Haleema Khalid

Quantitative Research

Definition:

Quantitative research is the numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of
describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect. It is used in a wide variety of
natural and social sciences, including physics, biology, psychology, sociology and geology (Wikipedia
Encyclopedia, 2005).

Explanation

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that
can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other
defined variables and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses
measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods
are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods
include various forms of surveys online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-
to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and
systematic observations.

Quantitative research is a type of empirical investigation. That means the research focuses on verifiable
observation as opposed to theory or logic. Most often this type of research is expressed in numbers. A
researcher will represent and manipulate certain observations that are being studied and will attempt to
explain what it is being observed and what affect it has on the subject. The researcher will also determine
the changes. The overall goal is to convey numerical data to arrive at specific and observable conclusion.

Quantitative research is influenced by the empiricist paradigm, which means that it is concerned with
cause and effect of social phenomena and uses the data - which is based on empirical observation and
their critical interpretation.

Quantitative research design is the standard experimental method of most scientific disciplines.

These experiments are sometimes referred to as true science, and use traditional mathematical and
statistical means to measure results conclusively.

They are most commonly used by physical scientists, although social sciences, education and economics
have been known to use this type of research. It is the opposite of qualitative research. Quantitative
experiments all use a standard format, with a few minor inter-disciplinary differences, of generating a
hypothesis to be proved or disproved. This hypothesis must be provable by mathematical and statistical
means, and is the basis around which the whole experiment is designed.

Randomization of any study groups is essential, and a control group should be included, wherever
possible. A sound quantitative design should only manipulate one variable at a time, or statistical analysis
becomes cumbersome and open to question.

Ideally, the research should be constructed in a manner that allows others to repeat the experiment and
obtain similar results.

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Advantages

Quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or disproving a
hypothesis. The structure has not changed for centuries, so is standard across many scientific fields and
disciplines.

After statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive answer is reached, and the results can be
legitimately discussed and published. Quantitative experiments also filter out external factors, if properly
designed, and so the results gained can be seen as real and unbiased.

Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments,
leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible directions for follow up research to take.

Disadvantages

Quantitative experiments can be difficult and expensive and require a lot of time to perform. They must
be carefully planned to ensure that there is complete randomization and correct designation of control
groups.

Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis, which can be difficult, due to most
scientists not being statisticians. The field of statistical study is a whole scientific discipline and can be
difficult for non-mathematicians

In addition, the requirements for the successful statistical confirmation of results are very stringent, with
very few experiments comprehensively proving a hypothesis; there is usually some ambiguity, which
requires retesting and refinement to the design. This means another investment of time and resources must
be committed to fine-tune the results.

Quantitative research design also tends to generate only proved or unproven results, with there being very
little room for grey areas and uncertainty. For the social sciences, education, anthropology and
psychology, human nature is a lot more complex than just a simple yes or no response.

Qualities of quantitative research

1. Deductive

2. Begins from theory - i.e. it is established to test theory

3. Can be used to make generalisations and / or to test hypotheses

Popper and Falsification '...theories cannot be verified absolutely and forever; however, they can be
falsified - i.e. they can be proven to be wrong - given a certain degree of certainty (or probability)' (The
Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1959)

1. Testing theories can 'improve ' them, but it cannot 'prove' them

2. Quantitative research needs to be open and open to criticism - which should be at the heart of
quantitative research

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3. Theories that cannot be tested, re-tested and (based on their falsification) be changed should be
dismissed

4. Theory - concept - indicator

How Quantitative Research Works?

To better understand this style of research we need to break down its major tenets. There are three:
observing and explaining something that happens, collecting information, and analyzing the information.
The combination of these three parts is at work when presenting clear and well-researched findings.

Observing and explaining occurrences is the first step. The search for this explanation can be presented in
the form of a question. It can also be expressed as a hypothesis. In the case of a hypothesis the search for
an explanation is made as a statement to be proved or disproved depending on the goals of your
research.

The collection of information in quantitative research is what sets it apart from other types. Quantitative
research is focused specifically on numerical information, also known as data. Because the research
requires its conductor to use mathematical analysis to investigate what is being observed, the information
collected must be in numbers.

The last step of the research revolves around using mathematics to analyze the data collected. This is
done with statistics. When most people think about quantitative research they think specifically about
statistics.

Examples

1. Research that consists of the percentage amounts of all the elements that make up Earth's
atmosphere.

2. Survey that concludes that the average patient has to wait two hours in the waiting room of a
certain doctor before being selected.

3. An experiment in which group x was given two tablets of Aspirin a day and Group y was given
two tablets of a placebo a day where each participant is randomly assigned to one or other of the
groups. The numerical factors such as two tablets, percent of elements and the time of waiting
make the situations and results quantitative.

4. In finance, quantitative research into the stock markets is used to develop models to price
complex trades, and develop algorithms to exploit investment hypotheses, as seen in quantitative
hedge funds and Trading Strategy Indices.

Relationship with qualitative methods

In most physical and biological sciences, the use of either quantitative or qualitative methods is
uncontroversial, and each is used when appropriate. In the social sciences, particularly in sociology, social
anthropology and psychology, the use of one or other type of method can be a matter of controversy and
even ideology, with particular schools of thought within each discipline favouring one type of method and

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pouring scorn on to the other. The majority tendency throughout the history of social science, however, is
to use eclectic approaches-by combining both methods. Qualitative methods might be used to understand
the meaning of the conclusions produced by quantitative methods. Using quantitative methods, it is
possible to give precise and testable expression to qualitative ideas. This combination of quantitative and
qualitative data gathering is often referred to as mixed-methods research.

Different Types of Quantitative Research

The purpose of any scientific inquiry is to add to a body of knowledge that helps explain, predict, or
control events of interest in the domain. Although there are a myriad of specific research designs, each
falls under one of four general categories. There are several types of quantitative research. For instance, it
can be classified as

1) Survey research

2) Correlational research

3) Experimental research

4) causal-comparative research.

Each type has its own typical characteristics.

Survey Research

Survey research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of behavior with
intense precision. It allows researchers to judge behavior and then present the findings in an accurate way.
This is usually expressed in a percentage. Survey research can be conducted around one group
specifically or used to compare several groups. When conducting survey research it is important that the
people questioned are sampled at random. This allows for more accurate findings across a greater
spectrum of respondents.

It is very important when conducting survey research that you work with statisticians and field service
agents who are reputable. Since there is a high level of personal interaction in survey scenarios as well as
a greater chance for unexpected circumstances to occur, it is possible for the data to be affected. This can
heavily influence the outcome of the survey.

There are several ways to conduct survey research. They can be done in person, over the phone, or
through mail or email. In the last instance they can be self-administered. When conducted on a single
group survey research is its own category. However survey research can also be applied to the other types
of research.

Correlational Research

Correlational research reflects a natural evolution from descriptive research methods. Correlational
studies reveal systematic relationships between descriptive parameters (measurable features of a
phenomenon under investigation). A correlation facilitates prediction of one parameter based on another.
For example, a correlational study might show that ankle injuries are more frequent for dancers who

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rehearse and perform more often in high-heeled shoes. It might be tempting to infer from such a
correlation that working in a heeled shoe causes ankle injuries, but conclusions about causation are not
justified by correlational research. It might be, for example, that the injuries are actually caused by
rehearsing and performing in cold and drafty studios or theatres with hard flooring and inadequate warm-
ups. Correlations are restricted to prediction; the identification of causal variables requires an
experimental analysis.

Correlational research tests for the relationships between two variables. Performing correlational research
is done to establish what the affect of one on the other might be and how that affects the relationship.
Correlational research is conducted in order to explain a noticed occurrence. In correlational research the
survey is conducted on a minimum of two groups. In most correlational research there is a level of
manipulation involved with the specific variables being researched. Once the information is compiled it is
then analyzed mathematically to draw conclusions about the effect that one has on the other.

Correlation research does not always mean causation. For example, just because two data points sync
does not mean that there is a direct cause and effect relationship. Typically, researcher should not make
assumptions from correlational research alone.

Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive research, and not as its own type of
research, as no variables are manipulated in the study.

Examples of Correlational Research:

1. The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

2. The relationship between diet and anxiety

3. The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course

4. The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student
achievement

Causal-Comparative Research

Causal-comparative research looks to uncover a cause and effect relationship. This research is not
conducted between the two groups on each other. Rather than look solely for a statistical relationship
between two variables it tries to identify, specifically, how the different groups are affected by the same
circumstance. Causal-comparative research involves comparison. In causal-comparative research the
study of two or more groups is done without focusing on their relationship. As always the use of statistical
analysis is engaged to synthesize the data in a clear method for presentation.

Causal-comparative/quasi-experimental research attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among

the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key differences.
An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable are measured. The researcher does not randomly assign
groups and must use ones that are naturally formed or pre-existing groups. Identified control groups
exposed to the treatment variable are studied and compared to groups who are not.

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When analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done carefully, as other variables,
both known and unknown, could still affect the outcome. A causal-comparative designed study,
described in a New York Times article, "The Case for $320,00 Kindergarten Teachers," illustrates how
causation must be thoroughly assessed before firm relationships amongst variables can be made.

Examples of causal-comparative/quasi-experimental Research:

1. The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade.

2. The effect of taking multivitamins on a students school absenteeism.

3. The effect of gender on algebra achievement.

4. The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students.

5. The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude.

Experimental Research

Experimental research reveals a cause and effect relationship by systematically manipulating one
parameter (the independent variable) and observing the influence on another (the dependent variable).

To establish an experimental proof of causation, the manipulation of the independent variable must be
done in a manner that makes any other explanation for the change in the dependent variable impossible or
at least highly unlikely. A variety of experimental designs have been invented to accomplish this purpose
and statistical tests have been created to assess the probability that something other than the measured
independent variable may have caused the change in the dependent variable. Two major challenges in
mounting an experimental analysis are the time and expense involved with such analyses. Though
questions may be posed in the other forms of research, experimental research is guided specifically by a
hypothesis. Sometimes experimental research can have several hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement to
be proven or disproved. Once that statement is made experiments are begun to find out whether the
statement is true or not. This type of research is the bedrock of most sciences, in particular the natural
sciences.

Experimental research, often called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the
cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. The true experiment is often
thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a laboratory setting has nothing to do with
it. A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control over all other
variables except one. An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent
variables. Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified in naturally
occurring groups

Examples of Experimental Research:

1. The effect of a new treatment plan on blood cancer

2. The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school

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3. The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach on
students achievement

4. The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were scheduled for
surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation

5. A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on computational

skill

Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical
analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing
statistical data using computational techniques.

Moreover, many factors can influence which type of research design is most suitable for answering a
particular research question.

Historical Research

Historical research studies events after the fact. It examines previous experience through documentation
and is especially useful for studying the evolution of a particular characteristic over time. Historical
research might, for example, study the influences that East Indian, African, European, and Cuban dance
and rhythmic arts have had in the development of the art form now known as Flamenco. The historical
method is most appropriate when some or all of the events of interest occurred in the past. Historical
research is probably the only methodology available, for example, to study the influence of the French
Revolution on the development of ballet. Confidence in the conclusions drawn when using the historical
method is limited by the incomplete and tendentious nature of the data available to the historical
researcher. Conclusions about causation are suggestive at best when using the historical method.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. These research projects
are designed to provide systematic information about a phenomenon. The researcher does not usually
begin with a hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after collecting data. The analysis and synthesis of
the data provide the test of the hypothesis. Systematic collection of information requires careful selection
of the units studied and careful measurement of each variable.

Descriptive research systematically documents current events, lasting products or other phenomena that
can be measured directly by researchers today. Descriptive research can take the form of questionnaires,
polls, surveys, or case studies. Measurements of various characteristics of ballet dancers abound in dance
science and medicine literature. Physiological parameters such as body composition, aerobic capacity,
strength, and flexibility have all been measured to create a profile displaying the unique qualities of the
ballet dancer. Descriptive statistics (mean, median, range, variance, and standard deviation) are used to
summarize and give order to the measurements made in descriptive research. While clarifying what exists
is a useful first step, other research methodologies are needed to discover information that can promote
positive changes for dancer.

Examples of Descriptive Research:

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1. A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation.

2. A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers.

3. A description of how parents feel about the twelve-month school year.

4. A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming.

5. A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives.

Importance of Quantitative Research

1. More reliable and objective

2. Can use statistics to generalise a finding

3. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables

4. Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled
circumstances

5. Tests theories or hypotheses

6. Assumes sample is representative of the population

7. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less

8. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant