitor, the diode conducts again
and the process is repeated.
 It is assume that the AM wave applied to the envelope detector is supplied
by a voltage source of internal impedance Rs. The charging time constant RsC must
be short compared with the carrier period 1/fc, that is,

So that the capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to
the positive peak when the diode is conducting.

The discharging time constant RlC must be long enough to ensure that
the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor Rl between positive
peaks of the carrier wave, but not so long that the capacitor will not discharge at
the maximum rate of change of the modulating wave, that is

Where, W is the message bandwidth.

The result is that the capacitor voltage or detector output is very nearly the
same as the envelop of the AM wave, as illustrated in Fig. 3.7 c. The detector output
usually has a small ripple (not shown in Fig. 3.7c) at the carrier frequency; this ripple
is easily removed by filtering.
 Angle Modulation
Angle modulation is defined as a process in which the angle
of the carrier wave c(t) is varied according to the baseband signal
m(t).

In this method of modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is

maintained constant.

An important feature of angle modulation is that it can

provide better discrimination against noise and interference than
amplitude modulation. This improvement in the performance is
achieved at the expense of increased transmission bandwidth; that
is; angle modulation provides us with a practical means of
exchanging channel bandwidth for improved noise performance.
Such a trade-off is not possible with amplitude modulation.
 Basic Definition of Angle Modulation
Let i(t) denote the angle of a modulated sinusoidal carrier, then resulting angle-
modulated wave as: where Ac is the carrier amplitude.

A complete oscillation occurs whenever i(t) changes by 2 radians. If i(t)

increases with time, the average frequency from t to t+t, is given by

Thus, the instantaneous frequency of the angle-modulated signal s(t) as

follows:

In the simple case of an unmodulated carrier, the angle i(t) is (t ) = 2f ct + c

i
The constant c is the value of i(t) at t=0.
There are an infinite number of ways in which the angle i(t) may be varied in some
manner with the message (baseband) signal. However, we shall consider only two
commonly used methods, phase modulation and frequency modulation.
 Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the angle i(t)
is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as shown by
Where, 2fct: the angle of the unmodulated
carrier; kp: phase sensitivity of the modulator
The phase-modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the time domain by

Frequency Modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which the

instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as
shown by
Where, fc: the frequency of
unmodulated carrier, kf: frequency
sensitivity of the modulator
Integrating Eq. (3.50) with respect to time and multiplying the result by 2, we get

The frequency-modulated signal is therefore describe in the time domain by

 Comparing Eq. (3.49)
with (3.52) reveals that an FM
signal may be regarded as a PM
signal in which the modulating
wave is t m(t )dt
0
in place of m(t). This means that an
FM signal can be generated by first
integrating m(t) and then using the
result as the input to a phase
modulator, as in Fig. 3.30a.
Conversely, a PM signal
can be generated first
differentiating m(t) and then using
the result as the input to a
frequency modulator, as in Fig.
3.30b. We may thus deduce all the
properties of PM signals from
those of FM signals and vice versa.
AM

PM

FM
 Frequency Modulation
The FM signal s(t) defined by Eq. (3.52) is a nonlinear function of the
modulating signal m(t), which makes frequency modulation a nonlinear
modulation process.
To analyze simple way, consider a sinusoidal modulating signal defined
by: m(t)=Amcos(2fmt) (3.53)
The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal equals

fi(t)= fc + KfAmcos(2fmt)=fc + fcos(2fmt)

Frequency deviation, f=KfAm, representing the maximum departure of the
instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the carrier frequency fc.
Using Eq. (3.54), the angle i(t) of the FM signal is obtained as
t
i (t ) = 2 f idt = 2f ct + (f / f m ) sin(2f mt ) (t ) = 2f ct + sin(2f mt )
i
0
Modulation index, = f / f m
represents the phase deviation of the FM signal, that is, the maximum departure
of the angle i(t) from the angle 2fct of the unmodulated carrier.
 The FM signal itself is given by
s(t ) = Ac cos[2f ct + sin(2f mt )] (3.59)

Depending on the value of the modulation index , we may distinguish two

cases of frequency modulation:
Narrow-band FM, for which is small compared to one radian.
Wide-band FM, for which is large compared to one radian.

Narrow Band FM
Eq. (3.59) can be written as follows:
s(t ) = Ac cos(2f ct ) cos[ sin(2f mt )] Ac sin(2f ct ) sin[ sin(2f mt )] (3.60)
Assuming that the modulation index is small compared to one radian, we may
use the following approximations:
cos[ sin(2f mt )] 1 and sin[ sin(2f mt )] sin(2f mt )

Hence, Eq (3.60) simplifies to

s(t ) = Ac cos(2f ct ) Ac sin(2f ct ) sin(2f mt ) (3.61)
Using the Eq. (3.61), the block diagram of a method for
generating a narrow-band FM signal can be drown as Fig.
3.31.
Comparison Between FM and AM System:

FM has several advantages over AM, a few of them are being listed
here:
1. The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave in FM remains
independent of the depth of modulation, while in case of AM this
amplitude is dependent on the modulation factor (or index).
2. The envelope of FM signal is constant (equal to the carrier
amplitude), whereas the envelope of an AM signal is dependent on
the message signal.
3. All the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in case of AM,
most of the transmitted power is carrier which does not indicate
any modulation changes.
4. There is large decrease in noise in case of FM which in other
words indicates a rise in signal to noise ratio.
5. Noise in FM can be further reduced by increasing the deviation.
This facility is not available in case of AM systems.
FM has several disadvantages over AM, a few
of them are being listed here:

1. A large bandwidth, probably 7 to 15 times

of that of AM is needed for FM system.
2. FM transmitting and receiving equipment
is more complex and hence is more
expensive.
3. As the reception is limited to line of sight,
the area covered by FM is much smaller
than AM.
End of the Angle Modulation