ISSN 0024-4902, Lithology and Mineral Resources, 2007, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 180191. Pleiades Publishing, Inc.

., 2007.
Original Russian Text A.V. Ovcharenko, B.V. Ermakov, K.M. Myatchin, A.E. Shlezinger, 2007, published in Litologiya i Poleznye Iskopaemye, 2007, No. 2, pp. 201213.

Caprocks in Hydrocarbon Fields

A. V. Ovcharenkoa, B. V. Ermakova, K. M. Myatchina, and A. E. Shlezingerb
a ZAO
NPTs Geoneftegaz, Boitsovaya ul. 27, Moscow, 107370 Russia
e-mail: 207@geneftegaz.ru
b Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pyzhevskii per. 7, Moscow, 119017 Russia

Received October 26, 2005

AbstractClayey, carbonate, evaporitic, and cryogenic caprocks typical of petroleum pools are distinguished.
Their screening properties are considered. Methodical recommendations for the identification and appraisal of
the screening capacity of caprocks are given based on complex geologicalgeophysical parameters.
DOI: 10.1134/S0024490207020058

The aim of the present paper is to give an overview
of geological types, secondary transformations, and
petrophysical properties of caprocks in petroleum fields
and the possibility of their study by geophysical meth-
ods. This investigation was undertaken in connection
with the fact that the principal attention is paid to the
search for traps of different types, detection of reservoir
beds, and determination of their effective thickness and
filtration capacity during the exploration for hydrocar-
bons,. For this purpose, geophysical (mainly, seismic)
methods are widely applied. However, researchers pay
much less attention to the most important elements of
sedimentary sequences, namely caprocks, which pro-
mote the formation of hydrocarbon pools, their screen-
ing properties, thickness, and position in the sequence.
Special geophysical methods for the determination of
caprock properties are either unapplied or underdevel-
oped. Therefore, reliability of the prediction of hydro-
carbon pools is significantly decreased.
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT CAPROCKS
Low-permeable rocks, which restrict reservoirs with
hydrocarbon pools, are defined as caprocks of oil-and-
gas (hereafter, petroleum) pools. If the caprocks are
absent or their structure is subjected to tectonic and/or
lithogeodynamic disturbance, liquid or gaseous accu-
mulations of hydrocarbons cannot be conserved.
The present study includes two parts. The first part
is devoted to geological aspects of the formation of var-
ious (in lithology and quality) caprocks, changes in
their permeability in the process of lithogenesis, and
detection of signs of the presence of caprocks, which
can be defined by geophysical (mainly, seismic) meth-
ods. The second part characterizes the geophysical
methods applied for the detection of caprocks and the
appraisal of their screening capacity.
Caprocks are formed in the process of sedimentary
rock accumulation. Physical and chemical parameters
of these rocks change under the influence of processes
of lithogenesis. The character of these processes is sig-
nificantly governed by lithological composition and
genetic type of sediments, as well as depth of sedimen-
tation basin. At the stage of diagenesis, sediments are
mainly transformed into rocks due to biochemical and
physicochemical processes. All of diagenetic transfor-
mations occur under thermobaric conditions closing to
those of sedimentation. Changes in temperature do not
exceed some tens of degrees and geostatic pressure is
within a range of 34 MPa.
The zone of catagenesis is developed in the sedi-
mentary sequence up to a depth of 1520 km, where
geostatic pressure changes from 120 to 200 MPa at a
temperature of 120200C. Catagenesis is related to
both physicochemical and physicomechanical pro-
cesses. Metagenesis is manifested in rocks lying at a
depth of 1015 km, where geostatic pressure exceeds
200 MPa at a temperature of 200300C.
Processes of progressive lithogenesis can be supple-
mented by lateral stress that causes metagenetic alter-
ations of rocks within relatively small areas at shallow
depths.
Caprocks are divided into regional, zonal, and local
types (Ovcharenko, 1985; Geologiya i geokhimiya,
1993, 2000). The regional caprock is developed over
areas of many hundreds or even a few thousands of
kilometers, e.g., rocks of the Upper Jurassic Bazhenov
Formation in the West Siberian Plate and the Oli-
goceneLower Miocene Maikop Formation in the
Scythian and Turanian plates. It should be noted that
the regional nature of caprocks is a relative notion. For
example, the Bazhenov Formation has anomalous
structure in many areas; i.e., its thickness is increased
and clayey rocks contain sandy interlayers. Screening
properties of the formation is worsened in these areas.
In addition, rocks of the Bazhenov Formation in some
areas are fractured and transformed into oil-saturated
reservoirs (e.g., the Salym oilfield). A similar picture is

180
 CAPROCKS IN HYDROCARBON FIELDS
observed in the Maikop Formation that encloses sandy
horizons and zones of intense fracturing with hydrocar-
bon pools (Severo-Stavropol, Zhuravsk, Vorobev, and
other fields).
Zonal caprocks are exemplified by rocks of the
Upper Devonian Timan Horizon in the VolgaUral
petroliferous province of the Russian Plate. Middle
Jurassic clay beds in the Karazhanbas oilfield (Buzachi
Peninsula, Caspian region) represent local caprocks.
Zonal and local caprocks are also characterized by
changes of lithological composition (e.g., enrichment
in sand). The presence of siltstone and sandstone inter-
layers and the decrease of their thickness deteriorate the
screening properties of the rocks.
Based on the ratio between caprocks and petrolifer-
ous horizons, E.A. Bakirov (Geologiya, 1993)
divided the caprocks into interstage, multistage, and
intrastage types. The intrastage caprock normally does
not exceed a few meters in thickness, whereas the inter-
stage caprock is up to tens of meters thick. In several
petroliferous regions, conditions of the conservation of
hydrocarbon pools directly depend on the thickness and
screening capacity of caprocks (Gabrielyants, 2000).
Based on rock composition, caprocks are divided
into the clayey, carbonate, evaporitic, and cryogenic
types. Clayey caprocks are most widespread and cru-
cial for the formation of hydrocarbon pools. The signif-
icance of carbonate and evaporitic caprocks is lower.
Carbonate caprocks are also developed in a regional
scale, but their screening capacity is usually much
lower than that of the clayey rocks. Evaporitic caprocks
are characterized by high quality of screening proper-
ties. They are developed as the major caprocks in halo-
genic basins. For example, in the North Caspian Basin
(identified as Pricaspian Basin in the Russian litera-
ture), all Paleozoic hydrocarbon fields are confined to
evaporites of the Kungurian Filippov Horizon. They are
absent beyond the evaporite filed.
Cryogenic sequences exist in the subpolar areas of
sedimentary basins as relatively shallow (hundreds of
meters) caprocks for hydrocarbon fields (northern area
of the West Siberian Plate, Verkhoyansk Foredeep,
Vilyui Syneclise, and other regions).
According to the factors providing the degree of
sealing (impermeability), caprocks are subdivided into
density and dynamic types (Vysotskii and Vysotskii,
1986). Caprocks of the first type are related to density,
hardness, or plasticity of rocks. Caprocks of the second
type are situated at the stage of rock compression until
their transformation into the density type. Their imper-
meability deteriorates during the uplift (tectonic inver-
sion), which prevents the formation of caprocks of the
density type.
The screening capacity of caprocks is estimated
based on the structure of pore space, microfracturing,
and permeability, as well as the value of gas pressure
(Khanin et al., 1975). The gas pressure characterizes
the excess pressure (in comparison with the lithostatic
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42
181
one), at which fluids can break through the host rocks
in hydrocarbon pools.
CLAYEY CAPROCKS
Genetic Types of Clayey Sediments
Clayey sediments can accumulate under pelagic,
hemipelagic, shelf, littoral, and continental conditions.
Pelagic sediments are deposited in both deep-water (up
to several kilometers) and shallow-water (up to first
tens of meters) zones, which represent the distal parts
of clinoforms, submarine fans, and prodeltas that can
entrap virtually all terrigenous materials transported to
sedimentary basin. The content of terrigenous material
in clays gradually increases in the genetic series rang-
ing from the pelagic to continental sediments. This
material is virtually absent in deep-water pelagic clays
and maximum in continental clays.
According to the data of V.V. Eremeev (Osipov et
al., 2001), deep-water clayey sediments are dominated
by smectite and mixed-layer (illitesmectite) minerals.
Organic matter is represented by products of the decay
of animal and plant organisms. In clayey sediments of
shelf areas, smectites and mixed-layer minerals are
supplemented with a significant amount of illite,
sapropel organic matter of the algal type, and plant
organics of the humus type. In littoral and continental
clayey sediments, kaolinite, chlorite, and illite prevail.
Organic matter is mainly represented by humic plant
remnants. A significant part of clayey sediments is
occupied by water in the free, physically and chemi-
cally bonded state. Due to loose adhesion of hard parti-
cles, the content of pore space in clayey sediments can
reach 8595 vol %.
Based on the facies setting of clays, their mineral
composition, lithological homogeneity, permeability,
and other characteristics, caprocks are divided into
seven classes (Osipov et al., 2001).
Postsedimentary Processes of the Formation
and Destruction of Clayey Caprocks
Lithification
Clayey sediments are transformed into rocks during
the process of lithification. The rocks become denser,
their microtexture acquires homogeneity, and total and
effective porosities decrease. The best isolating proper-
ties are observed in deep-water pelagic sediments that
form caprocks of classes I and II. Mineral composition,
microtexture, and the absence of drainage interlayers
for dehydration promote the slow progressive compac-
tion of rocks. During the following stages of lithogene-
sis and metagenesis, the permeability of caprocks of
classes I and II continue to fall because of the decrease
of total and effective porosity (Fig. 1).
The exclusively high dispersity and homogeneity of
the microtexture sometimes fosters the preservation of
rock plasticity at great depths, and their deformation
No. 2 2007
182 OVCHARENKO et al.
Porosity n, %
0 10 20 30 40 50
1000
3
2000
Depth h, m
3000
2 after (Khanin, 1969). (1) Devonian rocks of the VolgaUral
4000
5000 1 leum pools and serve as low-permeable zones for gas.
6000
Fig. 1. Comparative estimation of porosity vs. depth rela-
tionship for caprocks of different classes, after (Osipov et
al., 2001). (13) Classes of caprocks: (1) I and II; (2) III
and IV; (3) VVII.
(creep) takes place without the destruction of continu-
ity. Caprocks of classes I and II have the best isolating
properties at great depths. They represent good
caprocks for oil-and-gas pools.
Sediments of shelf areas, deep-water hemipelagic,
and turbidite sediments form caprocks of classes III and
IV. They have a coarse-cellular microtexture composed
of microaggregates of illite and mixed-layer minerals.
The grade of their lithification is higher than that of
deep-water pelagic sediments (Fig. 1). However, effec-
tive porosity of rocks is better preserved because of the
heterogeneity of their microtexture and relatively low
hydrophilic property of the minerals. The best screen-
ing capacity is observed at a depth 10001200 m. Their
further compaction is accompanied by cementation and
increase of hardness and fragility of the structure. At a
depth of 18002300 m, caprocks of classes III and IV
demonstrate a gradual increase of microfracturing and
permeability. At a depth of 25003000 m, the adsorp-
tion water is removed owing to thermodynamic pro-
cesses, and the rock is deprived of its screening proper-
ties. Caprocks of classes III and IV show the best
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
Density, g/cm3
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
2000
1
2500
Depth h, m
2
3000
3500
Fig. 2. Compaction gradient of clayey rocks vs. their age,
petroliferous province; (2) Upper JurassicLower Creta-
ceous rocks of the eastern Fore-Caucasus.
screening capacity at a depth of 10002500 m and the
total porosity is 1225%. They safely seal off petro-
Littoral and terrestrial sediments form caprocks of
classes VVII. They are heterogeneous and contain
interlayers and lenses of coarse material. These rocks
are characterized by differentiated coarse-cellular
microtexture with inclusions of sandysilty particles.
The pore water is generally situated in the free phase.
The grade of compaction of littoral and terrestrial rocks
is maximum (Fig. 1). At the beginning of the middle
stage of catagenesis (porosity 1520%), the rocks have
the best screening properties. Despite significant com-
paction, a large portion of pore space is preserved, and
the permeability is not lower than 102 mD. Early
cementation and preservation of inhomogeneities of the
microtexture provoke the beginning of microfracturing
at a relatively shallow depth (up to 1800 m). The subse-
quent progressive increase of fracturing leads to the
complete loss of screening properties of rocks.
Caprocks of classes VVII preserve their best screening
properties at a depth of 12001800 m. They seal off oil
insufficiently and are virtually permeable for gas. How-
ever, these regularities have exceptions. For example,
clayey caprocks of classes VVII occurring at a depth
of some hundreds of meters have preserved the large
Karazhanbas oilfield in the Buzachi Peninsula.
Relationship between lithification of sediments ver-
sus depth of sedimentation and genetic type of clayey
sediments is complicated by a number of other factors.
In particular, the age of sediments also affects their gra-
dient of compaction (Fig. 2): the gradient is higher in
younger sediments than in ancient ones (Khanin,
1969).
The porosity of lithologically similar caprocks
decreases with increase of their age (Shardanov and
Vol. 42 No. 2 2007
 CAPROCKS IN HYDROCARBON FIELDS
Porosity n, %
0 10 20 30 40 50
1000
Depth h, m
2000
3000
Fig. 3. Porosity vs. depth relationship for clayey caprocks of
classes I and II, after (Osipov et al., 2001).
Kuzmenko, 1966). Fracturing in caprocks of classes
IIIVII shows a positive correlation with the gradient of
lithostatic pressure and temperature due to the increase
of strength, as well as loss of adsorbed water, argilliza-
tion, and schistosity (Osipov et al., 2001).
According to (Prozorovich, 1972), the density of
microfractures formed in the process of lithification has
an inverse correlation with the thickness of caprocks.
Brittle varieties of rocks within hard or plastic rocks are
characterized by increased microfracturing. The
microfracturing is also high in plastic rocks situated
between brittle rock beds of fragile rocks. Increase in
hardness of rocks, which underlie and overlie the
caprock, leads to increase of fracturing and, conse-
quently, deterioration of the isolating properties (Osi-
pov et al., 2001). Other conditions being equal, the lith-
ification microfracturing is higher on limbs and pericli-
nal terminations of uplifts (Prozorovich, 1972).
In the course of secondary rock transformations, the
local thermobaric anomalies provoke changes in phys-
ical properties of rocks. The transformation of smectite
into hydromicas is accompanied by the formation of
caverns and fractures. Tectonic lateral stresses promote
the lamination of clays into thin plates, flakes, and
lamellae, as well as the formation of interlamellar
spaces. The process of decompaction may be related to
a short-term postsedimentary subsidence of primarily
layered clays. These processes create in caprocks local
zones of secondary reservoirs, which can be filled with
hydrocarbons (Kholodov et al., 1999, 2001; Chepak et
al., 1988). The secondary reservoir zones frequently
arise during the catagenesis of organic-rich clayey sed-
iments. The generation of hydrocarbons from dispersed
organic matter and the subsequent expansion of rocks
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42
183
Porosity n, %
0 10 20 30 40 50
1000
Depth h, m
2000
3000
4000
Fig. 4. Porosity vs. depth relationship for clayey caprocks of
classes III and IV, after (Osipov et al., 2001).
lead to the development of anomalously high formation
pressure and hydraulic rupture.
Due to the processes described above, as well as
irregular lateral distribution of organic matter and car-
bonates, the lithification is accompanied by fracturing,
parallel bedding, and decompaction zones.
Fracturing and cavern porosity of rocks are aug-
mented owing to the dissolution of calcite and other
minerals during their interaction with organic carbon.
Clayey caprocks in relatively discontinuous local areas
are transformed into reservoir rocks (Sokolov and
Khramova, 1989; Kleshchev et al., 1995; Vartanyan and
Yusupova, 2000).
Petrophysical Parameters
Clayey caprocks are characterized by the following
petrophysical parameters: density of clays 1.20
2.40 g/cm3 (Vp = 0.33.0 km/c), density of siltstones
1.702.90 g/cm3 (Vp = 0.94.5 km/s) (Petrofiziches-
kaya, 1985).
During lithogenesis, clayey sediments and rocks
undergo petrophysical alterations. According to (Osi-
pov et al., 2001), the porosity diminishes from 3040 to
n% in sediments and rocks all types of caprocks
(Figs. 35). The dependence of open porosity on depth
of occurrence of sediments and rocks is shown in
Fig. 6. Microfracturing in caprocks of classes IIIVII
increases with depth.
Permeability of clayey sediments and rocks
decreases with increase of their density (Fig. 7). In
caprocks of classes I and II unaffected by microfractur-
ing, permeability decreases to 105 mD already at a
depth of 400600 m. They are invariantly impermeable
No. 2 2007
184 OVCHARENKO et al.

Porosity n, % 0 13 16
15
0 10 20 30 40 50 7 11
4
0.5

Recent depth of rock occurrence, km

6 14
12 1718
20
500 1.0 5 8 19

3
1

1000 1.5 10

2
Depth h, m

2.0
1500 14
9
2.5
2000
3.0
12
2500 3.5
10

10 20 30 40 50
Open porosity, %
3000
Fig. 5. Microfracturing vs. depth relationship for clayey Fig. 6. Variation of open porosity vs. depth of occurrence of
caprocks of classes I and II (Osipov et al., 2001). clayey sediments and rocks for different petroleum fields,
after (Osipov et al., 2001). Fields: (1) Troptun; (2) Lopatin;
(3) Polyanka; (4) Srednie Langry; (5) Yuzhnoe Gyrgylani;
for hydrocarbons in deeper zones. Permeability of (6) Mukhto; (7) Erri; (8) Yuzhnyi Komulan; (9) Katangli;
(10) Astrakhan; (11) Vostochnyi Ossoi; (12) Uzlovaya;
caprocks of classes III and IV sharply drops with depth, (13) Severo-Dolinsk; (14) Yuzhno-Lugovskaya; (15) Ma-
whereas permeability of caprocks of classes VVII linkovskaya; (16) Zelenodolsk; (17) Lugovskaya;
slowly diminishes and reaches its minimum values (18) Yuzhno-Lugovskaya (5); (19) Yuzhno-Lugovskaya
(102 mD) at a depth of 12001800 m. In deeper zones, (7); (20) Taranaisk.
permeability increases due to the appearance of addi-
tional microfracturing. Based on screening capacity, become higher (Fig. 8). Dry organic matter increases
Khanin (1969) divided clayey caprocks into five groups interval velocities, especially, of transverse waves.
(table). Groups A and B correspond to clayey caprocks
of classes I and II in the classification proposed in (Osi- In the North Kuzyabaev field, the clayey caprock of
pov et al., 2001); group C, to classes III and IV; and the Middle Devonian Ardatov Horizon, which serves as
group D to classes VVII. a screen for the Vorobev productive bed, is character-
ized by interval velocity of 4000 m/s, thickness ~10 m,
Interval velocities in clayey caprocks depend on and depth of occurrence 3600 m. The clayey caprock of
their class, density, and porosity. The lowest interval the Upper Devonian Timan (Kynov) Horizon, which
velocities are recorded in clayey caprocks of classes I serves as a screen for the Pasha productive bed, is char-
and II; the highest ones, in rocks of classes VVII. With acterized by an interval velocity of 3680 m/s (thickness
increasing density and decreasing porosity, velocities ~10 m, depth of occurrence 3450 m). The lower clayey
caprock of the Middle Carboniferous Vereya Horizon
(screen for the Bashkirian productive bed) is character-
Estimation scale of screening capacity of clayey rocks (after ized by interval velocity of 3850 m/c (thickness ~50 m,
Khanin, 1969) depth 2150 m). The upper caprock of the Vereya Hori-
zon (screen for the productive bed) has an interval
Pressure of
Maximum Absolute
breakthrough
velocity of 3700 m (thickness ~40 m, depth of occur-
pore gas per- Screening rence 2050 m).
Group across kero-
diameter meability capacity
sene-saturated
(m) (mD) The computer-based complex interpretation of geo-
rock, atm
physical parameters yielded reliable data on the distri-
A 0.01 106 120 Very high bution of density and interval velocity in clayey
caprocks. Thus, in the Astrakhan Uplift of the North
B 0.05 105 80 High Caspian Basin (Well 32, interval 716742 m, Paleo-
C 0.3 104 56 Intermediate gene clays), the density changes from 1.61 to 2.0 g/cm3
D 2 103 30 Reduced and the interval velocity is 2.12.7 km/s. In Triassic
Lower Cretaceous clays (interval 9801188 m), the
E 10 102 5 Low density varies from 1.8 to 2.15 g/cm3 and the interval

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42 No. 2 2007

 CAPROCKS IN HYDROCARBON FIELDS
Permeability, mD
106 104 102 100
2.0
2.1
2.2
Density, g/cm3
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Fig. 7. Permeability of clayey rocks vs. their density rela-
tionship, after (Khanin, 1969).
velocity is 2.32.8 km/s. Along the northeastern periph-
ery of the North Caspian Basin (Varknavt Field, Well 1,
interval 18482016 m, suprasalt Upper PermianTrias-
sic clays), the density changes from 1.5 to 2.3 g/cm3
and the interval velocity varies from 2.1 to 3.8 km/s. In
the Karachaganak atoll of the North Caspian Basin
(Well D-1, interval 170768 m, TriassicJurassic
clays), the density changes from 1.51 to 2.01 g/cm3 and
the interval velocity is 2.12.7 km/s. A similar pattern
is also recorded in other areas of sedimentary basins.
The data given above indicate that sharp changes of
density and interval velocity in clayey caprocks are
most likely to be related to complex features of their
lithological composition (density up to 2 g/cm3, veloc-
ity up to 4100 m/s).
A similar pattern is observed in the lateral distribu-
tion of coeval layers in clayey caprocks. Changes in
density and interval velocity can most probably be ini-
tiated by the concentration of sand and carbonatization
in thin clayey interlayers within the caprocks. Inhomo-
geneity of their structure revealed by detailed investiga-
tions is responsible for degradation of isolating proper-
ties of clayey beds. Sophisticated lithological changes
played a crucial role in their petrophysical parameters.
Thus, study of clayey caprocks and their isolating prop-
erties require a sufficiently high detailed approach.
The depth of occurrence and age of clayey caprocks
are reflected in their petrophysical parameters,
although lithological changes are absent. Microfractur-
ing diminishes interval velocities, particularly, of trans-
verse waves (Dzeban and Dasaev, 1978).
Secondary alterations can change petrophysical
parameters of clayey rocks in local areas in both verti-
cal and lateral directions. Consequently, caprocks are
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42
185
7
6
5
4
3
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 8. Interval velocities in clays in the Timan Horizon of
the Upper Devonian vs. total porosity.
transformed into lenslike zones of reservoir rocks
(Fig. 9). They are characterized by decrease in interval
velocities, especially clearly recorded for transverse
waves and less expressed for longitudinal waves. In
lenslike hydrocarbon-saturated reservoirs of clay mem-
bers, interval velocity of transverse waves increases by
1015%.
CARBONATE CAPROCKS
Carbonate caprocks occupy the second place in sig-
nificance after clayey caprocks. They serve as screen
for the majority of hydrocarbon pools in carbonate
porous and fractured reservoirs. Carbonate caprocks,
especially their secondary alternations and petrophysi-
cal parameters, are much less studied.
Intervals enriched in clayey material are most per-
spective for the formation of caprocks in carbonates
(Prozorovich, 1972). According to (Bagrintseva, 1999),
carbonate caprocks are related to chemogenic and bio-
chemogenic (relatively deep-water sedimentary) facies
with a relatively low sedimentation rate. The formation
of carbonate caprocks is favored by low hydrodynamic
activity, high water salinity, low temperature, high
manganese concentration, accumulation of primary
dolomites, small (<0.05 mm) size of particles, their
poor sorting, and high content of clayey material
(>15%).
In the process of lithogenesis, carbonate caprocks
are subjected to compaction, recrystallization, and sec-
ondary alterations (dolomitization, sulfatization, and
silicification). In this process, the size of pore channels
increases, on the one hand, and sedimentary porosity
decreases, on the other hand. Consequently, communi-
No. 2 2007
186 OVCHARENKO et al.

2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

3.40

3.45

3.50

3.55

3.60

3.65

3.70

3.75

3.80

3.85

3.90
1 2

Fig. 9. Instant magnitude section illustrating local zones of increased fracturing of Maikop clays in the Central Fore-Caucasus
region. (1) Reflectors; (2) zone of increased fracturing.

cation of pore channels deteriorates because of their
mineral infilling.
Caprocks in lithified carbonate rocks can occupy
regional scale in both lateral and vertical directions.
They can preserve hydrocarbon pools related to initial
(sedimentary) porous reservoirs. Local zones of initial
sedimentary porous and secondary lithified fractured
reservoirs saturated with hydrocarbon fluids can later-
( 100)
75
65
ally and vertically merge with nonreservoir varieties of
carbonates. In this case, the latter variety plays the role
of caprocks for hydrocarbon pools. In general, the qual-
ity of carbonate caprocks is significantly lower than
that of clayey rocks. Therefore, they most frequently do
not separate or limit the principal petroliferous ele-
ments of sedimentary basins.
Carbonate caprocks are characterized by the follow-
ing petrophysical parameters (density and velocity of
longitudinal waves, respectively): limestones 1.80
2.90 g/cm3, 1.05.5 km/s; dolomites 3.04.90 g/cm3,
0.96.3 km/s; and marls 1.502.80 g/cm3, 1.34.5 km/s
(Fizicheskie svoistva, 1975). The dependence of
interval velocity on total porosity is shown in Fig. 10.

EVAPORITIC CAPROCKS
55
Evaporitic caprocks in halogenic basins have
A, Vak

regional significance. They play a crucial role in the

formation of hydrocarbon fields. The base of evaporitic
45 sections generally includes sulfatecarbonate rocks
overlain by rock salt. In the process of lithogenesis, the
residual brine is squeezed out into the underlying sul-
35 fatecarbonate sediments. Thus, their screening proper-
ties are upgraded and dense (virtually massive) evapor-
itic rocks are formed. The role of sulfatecarbonate
rocks as caprocks is particularly important, because
25 highly plastic halogenic rocks are squeezed out into salt
0 10 20 30 40 50
A, Ko domes. They are absent in interdome depressions,
where the suprasalt rocks overlie basal layers of the
Fig. 10. Interval velocity in Devonian carbonates on the evaporitic sequence. In such cases, the role of evapor-
northern slope of the North Caspian Basin vs. total porosity. itic caprock is played exclusively by sulfatecarbonate

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42 No. 2 2007

 CAPROCKS IN HYDROCARBON FIELDS
SW
5 km
Fig. 11. Image of cryogenic gas hydrate caprock in a fragment of seismic section, after (Shlezinger, 1998).
rocks, which are not as plastic as halogenic rocks and
actually do not participate in the structure of salt
domes.
Isolating properties of evaporitic rocks are upgraded
with increase in their grain size and depth of occur-
rence. At shallow depths, they generally do not serve as
caprocks (Kalinko, 1970). Evaporitic caprocks with a
thickness of up to 20 m provide the reliable conserva-
tion of hydrocarbon pools. They are characterized by
the following petrophysical parameters (density and
velocity of longitudinal waves, respectively): gypsum
2.10 to 2.50 g/cm3, 1.54.6 km/s; anhydrite 2.40
2.90 g/cm3, 1.56.0 km/s; and rock salt 2.15
2.30 g/cm3, 4.55.5 km/s (Petrofizicheskaya kharakte-
ristika, 1985).
Carbonate and, particularly, evaporitic rocks can
include the so-called false caprocks (Ilin and Stroga-
nov, 1981; Ilin et al., 1983). In general, they are com-
posed of anhydrites with primary or secondary fractur-
ing and weak permeability. Hydrocarbon gases (and oil
as well in some places) squeeze out into the false
caprocks to the real caprocks. Based on seismic data,
structural traps are frequently recorded at the base of
the false caprock. Therefore, the filling of such traps
turns out to be incomplete. The value of underfilling of
the trap is defined by the thickness of the false caprock.
CRYOGENIC CAPROCKS
Cryogenic rocks serve as specific caprocks
(Geologiya i geokhimiya, 2000). Their formation is
related to permafrost in subpolar areas of northern and
southern latitudes. They are developed in Greenland,
northern Siberia, United States, Canada, and Antarctic.
The thickness of frozen rocks reaches 800900 m. Sim-
ilar properties are observed in rocks containing gas
hydrates. They are formed at upper levels of the Earths
crust saturated with hydrocarbon gases (mainly, meth-
ane and carbon dioxide). Gas hydrates are developed
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42
187
gas hydrate NW
base 4
6
over large territories with cold climate, as well as in
sediments of relatively deep-water lakes, seas, and
oceans (Fig. 11). They are typically formed at a pres-
sure of 510 MPa and a temperature of ~0C. Caprocks
are formed in cryogenic sequences due to the filling of
pore spaces and fractures with ice and gas hydrates.
They can serve as reliable caprocks for large gas fields
in the northern West Siberian Plate.
POSSIBILITY OF PREDICTION
AND IDENTIFICATION OF CAPROCKS IN ROCK
SEQUENCES BY GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Seismic Prospecting
Seismic prospecting is the most reliable method for
the prediction and identification of caprocks and the
estimation of their quality. In terrigenous rocks, they
are usually characterized by interval velocities 0.5
1 km/s less than those in the underlying and overlying
rocks. The lowermost interval velocities are recorded in
clayey caprocks of pelagic sediments (classes I and II).
Generally, interval velocities in them do not exceed
2.02.5 km/s. In clayey caprocks composed of hemipe-
lagic, turbidite, and shelf rocks (classes III and IV),
interval velocities increase to 2.53.0 km/s. Clayey
screens made up of littoral and continental sediments
(classes VVII) are characterized by maximum veloci-
ties (3.03.5 km/s). Carbonatization of rocks can
increase interval velocities in clayey caprocks. How-
ever, they will be significantly lower than in the under-
lying and overlying parts of the sequence.
Carbonate caprocks are usually composed of
chemogenic and biochemogenic varieties with lower
(<4 km/s) interval velocities. In the process of lithifica-
tion of carbonate rocks, high-velocity (up to 6.0
6.3 km/s) caprocks are formed. Thus, caprocks can be
distinguished in carbonate sequence based on both
reduced values of interval velocities (typical of primary
No. 2 2007
188 OVCHARENKO et al.
1
2
3
Fig. 12. Lithological section of a complicated sedimentary object at the floor of the North Caspian Basin. (1) Sandy units; (2) clayey
boundaries; (3) faults.
sedimentary bodies) and higher velocities (typical of
secondary lithified rocks).
Specialists from the Geoneftegaz Scientific-Indus-
trial Center have elaborated an optimization technology
for the dynamic interpretation of seismic CDP time-
sections (Kondratev et al., 1996; Novye geofi-
zicheskie, 2001). This technology of the identifica-
tion of reservoirs in rock sequences based on acoustic
parameters can be successfully applied for the interpre-
tation of caprocks (particularly, terrigenous varieties).
Combination of the optimization technology with geo-
logical information will allow us to define reliably the
lateral extent of caprocks and the possibility of the for-
mation of hydrocarbon traps.
The seismic wave pattern is a reliable criterion of
the presence of caprocks in the section. Caprocks of
classes I and II in terrigenous rocks are characterized by
dynamically prominent reflections. Reference reflec-
tors are associated with them. For example, in the West
Siberian, Turanian, and Scythian plates, the reference
reflector stretching over many thousands of kilometers
is related to the regional Upper Jurassic caprock. The
dynamic expression of reflectors is attenuated and they
are shorter in the case of caprocks of classes III and IV.
Caprocks of classes VVII are characterized by lower-
amplitude and usually discontinuous reflectors.
Evaporitic caprocks are deciphered based on their basal
beds composed by sulfatecarbonate rocks. They pro-
duce dynamically prominent continuous reflectors. In
the North Caspian Basin, such a reflector (P1) lies at the
top of subsalt rocks. Cryogenic caprocks weaken and
disturb seismic records. Therefore, they are clearly
identified in seismic records (Fig. 11).
Local caprocks are identified based on the spectral-
time analysis (STA), which makes it possible to estab-
lish and outline seismocyclites. Continuous changes of
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
seismoacoustic properties in them can be used to inter-
pret their lithological composition (Strukturno-forma-
tsionnaya, 1990). This method was used for deci-
phering the structure of several complicated sedimen-
tary objects (the floor of the North Caspian Sea, the
northern slope of the West Kuban Trough, and others).
The seismoacoustic studies made it possible to subdi-
vide rocks of these objects into units of predominantly
sandy composition and confining horizons (caprocks)
of predominantly clayey composition (Fig. 12). The
sandy units are characterized by an interval velocity of
35004500 m/s (Kpor = 1530%). The combination of
the STA data and dynamic interpretation shows that
interval velocities are reduced in the lateral direction to
25003000 m/s in places where sandy rocks are virtu-
ally transformed into caprocks (Fig. 13). At the same
time, interval velocities increase up to 30003500 m/s
in clay horizons and they lose the screening properties
(Fig. 14).
High-Resolution Electrical Survey with Measurements
of Induced Polarization, Radiometry, Thermometry,
and Geochemical Observations
A halo of secondary rocks with anomalous petro-
physical properties is formed above a hydrocarbon
pool. This can be recorded using high-resolution geo-
electrics with measurements of the parameter of
induced polarization, radiometry, thermometry, and
geochemical observations. The thickness of the halo is
defined by the quality of caprocks. The screening
capacity of caprocks has a negative correlation with the
dimension of the halo of altered rocks above a hydro-
carbon pool. The halos have a longer lifetime than the
pool. Therefore, petrophysical anomalies can be related
to the completely destroyed pools. Thus, the geophysi-
Vol. 42 No. 2 2007
 CAPROCKS IN HYDROCARBON FIELDS 189

3 60 0 0

00

350
3700
0
37 360
3 6 00
3

60 0
00
3 80
3 70

3600 370
0 36
0 3800

0
3700
0
50

34 3
00 33 3 50 0
0
0
34

00 33 3 6 00
00
3 4 00 0
360
34
3400

3 6 00
00

00
36

37
3 3 00

00
4 00

3
3600 3 50 0

0 1.5 3.0 km 1 2 3000 3 4

Fig. 13. Map of interval velocities reflecting the lateral interrelations between caprocks and reservoir rocks at the floor of the North
Caspian Basin. (1) Predominant caprocks; (2) predominant reservoir rocks; (3) contour lines of interval velocities; (4) faults.

31
3 100

00
3 000

290 0
0 00

3
30
0

00

320 0
310
3300
3100
00

00
32
31

0 0
20
3300

3 20
3

0 0
330
0

33 0 0
32

31
0
320
00

3 6 0 0 34 0 0
29 0

32
00
0
320

00
3 3 0 3 7 3 20 0 3 000
00
370

5 00 0 320
3

0
3 50 32 0 0
33

00

0
330
360 0
00

3 4 00
33
330

3200
0

0
33
3200
0

3300

0 1.5 3.0 km

Fig. 14. Map of interval velocities reflecting the lateral relationships between caprocks and reservoir rocks at the floor of the North
Caspian Basin. See Fig 13 for legend.

cal methods indicated above allow us to predict the their presence and high screening properties govern the
quality of caprocks. preservation of hydrocarbon pools in traps.
Analysis of the age and lithology of rocks in the sed-
COMBINED GEOLOGICAL-GEOPHYSICAL imentary basin cover and determination of the genetic
APPROACH TO THE IDENTIFICATION type of rocks make it possible to recognize the possible
AND ESTIMATION OF THE QUALITY age intervals, lithology, and petrophysical properties of
OF CAPROCKS FOR THE PREDICTION rocks that can serve as regional, zonal, and local
OF HYDROCARBON POOLS caprocks for hydrocarbon pools. The regional
caprocks, which separate petroliferous levels, are of the
When predicting hydrocarbon pools based on the highest interest. The zonal caprocks seal off in vertical
combined geological-geophysical data, the caprocks and lateral directions groups of pools or separate pools
are not usually taken into account properly, although of conjugate hydrocarbon fields. The local caprocks

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42 No. 2 2007

190 OVCHARENKO et al.
seal off separate hydrocarbon pools in an individual
field and commonly do not extend beyond the field.
Evaporitic and cryogenic caprocks do not demand a
special analysis for the elucidation of their screening
properties. They serve as regional high-quality
caprocks for all types of hydrocarbon fields located at a
depth of first hundreds of meters.
The preliminary analysis allows us to outline the
specific sedimentation parameters favorable for the for-
mation of carbonate caprocks, e.g., regressive intervals
of sequences indicated by sedimentary cyclothems
(based on the geophysical well log, core, and seismic
data). These intervals are usually made up of
chemogenic and biochemogenic relatively deep-water
facies with high concentration of clayey material. Inter-
val velocities of longitudinal waves in carbonate
caprocks are lower or higher than in the overlying and
underlying parts of the sequence.
Clayey caprocks need a profound detailed study
mainly based on the regional-scale seismic stratigraphy
and lithostructural interpretation. First, it is necessary
to establish the types of clayey caprocks in the analyzed
section. As a rule, rock sequences in sedimentary cover,
thickness of different-aged rocks, their lithological
composition, and depths of sedimentation are known
for the principal petroliferous basins of Russia. Analy-
sis of these materials allows one to recognize regional
clayey caprocks and their possible types. Data on the
depth of occurrence of caprocks make it possible to
define the rate of lithogenetic transformations and elu-
cidate screening properties of such rocks.
Clayey caprocks of classes I and II are confined to
comparatively deep-water pelagic sediments, which
can be revealed in the basin based on the presence of
topographic depressions surrounded by paleoslopes.
Such caprocks are characterized by persistent and
dynamically prominent reflectors of the regional scale
with a relatively small thickness (up to a few hundreds
of meters).
Turbidites and hemipelagic sediments make up
clayey caprocks of classes III and IV. They are prima-
rily associated with topographic depressions sur-
rounded by paleoslopes, where the overlapping turbid-
ite sediments are clearly recorded in seismic sections of
reflected waves. Hemipelagic sediments occupy a tran-
sitional lateral position between turbidites and pelagic
sediments. The main element of clayey caprocks of
these classes is represented by shelf sediments that are
developed in epicontinental basins. They are character-
ized by synsedimentary variation in thickness related to
the structural pattern. Shelf facies are characterized by
continuous reflectors.
Clayey caprocks of classes VVII are made up of lit-
toral and continental sediments. The seismic analysis
makes it possible to distinguish such caprocks based on
the deterioration of dynamic pattern and shortening of
reflectors, the presence of bar-type deposits, land inci-
sions, and other parameters. This method also makes it
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
possible to outline changes in screening properties
depending on the class of caprocks and depth of their
occurrence. In this relation, velocity parameters of reli-
able caprocks must be defined in each specific case
based on the geophysical well logging data. As a rule,
these caprocks are characterized by the minimum val-
ues of the interval acoustic impedance. Increase of the
impedance along the strike can be caused by carbonati-
zation or sand accumulation on the caprock, i.e., dete-
rioration of screening properties. Thus, we can outline
caprocks with optimal properties in plan view. They are
most favorable for the prediction of petroleum potential
based on other criteria.
Data on the detailed complex computer processing
of geophysical well log data make it possible to
appraise the defined caprocks of different classes in
terms of their vertical (often, lateral) homogeneity.
Such estimates provide an additional substantiation of
isolating properties of caprocks. Materials of the pro-
cessing must be used for the interpretation of seismic
survey data.
REFERENCES
Bagrintseva, K.I., Usloviya obrazovaniya i svoistva karbon-
atnykh kollektorov nefti i gaza (Formation Conditions and
Properties of Carbonate Oil-and-Gas Reservoirs), Moscow:
RGGU, 1999.
Chepak, G.N., Borodin, Ya.F., Shaposhnikov, V.M., et al.,
Lithological and Geophysical Indicators for Forecasting
Local Petroleum Potential in the Lower Maikop Mudstone
Sequence in the Eastern Ciscaucasus Region, in Indikatory
obstanovok formirovaniya zalezhei uglevodorodov (Indica-
tors of Formation Environments of Hydrocarbon Pools),
Moscow: Nauka, 1988, pp. 3237.
Chepak, G.N., Shaposhnikov, V.M., Naryzhnyi, P.S., et al.,
Specific Features of the Oligocene Mudstone Sequence in
the Eastern Ciscaucasus Region, Geol. Nefti Gaza, 1983,
no. 8, pp. 3740.
Dzeban, I.P. and Dasaev, Ya.Kh., The Influence of Fracturing
and Cavern Porosity on Longitudinal and Transverse Wave
Velocities and Their Ratios, Geol. Razved., 1978, no. 12,
pp. 138142.
Fizicheskie svoistva osadochnogo chekhla Vostochno-
Evropeiskoi platformy (Physical Properties of the Sedimen-
tary Cover of the East European Platform), Podoba, N.V. and
Ozerskaya, M.L., Eds., Moscow: Nedra, 1975.
Gabrielyants, G.A., Geologiya. Poiski i razvedka neftyanykh
i gazovykh mestorozhdenii (Geology: Exploration of Oil-
and-Gas Fields), Moscow: Nedra, 2000.
Geologiya i geokhimiya nefti i gaza (Petroleum Geology and
Geochemistry), Moscow: Nedra, 1993.
Geologiya i geokhimiya nefti i gaza (Petroleum Geology and
Geochemistry), Moscow: Mosk. Gos. Univ., 2000.
Ilin, V.D. and Stroganov, V.P., Influence of Lower Anhy-
drites on the Degree of Filling of Reef Massifs with Hydro-
carbons in Western Uzbekistan, Neft. Promyshlennost. Ser.
Neftegaz. Geol. Geofiz., 1981, no. 4, pp. 1419.
Ilin, V.D., Nemchenko, N.N., and Takaev, Yu.G., Influence
of False Caprocks on the Degree of Filling of Structures
Vol. 42 No. 2 2007
 CAPROCKS IN HYDROCARBON FIELDS
with Gas in Northern West Siberia, Geol. Nefti Gaza, 1983,
no. 2, pp. 1821.
Kalinko, M.K., Fluid-Confining Barriers and Their Influence
on the Distribution of Petroleum Fields, in Sostoyanie i zada-
chi sovetskoi litologii (State and Objectives of Soviet Lithol-
ogy), Moscow: Nauka, 1970, pp. 7781.
Khanin, A.A., Porody kollektory nefti i gaza i ikh izuchenie
(Petroleum Reservoir Rocks and Their Study), Moscow:
Nedra, 1969.
Khanin, A.A., Abdurakhmanov, K.A., Koloskova, M.I., et al.,
Physical Methods for the Study and Assessment of the
Screening Capacity of Mudstones, in Poiski i razvedka
gazovykh mestorozhdenii (Prospecting and Exploration for
Gas Fields), Moscow: Nedra, 1975, pp. 131137.
Kholodov, V.N. and Nedumov, R.I., Zone of Catagenetic
Hydromicatization of ClaysAn Area of Intense Redistribu-
tion of Chemical Elements: Communication 1. Geological
Lithological Features and Formation Mechanism of Elision
Systems in the Ciscaucasus Region, Litol. Polezn. Iskop.,
2001, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 563582 [Lithol. Miner. Resour.
(Engl. Transl.), 2001, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 493510].
Kholodov, V.N., Kuleshov, V.N., and Nedumov, R.I., Catage-
netic Transformations and Isotopic Composition of Carbon-
ates in Tertiary Rocks: Evidence from Kuban Superdeep
Boreholes (SGS-1 and SGS-2), Litol. Polezn. Iskop., 1999,
vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 4658 [Lithol. Miner. Resour. (Engl.
Transl.), 1999, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 3747].
Kleshchev, K.A., Petrov, A.I., and Shein, V.S., Geodinamika
i novye tipy prirodnykh rezervuarov nefti i gaza (Geodynam-
ics and New Types of Petroleum Reservoirs), Moscow:
Nedra, 1995.
Kondratev, I.K., Bondarenko, M.T., and Kamenev, S.P., The
Dynamic Interpretation of Seismic Data for the Solution of
Petroleum-Related Geological Problems, Geofizika, 1996,
nos. 56, pp. 4147.
Novye geofizicheskie tekhnologii prognozirovaniya neftega-
zonosnosti (New Geophysical Techniques for Forecasting the
Petroleum Potential), Moscow: Nauchnyi Mir, 2001.
Osipov, V.I., Sokolov, V.N., and Eremeev, V.V., Glinistye
pokryshki neftyanykh i gazovykh mestorozhdenii (Clayey
Caprocks of Petroleum Fields), Moscow: Nauka, 2001.
LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 42
191
Ovcharenko, A.V., Poiski i razvedka zalezhei nefti i gaza v
karbonatnykh kompleksakh drevnikh platform (Prospecting
and Exploration of Petroleum in Carbonate Complexes of
Ancient Platforms), Moscow: Nedra, 1985.
Petrofizicheskaya kharakteristika osadochnogo pokrova
neftegazonosnykh provintsii SSSR. Spravochnik (Petrophysi-
cal Characteristics of the Sedimentary Cover of Petroliferous
Provinces of the USSR: A Reference Book), Moscow:
Nedra, 1985.
Prozorovich, G.E., Pokryshki zalezhei nefti i gaza (Caprocks
of Petroleum Pools), Kulikov, P.K., Ed., Moscow: Nedra,
1972.
Shardanov, A.N. and Kuzmenko, Yu.D., Some Problems of
Clay Consolidation and Sedimentary Water Expulsion in the
MesozoicCenozoic Section of the Western Ciscaucasus
Region, in Voprosy geologii i neftegazonosnosti Krasnodar-
skogo kraya (Problems of Geology and Petroleum Potential
of the Krasnodar Krai), 1966, no. 17, pp. 346359.
Shlezinger, A.E., Regionalnaya seismostratigrafiya
(Regional Seismostratigraphy), Moscow: Nauchnyi Mir,
1998.
Sokolov, B.A. and Khramova, G.I., Modern Ideas of the For-
mation of Petroleum Pools in Maikop Rocks of the Ciscau-
casus Region, in Geologicheskie metody poiskov i razvedki
mestorozhdenii nefti i gaza: Obzor (Geological Methods for
the Prospecting and Exploration of Petroleum: An Over-
view), Moscow: Vses. Nauchno-Issled. Inst. Ekonom. Min-
eral. Syrya, 1989.
Strukturno-formatsionnaya interpretatsiya seismicheskikh
dannykh (Lithostructural Interpretation of Seismic Data),
Moscow: Nedra, 1990.
Vartanyan, G.S. and Yusupova, I.F., Fluid Sphere, Geody-
namic Filtration, and Formation of Fracture Permeability in
Sedimentary Rocks during Subsidence, in Geologiya,
metody poiskov, razvedki i otsenki mestorozhdenii toplivno-
energeticheskogo syrya. Obzornaya informatsiya (Geology
and Methods of Prospecting, Exploration, and Evaluation of
Fossil Fuel Rocks: An Overview), Moscow: Geoinformmark,
2000, vol. 6.
Vysotskii, I.V. and Vysotskii, V.I., Formirovanie neftyanykh,
gazovykh i kondensatnogazovykh mestorozhdenii (Formation
of Oil, Gas, and Gas Condensate Fields), Moscow: Nedra,
1986.
No. 2 2007