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Overview - Previous lecture 1/2

Derived the wave equation

with solutions of the form

We found that the polarization of the material


affects wave propagation, and found the dispersion relation (k)

with the corresponding refractive index given by


(approximately because: ignores magnetization, assumes low frequency)

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 1
Overview - Previous lecture 2/2

Found that polarization of materials (atoms) has finite response time


Harmonic fields will give harmonic response, but with finite phase lag
electric susceptibility must contain imaginary contribution:

This in turn implied that the refractive index contains an imaginary component

which was found to lead to a complex wavevector that describes attenuation

In short: finite polarization response time (related to n) attenuation


refractive index n() must be linked to attenuation ()
Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4
slide 2
Overview - Todays lecture

Derive Kramers-Kronig relations linking

- real refractive index n to an absorption spectrum

- real susceptibility X to a spectrum of the imaginary susceptibility X

- a phase shift upon reflection to a reflectivity spectrum R

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 3
A simple truth and an essential trick!

X(t) doesnt change if you multiply it by a step function :


This has implications about the symmetry of the frequency dependence (Fourier Tr.)
Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4
slide 4
A simple consequence and some simple math

If then also

with the Fourier transform of X(t), given by

If you delve deep into your memory for Fourier theory, youll remember (yes?)

where the symbol denotes convolution, which is defined as:

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 5
The starting point

We now have found the relation

The left side of the equation is simply given by

In the following slides, we will work out the right side of the equation.

First: look at , then convolute with

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 6
Fourier transform of the step function around t=0

described by
finite cosine amplitude at zero frequency

described by

opposite Fourier amplitude for and - infinite collection of sines with


weighing factor.
Note that sine waves have the correct symmetry around t=0

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 7
Getting ready to convolute

We now have

and

as well as the relation

well now write this convolution in terms of the known Fourier components above

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 8
Convolute!

Using the known Fourier components, we find is equal to

which we can split into two components one relating


to the real part of F[(t)] and one related to the imaginary part of F[(t)] :

which we can in turn write as

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 9
Mixing the ingredients

Using the result derived on the previous slide, we found that the relation

corresponds to the relation

which after some serious math magically turns into

Time to scratch your head! Taking an infinite integral of X with a frequency


dependent imaginary weighing factor gives you X again!
we can link imaginary parts of X to real parts of X and vice versa

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 10
Separating imaginary and real parts

Final steps: with and

we find that

Grouping real and imaginary terms yields

These Kramers-Kronig relations for X() relate X() to X() and vice versa

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 11
Rewrite to positive frequencies only

Reality condition: X() is an even function, X() is an odd function

This allows Kramers-Kronig relations to be written as : (see homework)

Note that these integrals run over positive angular frequencies only

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 12
Simplifications for dilute media

Previously we derived the frequency dependent complex refractive index:

For dilute media or weak susceptibility : X and X are small.


Using the approximation for small x this leads to

Comparing real and imaginary terms respectively, this gives

and

We also derived so

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 13
Kramers-Kronig relations for n and

With and

the relation

can be written as

One can get the frequency dependent refractive index from an absorption spectrum

We simplified the math by assuming dilute media, but the result is true in general!

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 14
Example for a single absorption line 1/3

To get n() at a specific frequency, integrate the entire absorption spectrum


with a frequency dependent weighing factor 1/(2-2)

If < res then:


4
absorption band Below
small and positive
weighing factor negative
0
small negative contribution
2 2
y=1/(2 -0.9
y=1/( 0.92))
(') Above
-4 large and positive
Here: example
weighing factor positive
for = 0.9
large positive contribution
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

'/res

For frequencies below resonance, KK relations yield large n()


Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4
slide 15
Example for a single absorption line 2/3

To get n() at a specific frequency, integrate the entire absorption spectrum


with a frequency dependent weighing factor 1/(2-2)

If > res then:


absorption band
4 Below
large and positive
weighing factor negative
0 large negative contribution

2 2 Above
y=1/(2 -1.1
y=1/( 1.12)
-4 (') small and positive
weighing factor positive
small positive contribution
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

'/res

For frequencies above resonance, KK relations yield small n()


Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4
slide 16
Example for a single absorption line 3/3

Repeating this integration for many yields n():

50 [n() - 1]
-4 (')

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

'/res

Between resonances: n slowly increases = normal dispersion


Close to resonances: n rapidly decreases = anomalous dispersion
At high frequencies (~ x-ray wavelengths) n can become slightly smaller than 1
Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4
slide 17
A quicker but less intuitive route - Cauchy

We can also use Cauchys integral theorem to derive the KK relations for X()

This is equivalent to proving (with apologies for the parameter changes!)

We will show this by solving the integral using Cauchys integral theorem

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 18
Integrating in the complex plane

Cauchys integral theorem (CIT): the closed path integral of an analytic


function yields zero. (with some caveats) More info, see e.g. MathWorld
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CauchyIntegralTheorem.html

=0
1 c

1 2 3

3 + + =0
2

If we make complex, the CIT still holds. We now have a closed path of which

- the value of the integrand goes to zero for large ||


- the integration is tricky around
- the integration is over real frequencies and very familiar looking..

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 19
Integration at large values of ||

=0
c

Half-circle section: the value of the integrand goes to zero for large || =0

This can be seen by looking at X() at fixed complex and large

goes to zero

For large real part of , this term oscillates fast over small t
Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4
slide 20
Integration around a pole

That leaves us with + =0

=0
c

We can calculate the small path integral around using the residue theorem:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ResidueTheorem.html

(the essential step)

where L is the vanishingly small length of the half circle around


That leaves us with =

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 21
The final result

3 2
We have found - =
2 3

We found: integration over real (except small L region) =

We set out to prove: ~ DONE !

It turns out that avoiding the infinitely small section around omega is reasonable
(recall the example integrations earlier this lecture)

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 22
Kramers-Kronig relations relating reflectivity to phase shift 1/3

A light wave incident on a planar surface of a dispersive material

generates a reflected wave with a


frequency dependent amplitude and phase shift

The fraction of reflected irradiance scales with the reflectance R:

with r() the amplitude reflection coefficient:

Note that for a low absorption situation


(e.g. glass at visible frequencies) this gives:

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 23
Kramers-Kronig relations relating reflectivity to phase shift 2/3

It is difficult to measure vs. , but we can derive a KK relation for and R

First step: express r() as a complex exponent:

We want to arrive at a relation of the form

with X of the form X + i X (this linked the X integral to X and vice versa)

To enable this, we will derive a KK relation for ln (r() )

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 24
Kramers-Kronig relations relating reflectivity to phase shift 3/3

Using the Cauchy Integral Theorem and the residue theorem we find

The latter integral can be (see handouts) written in the form

we can find the frequency dependent phase shift upon reflection


by measuring a reflection spectrum!

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 25
Summary - Todays lecture

Using reality condition OR Cauchy, found Kramers-Kronig relations linking

- real refractive index n to an absorption spectrum

- real susceptibility X to a spectrum of the imaginary susceptibility X

- a phase shift upon reflection to a reflectivity spectrum R

Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4


slide 26
Next week

Show that oscillating electrons radiate, and show that this can slow down light
microscopic view of refractive index

Low frequency
Amplitude in phase with Ein

Lecture 5: model dipole radiation


Lecture 6: derive simple model for oscillating dipoles (Lorentz model)
Fundamentals of Optical Science Spring 2006 - Class 4
slide 27

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