Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 483

,

Lakatos I m re

Proofs and Refutations


History of Science and its Rational
Reconstructions
Falsification and the Methodology of
Scientific Research Programmes


( )


-
1/14
87
19
:
. . , .. , .. , .. ,
A.M. , .. , .. , ..

:
.. (), .. , .. ,
.. , .. , .. , A.B. ,
.. , ..

,
..

.
19
/ . . .. , ..
, .. .: ;
, 2008. 475 . ( :
).

ISBN 978-5-8291-1049-9 ( )
ISBN 978-5-902358-48-0 ()


(1922 1974), ,
XX ,

.
-
(1970)

.
- ,
.
1/14
87

-, .
, 2008
, 2008
ISBN 978-5-8291-1049-9 @ . . ..,
ISBN 978-5-902358-48-0 BH> 2

.H.
:
9


( )
( . . )

27
1. 35
2 . 37
3.
,
, 41
4 .
46
) . 47
) .
48
)
. .

63
) 73
)
.
78
5. ,
, .
92
) 92
) 93
) 99
) .

105
112
6.
,
, .
. . . . .. 116
)
116
)

125
)
128
7. 131
) .131
)
133
) . . . . 135
)
145
)
154
8. 157
)
.
. . . . 157
)
.
164
)
.171
)
,
173
) .
176
9\
182
)
182
)

186
191


( . . )

201
1.
:

203
A. 204
B. ... 208
C. 212
D. -
217 ,
E. 231
2.
:


239
A. :

(
) 243
B.
.

260
C.

269
273
274

-
( . . )

1. : ? 281
2.
286
) ()
. 286
) .
304
)

.
329
3.
, >. 359
) :
.. 361
) :

364
) : 369
(j) : ,
. . 370
(2) : ,

375
) :
339
() - 408
(2) - .419
(3) -pacnad .423
(4) .
. . . . 432
4.
441
:
,
- 447
463

:


XX .
,
, 60-70- .

, ,
-
1974 . .
,
,
. ,

.
,

,
,
. ,
.
.
?
1922 . .

() .
,
,
.
:

(- ), ,
, -
10
1 (). 1947 .
,
,
. 1956 .
.
,
, 1960 . ,
.

.

.
,
. ,
,
(

, . . ),
,

.
,
. ,
- ,

.

,
-
; -
( -
^ ) , -
, -
-1: , .
( , )
:
CL
1

, ,
,
.

2 , -
,
, ,
. .
.

,
,
,
,
,
. ,
-
, -
. -
,
.
:
?

?
(
),
, ,
?

(
,
-),
.
. . ,
(
=1
) . 5"
*<
, - ^
. - -
1
. ,
., 1986.
12
,
,
(, )


; ,

. ,

.
(, ), ,
.
.
, --


( . fallibility -
). .
:

,
,
,
. ,

:
,

.
. -

.
. ,
C

.
>s
Q. -
,
:
,
, -
13
,
.
,
,
.
, .


,

,
.
.

,
,

. (,
,
) (
,
,
)


modus tollens;

,
,
,
.
,
, Z1
, -
. . *<

.

.
. -

.
XX . -
:
,
.
,

,
, ,

.
; ,
, .
. .

,
,
,

,

, .

.
,
- .
60-


(1970).
I
,
,
C

, . .
>* --
. .
,

, -
15
,
( . )
. , ,
, -
,
,
- . .
, -

. , . . ,

3. ,
. , .
, , ,

.

, ,
,
,
.
,
.

, ,
,
?
,
-
. ,
,

, =]
, ,
, - *<
, ^
, - ^
3
Bartley W. W. HI. On Imre Lakatos// Essays in Memory of
Imre Lakatos. Dordrecht, etc., 1976. P. 38.
16
.
* . ,
XX , ,
. , . , . , . ,
. , . . , . . , . . -

.
,
.
, . ,


. , 4.
.
. .
- ,
-
, , ,
( ,

)5. ,

,
- , -
,
.

,
.

:

.

C


(
,
5" ) -
4
.: . . ., 2001.
5
. . ., 1994. . 161.
17
(
,
, , ,
. ). (
) (
),
.
,
.
--

, ,

, ,
.


. :
,

, -
- ,
.
.
. -
,

- ,
,
,
, -
, , .
(,
Z2
-, -
, *<
-
). ^
. ,
-
-
,
.

-,

, , ,

6.
-

,
. .
,



, ,
,
,
7.
,
,
. ,
.
,

. ,
(-)
, ,
.
,

, :
C
,
6
>* .: . -
?// . . . 539-576.
[= 7
.: ..
/ / ,
1986, 12.
19

.
,
.

.

? .

,
,
: ,
( )
, , ,
, ,
..,
; ,
, ,

, .
,
. ,
-

.
,
,

.
,
,

. ZI
, ,
, *<
. ^
, , ^

,
,
20
. ,
,
,
,
, ,
. ,

-,
( ,
-

).

, .
, ,
(
)
,
,

- , ,
. . ,
,

.

:

,
,
,
, , , ,
.

C
,

>- , ,
;
,

.
21

, ,
,
,


,
,
,
,
,

. ,
,

,
.
,
(,
, , ,
.). , -
(,

, ,
),
,
8.
,
:
,
, ,
.
8
.: Franke! . The Carrier of Continental Drift Theory: an
Application of Imre Lakatos' Analysis of Scientific Growth to the ^<
Rise of Drift Theory// History and Philosophy of Science. L., 1979.
Vol. 10. 1; Zahar E. Why did Einstein's Programm supersteed
Lorenz's?// Brit. j . for the Philos, of Science, 1973. Vol. 24. 2. 3;
ZaharE. Critical Experiments: a Case Study// Progress and Ratio
nality in Science. Dordrecht etc., 1978, p. 71-97.
22

. ,

.
.
,
. -
,
,
, -
, , ,

, ,

.
,
, -
-
.
,

?

,
,


?
. ,

.
. , ,

00 -

,
>
.
5" .
, -
,

23
? ,
?
,
.

,
. ,

(
), ,
-
( ,
, ,
).
petitio principit (
,
!),
,
.
.
, . , ,

9.

, .

,
,
,
?
. , ,

, =]
10. , -
. . , "<

9
, . ., 1994.
10
. .

. ., 1999. . 51.
24
,

,
.
:

, ,
, ,
, ,
,
, . ,
,
. .
, ,
,

11.
,
. ,
. ,
,

.
:



,
.
,

.

. .
C
U
Q.

cz
11
.: .. , , . .,
2002.


( )
. .:
Lakatos L Proofs and Refutations// The British
Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 1963-64. v. 14.
p. 1-25; 120-139; 221-243; 296-342.

,

,
,
, , - 5
.


.
-
,
,

,
, 1. 15
,

.
,
. , - 20

, , *
.
1
. [24, , . 55-63, 71], [90, . 49],
[136, . 1, . 12].
, [89]; . [72,
. 158].
*

- ; ,
, . . .
28
,

(
), -
5 .

[18]. , ()
..., ()
,
m ..., ()
(p. xii 9). ,
.

, -
15 , ,
.
,
,
, (1854)
20 , -
2.
,
,
.
25

,
,
. -

; -
-
,
, .
U

2
. [117]. 5- -
[119] .
:
,
" ".

, ,
,
. :
. , 5

:

.
,
(
. .),
[36, . 225].

: - 15
, ,
, ,

, .
20
.
, ,

.
, , - 25
, 3-
3
,
[134, . 129]. , , ,
,
,
[26] [27]. ,

,


. ,
,

priori a posteriori.

.

.
,
4
5.


.
,

6. ,
4
. [98, . 102], [101], [102]; [14, . 187].
5
. [103], [104], [107, . 147 .].
6
[130]
[131].

. :

,

.
.
(subjectmatter)

,
, . ,
,
.
, , ,
,
(inference)

, , .
, ,
.
,
,
31
.
?
. -
,
(, 5
,
?).

,
,

,

. ,

, , ,

. ,
, ,
, ,
,
(, )
.
,
,
, , ,

, ,
-
,
, .
[133]
- ,
:
...
.
, ,
,
( ),
.
,
,
. -
, :
,

,
.
,

7.

,
, ,
,
.

, . . 8 -
7

, (1)
- ( )
; (2) ,
,

; (3) , ,
. , ,
;

"",
"" [, . 87].

, , ,
, ,
;

, .
8

,
, , -
33
,
.

.
- 5
.
. ,
,
,
, . , -
, ,
(
),
, , .
, - 15
,
. ,
, -

, - 20
, ,
,
[60].

9. - 25
.

,

, [95] [102].
: ,

.
,
, ,
.
[95, ,
. 359].
9

- . [72].
.
,

-
5 ,

,
. , ,
-

,
.

.
15
;

.
,
20
.
1.


. :
V ,
, , F
, 5

, :
,
: V = ?
(
): , ,
..
.

, - 15
V - + F=210.
10
[39].
.
:
(figurae rectilineae)
,
, , ,
(corpora hedris planis inclusa)
,
.

) ,

() .
, , ,

acies ()
- ',
.
,
.

, .

11.
.

latus (), latus ,


,
, ; ,
angulus solidus ( )
. ,
.
(. 1639),
1675-1676 .
Foucher de Careil 1860 .
. ,
, 2j+ 2- 4,
/ , .
, , .
, (latera).
, , .
,
( )
, :
- ,

.
11

. , . .
,
.

,
.
V - + F = 2
[101, . 1] ( ,
2.

. Ha
, :
V - + F = 2, V
, F .
. 5
. , -
?
.
,
... -
, ,
. ,
, -,
12.
, , , . 15

-
. 1. . 2.
. , .
.

. 35-41). -
, ,
.
, .
12
[39, . 119,124]. [40]
.
. ,
.
,
, , .
,
, V, F ,
V + F = 2
, V 4- F 1
, .
( . 1 .)
.

. ( ,
) ( , )
, (
, ) /
, F
, V + F (. 2).

fos
. 3
.
.
, ,
(. 3, ),
;
, (. 3,6).
, V + F = 1 ,
.
.
V + F = 1 .
, 13.
13
[19].
.
.
14.
. . ,
,
,
. , , ,

?
.
. ,

?
.
. ,
,

?
,
?
15.
. , .
. , .
, , ,
! !
. ,
-
14
,
, ,
XIX ., , [28, v. 2, . 668-671]
[80, . 449], [65], [66].
:
, V - + F = 2
,
1752 . 1811 .
[66f . 11-112].
15
, -, . ,
XIX .
.
, , . ,
.
. ? , -
, ?
. ,
.

,
,

, , >
, . ,

, , ,
. ,
,
16.
16
(deiknymi)
.
[128]. ,
( )
, .

(. [114]).
, [53, . 1,
. 129]. , ,
,
(idid., . 10). ,
,
.
,

, ;
, -
, , ,
, (ermaion) (kerdos)
(ibid., . 278). [41] ,

, -
3.
,
,

.
.

,
. , 5
,
.

. ,

analysis.

.
: ,
,
, [37,
. VII, 179]; :
, , [6, . 77)];
: !
[62. . 487].
: ,
[101, . 1, . VI].
-
[41]. :

, ,
-
.
,

....
[101, . 1, . 3].
.
( ,
,
,
5 : ,
). ,

.
. .
. ?
. .
,
.
( ). , , -
15 , .
. .
,

. (. . 2). , -
20 ,
,
- .
,
, , ,
25
. ,
.
, V - + F = 2,
?
. . , ,
,
,
V - + F = 2. ,
, -
35 , .
. , ?
. .
.
, .
40 . ?
. ,
.
, (
),
, 5
. ,
, . ,

, .
. , ,
.
. ,
,
,
. , - 15

, ,


. 20
,

, ,

. , - 25

?17
. ,
; , , .
, , .

,
. 4. ,
, , ,
, V - + F 1. 35
17
,
, ,
[77, . 179]. , ,
, .

9 10.

N. 3 ^\
\
\\ \\
%% \\
%
% /
7
%
)

V'-; X*J
Xj
. 4.
. , , ,
,
.

,
; ,

, ,
, V - + F
.
. ,
: ,
, ,
V - + F , V - + F
.
. . ,

,
V- - F ,
.
.
, ?18
18
,
,
, ,
[19, . 79].
, ,
, .

:
. ,
, ,

. ,
. ,
. . , ,
, .
. .
. , ?
, ,
,
.
, ?
.
:
, ,
, .
. ,

?
?

,
.
?
.
.
4.

. ,
; ,
; ,

.
. ! . .

/1 p^
! !
! !
1 wCi>*

I-" iy
. 5.
. ,
, . .
,
, (. 5).
,

.
. ,
15 V - + F = 2,
V - E + F = 4.
. .
I19. ?

) .

. , .
,
.
. ! .
,
.
. ,
.
,
.


,

,
,
.

, .
19
1 [77, .
194]. [77, . 180],
. ,
.

[56]. ,
,
,
, . ,

[77, . 188],
,
[56, . 16].
,
, .
,
.
5 , .
. ,
(
) -,
,
,
. ,
, .
,
?
15 . .

.

) .

. ?
.
20 ,
. - .
,
? .
.
25 . ,
, .
. ?
^ , -
g . ,
,
. I20.
20
1 XVIII ,
, -
. .
: ,
, , ,
,
. ,
.
. 221.
. ,
, ,
.
,
.
. !
. ,

?

,
[76, . 160].
[39]. , , , ,
, ,
(, XII, ,
17).
21
2 -
, ,
.
.
:
,
, ... ,
,
,
;
...
[65, . 170]. ,
1, ,

, ,
.
.
2 .
,
?
. . ,
(. 6, ). ,
(. 6, ).
,
. ,
V - + F = 3.
. 2, 2, 22.
.
, , , ,
.

, , (1)

(2)

,
.
,
.
22
2, 2, b
[56, . 13].
. 32\
.
, ,

.
,
V - - F = 2,
...
. 24.
. ... ?

.
. ,
.
. , . ,

.
,
.
, ,
. , ,
23
3 -
[83, . 32].

: ;
, ,
, (.
[59, . 200].
24
,
,
:
( )
.
(uneigentliche) [8, . 207].
:
,

[56, . 29]. .
.
. ,
, . .

, , ,
5 , ,
.
,
:
, -
10 .

. 7. . 8.


,
. -
15 ,

?
. ?
. .
20 . . 3:

(. 7). 12
(. 8). 12 , 30
12 ,
25 . , -
- ,
V - E + F = - 6 2 5 .
. ,
?
. ? , - 5

.
: ,
, (1)
(2)

.
. ,
!
. 15
, ,
(1)
(2) , .
. 4.
. , 20
:
.
. 4\
.
. : 25
,
, .
25

[70].
(cui nomen Echino feci). . 7
(. 52), (. 182). -
; ,
[96, . 48].

[22, . 125].
,
. ,
,
V - E + F = 2 [121, 34].
,
;
: , ,
, , ,
, .
,
,
26.
26
, ,
(
4 4' ), .



, .
, , ,
,
:
( )
, ,
,
.

,
. ,

,
. , ,
,
, , , ,
,
;
. ,
[96, . 26].
:

,
;
, ... [122,
. ,
? ,
?
. ,

. ,

? ,

,
?
,
27.

. 56]. ,
p/q
.
27
,
, .

,
. , ,
.

,
.
, ,
.
, ,


[81, . 179].

[82, . 218].
, ,
,
; -
,
[52, . 114-115].
.
.
, .
4 4\
-
,
?
. .
(. 9)
.
, ,
V - E + F = 0.

. 9. . 10.

. 4 28.
. , . ,
.
, -, .
. , . ?

? ,
, -
28
4 -
[77 > . 185]. , .
[50], -
[97, . 67].

. ? ,
, ?
!
.
,
.
.
,
29.
,
30.
.
. !
,

.
.
.
.
,
? ,
.
29
:

, [55].
30
, ... ,
,
,
,
[120, ].
( )
, XIX . (,
, XX .)
, ,
[85, ].


.
. .
. ,
.
. ?
5 . -
, .
. ,

,
,
! (. 10).

. ?
.

15 ,

.
,
. -
20
,
, (. 11
11 ).
,
25 .
?
. ,
.
5 31.
. ,
, - 5
,
,
,
. V - + F = 2
, ,
, -
, . ,
,
,
. ( - 15
.)
. ,
, ,
. , ,
, 20
,
.
.
. .
, , - 25
31
. 5 -
,
( ):

; , -
,
,
,
;
,

[65, . 170-171]. ,
, 5
.
, ?

. ,
, , , -
5 32.
. ,
.
.
. . -
1, 2, 3, 4 5,
V - + F = 1. 5 .
3 (
), 2 ( ) .
: (1)
15 (2)

, .

, -
20 : (1)
(2) , .
. , .
! !
. 6?
25 .
,
? ,
, !
.
? , -
32
,

... ,
,
, ,
, ,
,
- [49, . 544,
547]. .
,
- ;
,
,
.
,
,
33.
. , -
,
, ,
, ,
.
, ,
, .
, .
, -
33
. :
.
, ;

, -
.. , , ,
, . . ,

; ,
, .
.
- .
,
,
, , .

, , . .
.
[95;
, . 357].
,
.
62
.
34,
,
ad hoc?
5
, .
. ,

,
.
.


- , ad
15 hoc, ,
, ,
.

, , -
20 . , ,

; ,
,
.
25
.
, ,
, ,
.
! ,
;
)
!
s
. .
g 35 . : -
6 , (1 . 5, 21).

:

34
[33, . 21].
)
. .

. , ,
.
,
.
. . 5
( .)
.
, -
, .
, ,
,
,
. ,
, .
15

,
.
;
20
, -
, ,
,

. , - 25
.
. .
,
.
. -
:
1. ,
, ,
,
. 35
2. ,
, ,
.
3. , ,
5 , ,
...
. ?
. ...
, 35,
:
.
( ). ?
.
( ). - -
15 .
. , ,
, ,
. ,
,
20 , ,
, ,
. ,
,
, -
25 .
,
.
. .
.
, , , ,
,
.
, ,
, -
35 .
:

.
35
[13, . 347, 349].
65
...
,
36.
.
- 5
, V + F =? + 2
,
,
37.
,

. ,
;

. 15
.
,
, .

- 20
?
.
? .
? -
36
[56, . 13]. 1832 .
. [77]
.
,
; ,
,
. , ,
,
, . ,
[28, . ,
. 668-671].
37
[80, . 49]. Lehrbuch der Geo
metrie Heis'a Eschweiler'a Lehrbuch der Stereometrie
Grunert'a. , , ,
, , .
,
.
. ,

5 , .
.
.
...
. , , ,
. ,
: ,
, .

-
15 , .

.

. ,
20 ,

38. ,

.
25 ,
. ,
,

; ,


.
. ,
-
35 ,
.
,
.

[21].
.
?
?
. ,
( ) (
), V - + F = 2.
. ?
. , .
. -?
. . ,
, 2*3.
. . ,
,
. ,
, .
. -,
, ,
,
,
, ad boc- -
39
, -, ,
.
: ,

, , ,
[77, . 177)].
: ... , -
, (ibid., . 188).
-
,
[56], ,
,
, , ,
.
, ,

, experi-
mentum crucis, , ,
.

.
. ?
. ,
5
ad hoc
.
, .
, -
.
;
, , , ,

. , ,
15
.
, ,
,
, - -
20 ? ,
?
. , ?
. ?
. ?
25 . -
.

.
. , , , .
-
. :

,
. -
35 ,
, 40.
. ,
V - + F = 2 , -
40
[87, . 380].
, ,
. , ,

41. ,
; , 5
. -,
,
.
,
42.
,
,
41
,[3]. , -,
.
42
,


. (
) :
.

,
, .
, , .
, ,
,
.
, , , ,
,
, ,
... ( . - .).
, ,
:

- [96, 45].

,
, (, ,
), , .

43. , ,
, .
. ? ?
. !
. .

.
,
,

, , ,
. .
, ?
,
. ,
. ,
,
?
,
, -,
;
,
.

: -
43
.

.

. , ,
, , ,
,
, , .

( , ,
)
,
[76, . 161, 164, 228].
;
, -,
. ,
, ?
. . 5
. , . ,

.
? 44.
44
,
, .
, ,
, ,
,
. -
, ,

.
, ,
, .
,
, . ,

,
,
, :
, , ,
; , ,
: ... ,
, ,
,
,
[51, . 18]. ,
,
[137, . 318].
, , ,

:
[98, . 190-191].
72
. ...
. , , .

. ,
5 ,
, .

,
.
. ,
, , ,

. .
,
15 .
, ,
,
( ,
).
20 ,
, -,
. .

-
25 J

, ,
, . ,
, -

.
.

s
.
g 35 : -
. -
, , ,
,

40 . , , .
. , , -
,
, ...
. ,
: 5
; ,

,
,
!
. , ).
.
. ,
:
. 15
. :
.
. ?
. ,
. , 20
,
,
.
. ?
. . , 25
,
,
.
. .

. , ?
. .
. ,

,
. 35
;
, .
,
, . -
5 . ,


45.
. ?
.

? (. . 7.) 12
.
. .
15 ,
.
60. 90 32 .
246.
,30 12 -
20 , 6,
. ,
.
,
, . -
25 : ,
,
. 47.
45
[80].
46
,

60 , 90 32
un hexacontaedre sans epithete
[66,
. 115].
, ,
, ,
. . . 48.
47
-
, . ,
. , , ,
48.

, ,
- , ,
. -


. . [108, ].
48
-
1809 1858 .
,
,
, ,
[96].
[97],
,
,
. . 67
polydres d'espce suprieure.
. ?
?
, :

.
, - -
-; ,
;
, .
, , ,
,
. ,
- ,
,
.

. , [10],
-
[113], ,
(. 66),
. .
. , .
.
?
...
. .
, 12 ,
30 12 .
,
.
. -
. -
.
,
,
, 49.

,
,
- - ,

[11].
49
,
(. [4]); [2]).
,
: phantasia visum.

(synkatathesis adsensus) phantasia,
(phantasia kataleptike com-
prehensio), , .

(episteme).
,
.
, - , ,
, ,
, .
, - ,

, .
.
,
?50
. ,
. 5
. , , ,
,
?
, .
,


.
, ,
, ...51 15
. !
.
:

, - 20

...52
. , , ,
,
, . , 25

.
...
. ?
. , ,
.
.
,
. -
50
,
, phantasia phan-
tasia kataleptike (. [2, . I, 405]).
51
[70, . II, XXVI].
52
.
,
? ,
, ?

)
.

. . -,
5 ,
,

.
. , ,
?
. ,
.
.
. -
15 ,

,
.
, -
20 ,
; , , ,

, ,
,
. 25 , -
s
.
g ,
; .
* . .
.

,
, -
,
. . ,
. ,
- .
:
2.
, -
,
. ,


, ,

,
,
,
. ,
,
,
,
,
, . ?
. , . ,
, 53.

/[#

. 12.

53
, .
,
. .
.
80
.
?
. .
. , , -
5 . .
. ,
(. 12).
( 1,2,3, 4, 4').
, -
. ,
. ,
, .
2. , 16
, 24 11 , -
15 1 6 - 2 4 + 1 1 3.

, , ,
.
, ,
20 , .
.
54
6 .
54
6 [77, . 186];
.
[97], [80]
[66]
.

:
, -
^ ,
. " , V - + F = 3,
^ . -
% " [80, . 449]. -
,
* ,
.
[127]: F (
).
.
, .
,
.
5
.
. , , .
. ,
, ,
,
.
,
(. 13, ).
(. 13, );
, - 15
(. 13, ).
. . , ,
...
. , . ,
- 20
.
.
. , .
,
. 25
,
-
.
,
-
, .
. ,

V + F = + 2 (. 273).
, -
,
. (,
, , ,
, , ,
.)
,
,

. ,
.

,
,
.
.
, , -,
, ,
, ,
. -
15 . -

:
, , V- + F= 2.

20 ,
.
,
.

BDD . 13.
. . -
25 ,
,
.


;
. ,
-
.

.
,
,
, , .

55.
,
,
,
.


.

...
. ...
.
. , ,
,
, (improve)
56.
,
(proving).
55

.
.
, (
[77, . 172]. . .].
,
: XIX ,
,
,
. ,
, .
... [138, , 1052].
56
, , , , -,
(. . 44).
(improves by proving).


.
5 . , ,
,
,
, ,
.
m ( ).
(proof) ,
(improof) ?
. ,
. -
15

. ,
.
, -
20 .
;
,
;
. ,
25 -
;

, ,

, ,
. ,

, . . ,
, . ,
35

:
,
cura posterior [
40 .];
, ,
,
, 57.
,
- 5
.
. ,
, ;

.
. , , . ,
, ?
. ,
,
. 15
,
,
.
. .
. , 20
,
. ?
. .
.
. , 25


.
.
. ! -
, , !
57

:
,
, ;

...
, ,
[100, . vii].
Po.
(. 14, ) 58 ...
. ,
? ,
?
. .
, ?
58


[65, . 171-172],
,
.

[80].
;
,
.

, ,
, -
(. 14).

. ,
,
....
, ,
:
, ;
, V - + F = 2
.
,
, ,
, , ,
, .
, [56, . 14-15].
, ,
, ,
,
.
. 14. .
. .
. 12 , ?
. , .
. .
. - 5
.
. . .

, ,
, . -

, .
. , ?
?
. . . 15
,

? , ,
:
, () - 20
, () () ,
,

, ,
V - + F 25
>>59.
59
.
,

V - + F = 1 . , -,
.
, .
,

. ?
5 . !
.
.
: (4)
1 + 1 = 2 (5) -
, , ,
? #
, .
. ,
-
15 . ,
, . . ,
, , .
. , , -
? -
20 .
. ,
, ?
,
,
25 . , , ,


, V- + F .
,
.
. ,
. ?
. 60.
s
. ,
g 35 ,

60

[112, . 23],
[135]. - ,
[59, . 292].
:
? ,
, ,

. 5
? ?
.
; .
, ,
, ,
, .
. , , .

,
. 15
. , , .
,
.
,
( 20
)
.
. .
,
. 25
,
. ,
,
. , ,
, -

,
61.

- 35

.
: .
61
[98, . 142].
90


, ,
: -
5 .
,
,
, .
,
:
. :
.

, . . .
15 ,
:
.
, (
)
20 , .

: Quod erat demonstrandum62.
. ,
: -
25 , .
,

,
. , -
,
,

63, -

"
[5, . 438].
63
;
-
,
[16, . 352].
, .
?
.
. , ,
: - 5
,
,
.

:
.
. .
,
.
. , 15

, .
.
.
- 20
,
.
( ).
. .
. . - 25
,
...
( ). !
.
5.

,
, .
.

. , 5

, .
, .
5 . , .
, .

.
.
3 ?
, ? ,

.
!
15 ,
. ,
.
. ,
? ?64
64

.
, ?
, F, V ,
? [101, . I,
. 29]. 24. :
... ... (. 225)...
:
-
)
. . , ,
. :
.
, , ,
65. ;
, .
, 66.
,
. , , .
. ,
.
, ,
: V - + F = 1. ,
,
? ,
.
. . , ,
; -,
.
. ,
!

: ,
,
, (. 55).
65
,
. 3.
66
()
[54]. [ (, )
: S , S
, ,
'. , '
, S
.
. , ,
.

. - . .].
. ? ,
, . .

. ,
5 . ,
,
,
. - ?
. -
10 , .
,
, .
:
,
15 . V - . + F
1.
. ,
?
. , -
20 .
. - .
,
. -
, , -
25 , .
. ... ,
, ,
, .
?
?
. .
.
! , -
s
.
g 35 !
. . ,
*
, ,
.
. ; ,
40 .
. ,
,
?
. , . ?
. , 5
, ,
, ,
.
. , :
,
, .
.
( ). -
, - 67.
. , 15
!
, - }
- .
, ,
, . - 20
, ,
,
. ,
,
. - 25

, .
, ,
.
. ! -
,

.
,
? , 35
67
, (vacuo
usly true), ,
XIX .
.
96
}
:
, , ;
, -
5 . ,
, ,
68.
;
, -
, ,
.
.
,
!
15
,
.
. ?
, . . , .
20

! ,
. :
, .
25 ( ).
, , -

68
,
[118, . 407]. (sic!)
. . -
^ [48, . 56]
[42, . 84].
69
^
Q , . . -
, ,
.
:
. , ,
, -
.
, : ()
()

. , 5
,

.
, ,
. -
, ,
, 70.

. , ,
, [21]
.
,

. :

,
.
. ., ,
Pure Mathematics . (Hardy G.),
(1914) ; ,

; [116].
:
[73]
.
,

, ,
.
,
*
?
, , .
70
,
. -
(stillscliweigend)
(
[8]), [9, . 67-68].
,
; ,
. ,
.
, ,
:
, , ;
! ,
.
, , , , 1820 .
, , ;
,
. ,
,
; ,
[95; .
, . 299-300].

1984: double plus ungood refs unerrors rewrite fullwise
[ : ,
, , ,
. .
, ,
,
;
, . -,
- , -
^ ,
. - . .]. -
-^ , , ,
,
, [125, . 20].
:
, V + F = 2
[91]. , ,
.
. , ,
,
.

; 5
,
. ?
. ,
.
-
, ,

.
-,
, 15
( ),


. ?
. , , - 20
.
,
,
( ,
, ). 25
,
,
J .
, , ,
, -
,
.

.

. ( ), 35
,
() .
. ,
, ,
5 .
, ,
,
( )
,

(
)
.
, -
15 ;
.

.
. .
20 , ,

,
.
, ,
25 :

,
. - ,
-
,
. ,


in statu nascendi [ (.). -
35 .], ,
.
. , ,
,
-
40 !
. .

,
71.



.

.

,

.
. ,

,
. , ,
.
. :
,
.
.
,

.
!
. .
, -
71
. ,
,
.
:
,
, .



XIX .
102
; ,
.
-
.
5 . ,
!
.
, ,
, 72.
.
:
.
.
. ?
15 .
.
;
73. -
72
[44, . viii). . :
,
[118, . 360].
.
73
,
,
, .

:
, .

.
, .
-,
^ (. [106, . 147-148]). -
Q ( )
, ,
,
: , ,
.
,
( )
,
.
;
, .

[129, . 65-84]). ,
, ,
(),
, ,

. .

.
,
: ,
[25, . , xi).

,

.
,
. ,
,
;
,
.
,
. (
-
. [109]).

, :
,
(, ,
),
: (,
, ) ,
.
;
,
,
, -
5 .
,

.
-
.
.
I. -
, .
,
15 (
) ;
( )
( ).
2. -
20 , ,
,
,
,
74. -
25 75.
76.
3.
, ,
. ,
2.
74
, -, -
[123, . 383].
75
^ . : , -
Q , ,
, -
,
, [30].
76
. : .
, [31].
)
.

. 2
? .
. .
,
: 5
.
. ! ,
17
!
ad hoc ,

.
. ?
.
, - 15
77. ,
:
^.
,
- 20

. 1
.

ad hoc , . . 25
,
!
?
. ,
!
.
. , ,
: ,

. 4, .
,
; ,

. , ,
5 , ,
.
,
.
-
.

,
, , ,
.
15
,
.

. , -,
20 ( ,
), , -,
.
. . ?
.
25 . , !
.
.
.
, ,
.
. -
|
.
s
,
g 35 . -
, .
? , -
~* .
. -
40 ? -
,
?
.

, 5
?
, , .
-
, ,
, , -
.
. ,
, ,
?
. . . 15
:
( ) .
. ,
.
} 20


?
. ,
. 25
. ,
,
. ,
?78
. , -
79. ( ).
78
[94, . : . 163].
79
, . 164.
.
,
.
, V2 .
, :
-
.
81.
. , -
82.
. ,

83.

.
(
).

,

. ,
-
,
-
.
80
, .
81

[64]. . [47, . xv-
xvi). ( )
:
, ,
...
[58, . 8,10)].
, .
82

, ,
[2, . I, 8387],
. :
, ,

[17,
. 140].

.
, [58, . 74-75).
83
[17, . 141].

?
.
: ,
.
,

.

.
. ,
?
, , ,
,
? .
.
!

,
.
?

, 84
85. -
84
infinite regress,
(schlech
te Unendlichkeit) . , ,
, .
85
,
, ,
, ,
; ,
.
,
.
(
) [44, . 67,29)
25 ;
1962 . Encyclopaedia Britannica 45 .
,
, ,
,
, , . -
5 ,
.
. ,
.

m . , ,
, .

86.
. - , -
15 ,
!
. ?
,
, ,
20 ?
, ()
?
;
-
25 .
? Quod erat
demonstrandum.
Quod erat demonstratum* ?
.
( ).
!
. !
, -
86
-
,
[75, . 328].
~* * Quod erat demonstrandum (.)
; Quod erat demonstratum (.) .
. .
. , ,
.
,
.
( ). - 5
!
. ...
.
. ?
. , -
.
( ). !
!
. Zeitgeist [ - . ]!
87. 15
. ! ( .)
.
,
, ,
, 20
.
,
. !
.
, - 25
, ,

?

?
. , ,
, .
,
.
, 35
88 .
87
[84, . 411].
88
,
[89]. , ,
,

.
. !
. ,
-.

,

-
.



, -, -
15 . 1800 .
(
)
.
rigida demonstratio,
20
(.

.
,

, :
,
,
^ . ... -
: ;
, -
[1, . 7].
, ,
;
, .
[69, . 716-717]).
, ,
. ,

- . 5


.

- -
.
XIX .
.
,
, - 15
.

,
:
, - 20
, , ,
,
.
- .
, 25
,
. (

,
,
.)
XIX .
:
.
35
( )
,

.
, 40
:
.

,
5 ,
. .

,
,
.
,

,
, -
15

,
,
.
20 ,


.
; --
25

,
.
-
.



. -
35 ,
(uncriticisable familiarity),

. (. [72, . 179-184.]).
-
40 ,
(foundational
layer) (familiar
background knowledge),
, ,
. , 5
,

, , . ,

. -
,
,

, .
. 15
6.

,
, .

.
,
-
-
5 .
:

. ,

.

.
, ?
pa
is ,
?
: .

,
20
.
.
,
, 89. -
25
(, -

. . 3.

:
,
).
, . 5
90.
.

,
,
.
,
.

: 15
, ,
, , .

, ,
- 20
. :
4. ,
, ,
,
. 25
(,
)
,

(, ).
. 4

.
,
90
, -, :
, ,
, -
,
- .

.
. ,
.
5 .
, .
,
, ,
. , , -
, ,
, ,
, .
4,
. ,
15 4 ,
.
. , ,

. , -
20 ,
4, ,
.
, ,

25
.
. , . 4
.
-
: ,
, ,
;
-
^ .
g 35 4 -
.

: ,
, -
40 ,
, , ,
, .
. ?
. -
, - 5
: ,
, -
, .

; ,

, ,
.
(6 ).
? 15
. ,
, ,
.
,
V - + F = 1 - 20
.
,
, ,
,
, - 25
. :
, ,
,
.
. , : -

.
.
:
>>91. 35
91
[77,
. 177-179]. , ,
. :
; ,
.
, , ,
, ,

.
, , ,
!
. ! ,
,
- ,
,

.

,
,
, .
. ,
. ,
?
.
,
.
. ,
.
?

,
...
,
,
, (
,
),
[126].
;
,
:
*. -
[56].
. , .
. -
? ?
. , , .
; , 5
.

,
.
1. ,

. ,
, .
, ,
, V - + F = 2; 15

. ,
,
,
, 20
.
-
92 ,
92
[76],
, ,
XVIII .
.
,
[76, . 161]. ,
V - + F = 2 (. 228).
(. 164),
,
. .
, ,
[96],
, ,

;
, -
. , , 93.
,
,
.
94.
. .
.
, ,

,
.
-
, 95.
.
. ,
,

.
, ,
.
. .
. (. 7).
, , . -

, ,
, ,
, .

. ,

.
93
, -
[97]:
,
,
, ,

[66, . 111].
94
[97, . 70].
95
[124, . 143-144].
. ,
, (. 15).
,
. 12 , 30 20 ,
V - + F = 296.

. ,
?
. .

.
. ,
?
.
. .
.
; . ,

; ,
,
96

[70, . 58], [96],
. 15
.
, ,
.
. ? .

5 ,
? ,
,

.
m .
. ,

.
. , ,
15
. .
; .
. !
!
. , ,
20
,
, .
. !
?
! ,
25
, , , ,
!
,

!
30
. ,
97.
. . ,
s
, -
g 35
?
* . . .
97
' ,
. ( . . .)
. ,
? ,
.

.
5
.
(, ,
)
.
.
,
.

;
) 15
.
, ,
,
, , , *
. 20
. , ,
,
!
. ,
. - 25
.
,
, :

}
. .
. ,
,
? ,
,

.
. , ,
, .
, .
,
.
.
.

, }
,
?
?
. ...98
. ,
,

.
4> -
98

,
, , . . ,
.
:
, .
, , ,
. ,
, ,
,
, (. [53, . 1,
. 138-139]). causa aequat effectu [
. . .]
.
,
,
.
127

,
. .

. 5

:


9,
.
4,

.
; - 15
.
,
(, ).
,
- 20
,
,
.
, ,
25
,
.

:
,
, ,
?
. ,
,
! ( - 35
.)
. !
!
. , :
40
- ". , ,
,
. , ?

. ,
, ,

.
-
.
:
. -
: -

.
100.

,
101 .
99
(.
[91] [92]).
100 .
,
. [71].
101
, , , , ,

.
: ,
, [28, . II, . 671].
,
, ,
.

(,
,

) (1751),
.
XVIII . :
.
)
. (
.

.)
(
) ,
,
[77,
. 171]. ,
, ( , . 170).

,
[126]. ,
, , ,
, ,
,
, , ,
.
[19] ,
,
, ,

.


. ,
,
,

.
,
[77, . 179].
.
.
.
, -
5 , .
. ?
. , .

.
. .
4
.
. .
, ,
15
.
7.

. ,
, -

. 4,
- 5
, .

, ?

?
. . ,
V - + F = 2?
. ! V,
F .
- 15
, F - - F = 2.

,
, .
20
- + = - 6 , - + = 2 8 - + = 0?
?
. .
H a V - E + F = 2 ,
. , 25
, ,
,..
. ... ...
. ... V, F
'.

5*
. ?
, :
,
.
. ,
,

(. 16). 16 , 24
10 ...

/1


7-
. 16. U: ...
\
. , , :
, ...
. - ! !

(. 9), -
15 , ,

(. 16), 102.
. , ,
. , -
20 .
. , .
, .

, 103. , ,
25
, .
. !


102
, [77, . 189]
; [56].
.
103
[98, . ].
133
. :
, ,
.
,
. 5

? ,
,

. -
,
.
.
,
15
.

. . !
. ?
. .
V, F 20
, ? !
.
,
, ,
, ... V - - + F 25
. , ,
- !

!
!
. ...
. ?
,
.
F V
1. ' ~6 ~8 "T
2. 5 6 9
3. 7 10 15
4. 5 5 8
5. 4 4 6
6. 6 6 10
7. 8 8 12
8. 9 9 16
9. 7. 10 15

104.
, :
; V - E + F = 2.
( ). ?
.
. , ,

:


; ,
!
. , ?
? ,
,

? ?
. . , ,
, ,

,

,
?
!

[101, . 36].
135
.
. K F - E + F = 2 ,

, . ,
... 5
( ). ...
...
. ... ,
.

.

. -

. 15
. ,
?
,
.
. , . , 20
.
. ,

? -
? 25

. ? !
, ( ) .
. . :
,
, -

V ?105 ?

. 1.
. ,

,
,
5 .
,
.
. ? ,
?
. . ,
, - .
. ?
. ,
; -
15 .
. ?
. , V = .
. ?
. .
. ,
V = .
,
.
,
25 .
W . V =

?
, , -
,
, .



I-


;
. 17.
. .
. - V = 0 (. 17 ).
,
( )?
nj ; 5

/ n/4-l ,
- /, - (/ + 1);
, 2-
: - V = 1
(. 17 ); ,
. 17, .

; ,
F- - 15
- V = F 1.
. - + = 1.
.
. ...
. 20

.

.
, - 25

;
F V
...
. , -
,
, V - + F = 2; ,
,
!
. - 35
-
.
. ,

. 40
, ,
.
.
-
5 106.
. ,
, .
.
. !
: V =
.
?
. ,
.
15 ; 7
8 , , , 8 7 ...
. , V = ?
. ,
, V = 0. , , -
20 , V - = 1 (. 18 ).
,

(. 18 18 ).
V - = 0? ,
25
(
) (
),
, -
. , , ,
V - = 0.

/ _ >

. 18. 19.

17.
. .

; ,
V - = 1. ?
. . , , , - 5
V = 1 (. 19).
...
(). ,
V=l?
. ? ( , .) -
,
?
, ?
. ,
. , - 15

;
,
. ,
- 20
, -
.
. !
,
( ) , 25
, ,
,
, ?

,
;

.
. , ,
; 35
, ,
. ;
, , }.
.
! , 40
, ...
, ,
: ,
, ,
5 . ,
.
...107.
;
,
m , .
. !
!
. F - + F = 2,
, ?
15 . .
.
: ,
.
-
20 .
,
.
;
, .
25 ,
,
, ,
,
,
. , ,

( ),
107
^ [101, . I, . 5, 7].

-
. , F
V. ,
: F; E V.
: + V
[101, . I, . 35-37].
141
:
109.

,
, , - 5
, .

, ( )
110 .
. .
,
;
.

, - 15
: ,

.
. .
. 20
( ).
, .
109
, ,
,
()
,
.
-
, , , .
110

.

. ,
, :


,
.
(. [93, ]) [46].
.
,
,
. -
5 . ,
V - + F = 2
:
V - 4- F = 0.
,
10 , -
.
, ,
,
-
15 , .
. !
?
.
? ! .
20 : V - + F = 2
. :
,
V - + F = 1;
, V - + F = 1,
25 ;
, V - -+ F = 1 ,
;
, V - + F = 1 --
...

, . ,
,
V - + F = 0?
. ,
35 , ,
, .
, -, .
.
.
40 , ! -
143

,
: !
. . ,
- 5
,
,

.
, -
!
( ).
180!
,
, ! 15
. .
,..
. ...
. ...
... 20
. ...111
. ...
?
,
112. 25
. ,
;
, ,
.
. , -
,

111
,
, .
, ,
.
- ,
.
112
. [114, . 471].
: , ,
,

-
5 .
,
.
,
"" -
.
1: - ,
.
. .
4 :
15 5.
, -
,
.
20 .
, , .
?
,
. .
25
,
.

, , -
.
. . ,
:
.
. ?
35 .
.
,
,
, () F - 2
40 V - + F ( -
145
) () ,
, V - -f.F
1 (
).
. ? 5
.
, ,
- ,
- 1 V -
, , , -
V - 1.
.
?
. .

. . 15
.
. , .
(. 20 )
,
(. 20 ). 20
V - 4- F=4,

. 20.

,
. ,
.
5
:
(. 20, ). 4
V - + F = 0.
. 4 , !
.
(. 20 )
(. 21 ),
V - + F 2 (. 21 ).
.
15 V - + F = 2, V - + F = 0,
V - + F = - 2, --
V - E + F = 2 - 2*( - 1)...
. ...
, ,
20 -
113 .

. 21.

. .
,
...
25 . .

.
.
; , -

[111].
147
.
.
:
- ,
; , 5
. 114...
,
! ,
2, m;
, -
2,
0. ,
,
, , ,
2 '- 2*. 15
. . ,


^ . .
, , , 20
. ,

, , , ,
. .
115 . 25
. ,
.
V- + F
, 2,
-
.
(.12)- + =1...
114
[63, . 102].
in . ,
, , ,
, [53, . I, . 138].
,
( ). .
[98, . 129-136 () 197-204 ( )].
. , -
.
n- ,
.

.

. 22.
. ?
. !
: no
lo ,

,
(. 22, 22, ). ,
, -
15 ,
,
...
. .
(. 23 ). -
20 ,
(. 23 ).

I-
V.

: . 23.
. !
F
V - E + F= 2-2(n-l)//k
=1

n-, n-,
1 ,
. 5
.
(. 12), (en 1)
: 1 ,
1 1, :
F
10
2 k=1
k=l

, V - + F = 1.
.
:
(. 16).
( = 2) 15
F

-1

,
V - E + F = 2 - 2 + 2 = 2.

116. 20
. ?
116

[77, . 189] ,
ad hoc

[56, . 19-20].
. !

117,
F F
V-E + F= / k / 2 - 2 ( n - l ) + 2 / k }
k=l k=l
. -?
. !.. ,
. ?
!118

uz [77] ^

: V + F = 2[( + 1) + ( + 2 + ...)],
, !
- .
,
. ,
,
(. . 37). ,

; ,
,
,

, (

).
[79, . 98-99].
118


, .
,
; .
. ,


, . ,
. ,
151
. ?
- ,
? -
, !
119. - 5
? ,
;
, ,
. !
. ,
! ,
. ,
.
. .
15
(1): .

(2) : V = .

(3): V - + F = 1 20
.

(4): V - + F = 2
, . .
. 25
, , ,
,
( ) [63, . 103].
, -
,

; ,
-

( ).
119
. 5, .
, ,
(5): F - E + F = 2 - 2 ( n - l )
n- .
F
(6): V - E + F = 2 - 2 ( n - l ) ] T 'k
k= l
n-
,
F F
(7): V-E + F = 2 /k {2-2(n-l)+ 'k }
k-1 k=l

n-

.


,
? (1) ,
.
( ). ?
,
.
. , (1)
,
? ?
. !
?
,
120. -
120

(., ,
,
). ,
.
,
, -
, ,
;
,
121.
. , , 5
. ,
,
, .
. -

122.
.
?

Z1
"
, (. [115, . 168]).
\
, . . CD

, ,

; [. .
CD
. . .] ; "
CD
,

.
, , ; "

,
, 33
CD

. *
121 X
[93, . 33].
122
,
,
,

.

. ,

,
.
154
)

. 5123 ,
4124 .
, ,
, , -
5 125
, ,
.
:
!
,
,

, ;
,
15 . ,

,
,
,
20 , .
, ,
, ,
,

25 .
. ,
?
. ,
^ . . -
. ,
^ , , , -, -
g . -


123
; . 5 .
124
. 4 .
125
. .
155

,
:
!
(). - 5
? , 126!
. ,
,
,
- 10
,
127.


. 15
.
.
(1) ,
. , ,
20
.

-
.
- 25
! (4)
(5), (5) (6) (6) (7),
, ,
?
,
, :
.

,
, : - 35
, .
126
, ,
.
127
[34, III].

, ,
:
. ,
5 ,
: , , ,

, .
(, ) -
,
.

.
, -
15
,

.
. -
20
,
.
?
. ,
25 .
. .
8.

)
.

.
,
: ,

. 5
,
.
,

* ,
,

:
,
, 15
.
. ?
. ,
, .
. , ! 20
.
.
;
,
128. - 25
,
128
. [77, . 233].

.
, ,
.
, ,

129.
.
,
,
129
. 6 [39]
, .

[76].
, .
.
, -
,

().
.
:
.
:
.

.
. , -
:
, ; ,

, .
[96] ,
.
, ,
(. .
), . (
:
).
159
.
,

, .
5
,
;
,
.
! -
.

...
.
? , 15
,

!
.
! - 20
.

.
1: ,
25
,
.
;
,
. -
,

, .
: ...
- 35
; ,
, ,
,
. ,
40
160
.

, , ,
:
5 () , ,
.

,
() , ,
.



, -
15 , .
,


130.
20 . . .

.
,
-
25 !
. * .
,
;
,
;

, ,
,
^ ,
g 35 .


,
,
,
[96].
161
.
? ?
. , ,

; 5
,
.

;
,
.
.
. ,
?
. 15
, , .
. ,
. ,
? ,
! 20
. ,
, ,
. -
,
, , 25
.
,
V - + F = 1 ,
.
. .

,

:
, - 35
.
, .
, -

. , 40

. -
* ,

.


,
, ,
. ,
,
,
.
,
,
.
131.
131
. ,
,
(. ),
. , ,
,
. (-,
, ).
, [125], ,
, ,
. ,

[19, . 81], [20]

. ,
,

( XI, . 94),
( XIII ),
(. 96 98).
?

. : -
, ,
,

. (
,
, ).
;
, ,
,
.
,
, V - - F = 1
, ,
V - + F = 1 ,
, ,

(. 81).
,
,
* , .

( [88, . 230], [50, . 367], [8, . II, . 207].
[10, . 68].
,
,
, ,
.
, ,
, , ,
, .
, , , ,
,
, (!)
,
,
.
?
:
.
)
.

.

.

.
. :
.
. ?
. ,
,
,
.
. ,
.

, ,
.


..^
. !
,
.
, ,
132.

,
[125, . 20].
, .
, .
,
(. . , )
, ,
.
, [75, . 5960],
[67] , [12, . 460], [91].
132
. 6, .
.
?
. , ;
.
. , - 5
, ?
. . ;
.
. ? ,
-
, , ?
?
. . .
,
? 15
. , .
. .


. 20
. !
,

, .
. , . - 25

, ,
,
133. -
133
[30] .
:
...
, ,
, -
,
,
, ,
[95, . , . 300].
:
, ,
,
-
; ,
.
,

,
134.
. . .

,
:
,

,
,
, ,
[45, . 18].
,
( ).
134
.
:
[19] , .
,
,
, .
.

,
,
. , ,

, [28, . 671-672],
. ,
, ,
, ,
[23, . 425].
[79,
. 99] [67, . 39].
167

,
135. ,
,
, 5
.
.
, ,
.
.
,
,
, , ,
.
, . 15
, ,
.
. ,
,
, 20
, ,
135

.
,
, ,
, , . ,
, ,
,
, .

,
. ,
. ,

[101, . I, . 55]. -

^

.
, ,
,
...
. . , -
5 , :

,
, :
,
m 136. ,
-
, -
.
. , ,
15 ,
, ,
?
. , ,
,
20 ,
...
. ... , !
. ! , .
. , !
25 .
137,

, :
-
. .
?
. , ,
,
^ . ,
g 35
, ...
. .
;
136
. 6, .
137
[61, Animadversions upon the Bishop's Reply, XXI]
169
. .
, ,

-
, , 5

. , ,
,
,
?

, -
?
. , . ,
., 15
( )^
, .

, . .
, ( , - 20
, ). ,

.
()
( - 25
),
.
,
138.

138

. ,
, :
, ,
) . ,
[77, . 174-177],
,

. ( )
.

,
:
. , ,
, 2 ,
, ,
.
) .
. -
,
,

.

(,
n-). ,

:
,
(1879, . 102).

,

:

(1914-1931, . 22).
) .
,
. (, ,
, ,
).
, ,
,
,
.
,
,

V - E + F = 2-2n.
. , , ,

, , ,
139.

. - 5
,
, ,
,
.
, , ,

.

)
) . 15

,
.

- 20
.
. ,
?
139
,
, , ,
(,
, ), .

(, ,
) ,
.
,
.
. .
, ,
, ,
.

: ,
LI ,


L2.
... L3!
.*. ,
.
.
. ,
LI, L2,
.
, LI,
L2, .
.
140.
.
. .
, .
140
[43, . 10]. ,

,
.
,
.
- ,
,
, , ,

, . . ,
, ,
[38].
;
. [103, . 128, . 3].
173
)
,

. ,

.
.
, - 5
.
,

:
, -
.

. , ,
.
, , 15


.
. ,
! 20
. . ,
,
,
( ),
; - 25

, ,
,
.
.
!
. ,
.

. - 35
.
. ?
. , .
,
.
5 . ?
. ,
, .
, - , ,
.
m ,
: ,
, , ,
... -
-141 ( -
15 , , ,
: , . .
-),

- , -
20 , -

,
.
...
25 . !
,
...
. ?

,
.
?
: ,
-
35
.
141

.
[101, . I, . 34-40].
175
. , .

, , .
,
, 5
, ,
, ,
,
,
one- 10
, .
?
. !
!
! - 15
142!
. , -
, ,

- 20
...
.
, .
,
, - 25
. ,


,
!
,

?
142
,

,
, ,
[101, . I, . 17)]. . [93,
. 31-33].

!
.
,
.
, ,

.

) .

. ,
1 ,
.
. , ,
!
. .
15 ,
.
,

. . -
20 ,
, -
. ,
,
bona fide [ (.) - .]
25 , -
.
.
^ : -
g ,
, -
,

.
: -
,
, .
. , ?

,
?
. ,
-
. , ,
. ,
,
, , , ,
-
.
. , - ,
!
. !
:


143...
. !

-
, , ,
.
- -
143

.
-
,
, [23,
. 426]. ,
, [79,
. 104].
,
Theory
of Partitions of a Close. -
Census of Spatial Complexes.
178
, ,
!
. ?
? !
5 -
.
. ,
.
, -
, .
:
,
:
, .
15
?
, -
, :
,
20 .
. -
144!
.

25 :
(6) (7)"'.
144
. 4, .
145

. ,
-
^ ,
.
^
Q -
.
:
V - + F = 4 - 2 + q, ,
-
, V - + F = 1, a q
. , (5)?
. ; (6) (7) , !
(6) (7),
-
146.
. -, - .
, ?
.
.
-

,
[9, . 72].
,
,
, ,
, , , , -
(. 65). : ,
. ,
, ,
.
,
, , ,
, m
[68, . 86]. -

B V - E + F = 2 - 2 n + q + m [10, . 343].

. ,
. ,

[11].
146

. ,
, .
[] n-
[121]. ,
, ,
,
.
?

147.
. (5)

,
,
(6) (7)?
. !
. .
(5). ?
(5)!
,
,
.
, ,
?
4
5 ,
2
.
147
, ,
, .
.

- ,
-
- , ,
.
,
[101, . I, . 30].

, ,
,

[86, . 196]. - ,

:
.
. !
,
.
.
, 5
?
.
, .
. ,
, ; -
, .
,
?
?
. - 15
!
.
. .

. 20
. . -
- ?
. , .
9.

. ,
.
,
; ,
5 ,
, .

,
, ,
. ,
, , , .

,
, ,
15 . -
, ,
.
,
. -
20
.
. . ,
, ;
,
25 .
.
, ?
,
-
. ,
,
, . .
.
- 5
. ,
,
,
. .
. ,
,

, ?
. ,
, - 15
. ,
:

,
, 20
,
,
. .
( ). ,
, ? 25
. :
, !
. , .
,
: -
,
, V - + F = 2.
?
. ,
. 35
, . ,

.
148
. . 5.
.
-, (. 6 ).
, -
, V ~ + F = 3. , .
. -
!
. , .
, .
,
10 , ,
.

mzzzzzzzzzzz

mzzzzzzzzzm
. 24.
. !
. , ,
: -
15
.
. 9? , ,

. ,
20 (. 24 )
,
(. 24 ).

,
25 . ,
,

, F, F
, ?
. , . -

,
185
, ,
, .

.
, - 5
,
- ,
2 + 2 = 4?

,
.
. !
. , .
. !
. , - 15
,
; ,
;
!
. , 20
* 2 2 1!
. , 2 2 5

.
. 25
,
.

: : 2 + 2 = 4
"" 149. -
.
. ,
.
!
: 35
!
!
-
149
. [43, . 9].
186

.
, .

5 !
.
:
,
. -
, 150 .
. !
,

? ,
15 ,
.
, .
.
, -
20 .
.
.
, ,
, 151.
25 . !

. ,
-
U
150
-

,
;
.
151
[7, . xx-xxi].
.
,

.
- 5

. ,
;
,
. -
,

.
( ),
( ). 15
. -
,

, . -,
20

.

,
. , 25

: , ,..,
152.

- , -
.

.
152
-
[15, 147].
1830- , ,
,
,
XIX .
188
, , ,
,
.
, -
5 ,
,
,
. ,
, . ,
?

,
.
.
15 . , ,
:
, , !
. .
,
20
,
: ,
, ,

25 153.
153
XIX .


( )
. 1930- , -,
, (
) (),
^ -, . ,
% , -
,
*: :

(. [132]).
, -
.
?
,
,
?
?
, ,
154?
( ).
. ?
.
. ?
. ,

: ,
...
. , , !
. .
,
155 .


, , (. 420)
, , , .

[105], ,
,
.
154
.
,

,
.
155
. 8, .
, ,
.



, --
190
. .
-
?
. .
5 !
,
, ,

.
!
. , . ,

.
,
15
, 156.

;
.
20 . .
.
. .
157.
-
25 158. ( ).
. !
, !

(SggjP ,

^ .
156
, , ,
; , -
,
;
.
157
. [72].
158
[109, . 968].

1. .. // ..,
.., .. (.). .
, . . 1. ., 1956. (engl, transi,
by S. H. Goura. Am. Math. Soc, Rhode Island, 1962).
2. , / / .
2 . . 2. ., 1976.
3. Abel N.H. The letter to Gansteen / / Sylow, Lie (eds.). Oeuvres.
Christiania, 1881. vol. IL, 1826. P. 263-265.
4. Aetius. Placita. (. 150 . . .).
5. Ambrose A. Proof and the theorem proved / / Mind, 1959,
v. 67, p. 435-445.
6. Arber A. The mind and the eye. Cambridge, 1954.
7. Arnauld A. L'art de penser. Paris, 1724.
8. Baltzer R. Die Elemente der Mathematik. Bd. III. Leipzig,
1860-62.
9. Becker J. . ber Polyeder// Z. Math, und Physik, 1869, Bd.
14, S. 65-76.
10. Becker f. C. Nachtrag zu dem Aufstze ber Polyeder / / Z.
Math, und Physik, 1869, Bd. 14, S. 337-433.
11. Becker J. C. Neuer Beweis und Erweiterung eines Fundamen-
talsatzes ber Polyederflachen// Z. Math, und Physik, 1874,
Bd. 19, S. 459-460.
12. Bell E. T. The Development of mathematics, 2nd ed. N. Y.,
1945.
13. Berard]. . Sur le nombre des racines imaginaries des equa
tions; en rponse aux articles de MM. Tederat et Servois//
Ann. de math., pures et appl., 1818-19, v. 9, p. 345-372.
14. Bernays P. Review of Polya's How to solve i t / / Dialectica,
1947, v. 1, p. 178-188.
15. Bolzano B. Wissenschaftslehre. Versuch einer ausfhrlichen
und grossenteils neuen Darstellung der Logik mit steter
Rcksicht auf deren bisherige Bearbeiter. Sulzbach, 1837.
16. Braithwaite R. B. Scientific explanation. Cambridge, 1953.
17. Brouwer L. E. f. Historical background, principles and
methods of intuitionism / / South African J. Sei., 1952, v. 49
(1952-53), p. 139-146.
18. CarnapR. The logical syntax of language. N. Y., London, 1937
(Carnap R. Logische Syntax der Sprache. Vienna, 1934).
19. Cauchy A. L. Recherches sur ls polydres / / J. de l'Ecole
Polytechnique, 1813, v. 9, p. 68-86.
20. CauchyA. L. Sur les polygones et les polydres// J. de l'Ecole
Polytechnique, 1813, v. 9, p. 87-98.
21. Cauchy A. L. Cours d'Analyse. Paris, 1821.
22. Cayley A. On Poinsot's four new regular solids// The London,
Edinburgh and Dublin Philos. Mag. and J. Sei., 4th ser., 1859,
v. 17, p. 123-128.
23. Cayley A. On the partitions of a close / / The London, Edin-
burgh and Dublin Philos, Mag. and J. Sei., 4th ser., 1861, v. 21,
p. 424-428.
24. Church A. Introduction to mathematical logic. V. I. Princeton,
1956 [. : .
. . 1. ., 1960].
25. Clairaut . . Elements de Geometrie. Paris, 1741.
26. Copt I. M. Modern logic and the synthetic a priori / / J. Philos.,
1949, v. 46, p. 243-245.
27. Copi I. M. Goedel and the synthetic a priori: a rejoinder / /
J. Philos., 1950, v. 47, p. 633-636.
28. Crelle A. L. Lehrbuch der Elemente der Geometrie. Bd. III.
Berlin, 1826-27.
29. Curry H. B. Outlines of a formalist philosophy of mathema
tics. Amsterdam, 1951.
30. Darboux Lettre Houel (1874) [cit.: F. Rostand. Souci
d'exactitude et scrupules des mathmaticiens. Paris, 1960.
P. 11].
31. Darboux Lettre Houel (1883) [cit.: F. Rostand. Souci
d'exactitude et scrupules des mathmaticiens. Paris, 1960.
P. 261].
32. Darboux Lettre Houel (1874a) [cit.: F. Rostand. Souci
d'exactitude et scrupules des mathmaticiens. Paris, 1960.
P. 194].
33. DenjyA. L'orientation actuelle des mathmatiques// Revue
du mois, 1919, v. 20, p. 19-28.
34. Descartes R. Regulae ad Directionem Ingenii (1628) [
: . / / -
. . . 1. ., 1989. . 77-153].
* 35. Descartes R. De solidorum elementis (. 1639) / / First publ.:
; Foucher de Careil: Oeuvres indites de Descartes, II. Paris,
1860, p. 214-234 (revised, ed.: Adam Tannery. Oeuvres de
Descartes, vol. X. Paris, 1908, p. 257-278).
36. Dieudonne /. Les mthodes axiomatiques modernes et les
fondements des mathmatiques / / Rev. sei., 1939, v. 77,
p. 225-231.
37. DiogenesLaertius (. 200) [. : -
. ,
. 2-, , . ., 1986].
38. Einstein A. The letter to P. A. Schilpp (1953) [cit.: Schilpp P.
A. The Abdication of Philosophy / / Kant Studien, Bd. 51,
1959-60, S. 490-91].
39. Euler L. Elementa Doctrinae Solidorum (1750) / / Novi com
mentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae (1752-1753),
1758, v. 4, p. 109-140.
40. Euler L. Demonstratio nonnullarum insignium proprietatum
quibus solida hedris planis inclusa sunt praedita (1751)// Novi
commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae (1752-
1753), 1758, v. 4, p. 140-160.
41. Euler L. Specimen de usu observationum in mathesi pura
(1753)// Novi commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropo
litanae (1756-57), 1761, v. 6, p. 185-230 [Ed. Resume: ibid.,
p. 19-21].
42. Eves and Newsom. An introduction to the foundations and
fundamental concepts of mathematics. N. Y., 1958.
43. Felix. L'aspect moderne des mathmatiques. Paris, 1957.
44. Forder . G. The foundations of euclidean geometry. Cam
bridge, 1927.
45. Frechet M. Les espaces abstraits. Paris, 1928.
46. Frechet M. L'analyse generale et la question de fondements
(1938)// Gonseth (ed.). Les Entretiens de Zrich, 1941.
47. Frege G. Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, Bd. I. Jena, 1893.
48. Gamow One, two, three... infinity. N. Y., 1953.
49. Goldschmidt R. Some aspects of evolution// Science, 1933,
v. 78, p. 539-547.
50. Grunert /. A. Einfacher Beweis der von Gauchy und Euler
gefundenen Stze von Figurennetzen und Polyedern / / J. die
reine und angew. Math., 1827, v. 2, p. 367.
51.' Hardy G. H. Mathematical proof// Mind, 1928, v. 38, p. 1-25.
52. Haussner R. (ed.) Abhandlungen ber die regelmassigen
Sternkorper / / Ostwald's Klassiker der Wissenschaften, N.
151. Leipzig, 1906.
53. Heath Th. L. The thirteen books of Euclid's elements, 2-d ed.,
1925 (1-th ed.: 1908).
54. Hempel C. G. Studies in the logic of confirmation, III / /
Mind, 1945, v. 54, p. 1-26, 97-121.
55. Hermite C. Lettre Stieltjes, 20 mai 1893, Correspondence
d'Hermite et de Stieltjes, Publie par les soins de . Baillud
et H. Bourget, I-II. Paris, 1905, v. II, p. 317-319.
56. Hessel F. Ch. Nachtrag zu dem Euler'schen Lehrsatze von
Polyedern / / J. die reine und angew. Math. 1832, Bd. 8,
S. 13-20.
57. Hetting A. Les fondements des mathmatiques du point de
vue intuitioniste. Appendix to F. Gonseth: Philosophie math-
matique. Paris, 1939.
58. Heyting A. Intuitionism. An introduction. Amsterdam, 1956
[. : . . M., 1965].
59. Hubert D.t Cohn-Vossen S. Geometry and imagination. N. Y.,
1956 (1-th ed.: Anschauliche Geometrie. Berlin, 1932.
60. Hobbes T. Leviathan, or the matter, form and power of a Com
monwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. London, 1651 [.
: . , ,
/ / .
. . 2. ., 1965].
61. Hobbes . The questions concerning liberty, necessity and
chance, clearly stated and debated between Dr. Bramhall,
Bishop of Derry, and Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury. London,
1656.
62. Holder O. Die mathematische Methode. Berlin, 1924.
63. Hoppe R. Ergnzung des Eulerschen Satzes von den Polyedern
//Arch. Math., und Physik, 1879, v. 63, p. 100-103.
64. Husserl E. Logische Untersuchungen, Bd. I. Halle, 1900
[. : . .
. 1. ., 1909].
65. Jonquieres E. Note sur le thorme d'Euler dans la thorie
des polydres / / Comptes rendus des seances de l'Acadmie
des Sciences, 1890, v. 110, p. 169-173.
66. Jonquieres E. de. Note sur un point fondamental de la thorie
des polydres / / Comptes rendus des seances de l'Acadmie
des Sciences, 1890, v. 170, p. 110-115.
67. Jordan C. Recherches sur les polydres / / J. die reine und
angew. Math., 1866, Bd. 57, S. 22-85.
68. Jordan C. Resume de recherches sur la symtrie des polydres
non Euleriens / / J. die reine und angew. Math., 1866, Bd. 57,
S. 86-91.
69. Kant I. Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Riga, 1781 [.
: . / / .
6 . . 3. ., 1966].
70. Kepler I. Harmonices mundi. Lincii, 1619.
(195
71. Lakatos I. Essays in the Logic of mathematical discovery, Ph.
D. Dissertation. Cambridge, 1961.
72. Lakatos I. Infinite Regress and the foundations of mathematics
/ / Aristotelian society supplementary volume, 1962, v. 36,
p. 155-184.
73. Landau E. Grundlage der Analysis. Leipzig, 1930.
74. Lebesgue H. Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Camille Jordan
(1923) [rep.: H. Lebesgue: Notices d'Histoire des Mathma-
tiques. Geneve, 1958, p. 40-65].
75. Lebesgue H. Lemons sur l'intgration. Paris, 1928 (1-th ed.:
1903).
76. Legndre. Elements de gomtrie* Paris, 1794.
1809 .
77. Lhuilier S. . /. Memoire sur polyedrometrie: contenant une
demonstration directe d Theoreme d'Euler sur les polydres,
et un examen des diverses exceptions auxquelles ce thorme
est assujetti. (Extrait) par M. Gergonne / / Annal, math, pures
et appl., 1812-1813, v. 3, p. 169-191.
78. Lhuilier S. A. J. Memoire sur les solides rguliers / / Ann.
math, pures et appl., 1812-1813, v. 3, p. 233-237.
79. Listing J. B. Der Census raumlicher Complexe / / Abhandl.
Kniglichen Gesellschaft Wiss. Gatingen, 1861,Bd. 10,S. 97-182.
80. Matthiessen L. ber die scheinbaren Einschrnkungen des
Euler'schen Satzes von den Polyedern / / Z. Math, und Physik,
1863, Bd. 8, S. 449-450.
81. Meister A. L. F. Generalia de genesifigurarumplanarum et
inde pendentibus earum affectionibus (17691770)// Nvi
Cmmentarii Societatis Regie Scientiarum Gottingensis, w
1771, v. 1, p. 144-180. F
82. Moebius A. F. Der baryzentrische Calcul. Leipzig, 1827. CD
83. Moebius A. F. ber die Bestimmung des Inhaltes eines Poly- Q
eders// Ber. Konigl. Sachs. Ges. d. Wiss., Math.-phys. Klasse, r<
1865, Bd. 17, S. 31-68. I'D
84. Moore E. H. On the foundations of mathematics / / Science, /&&
1902, v. 17, p. 401-416. W
85/ Munroe M. E. Introduction to Measure and Integration.
Cambridge (Mass.), 1953.
86. Neumann J., von. The mathematician// B. Hey wood (ed.);
The works of the mind. Chicago, 1947 (rep.: Neumann J., von.
Collected works, v. I, 1961, p. 1-9) [. :
. // , 1983, 2. . 86-95.]
87. Newton I. Optics, or, a treatise of the reflections, refractions,
inflections and colours of light, 2-nd ed. London, 1717.
88. Olivier L. Bemerkungen ber Figuren, die aus beliebigen von
geraden Linien umschlossenen Figuren zusammengesetzt sind
/ / J . die reine und angew. Math., 1826, Bd. 1,1826, S. 227-231.
89. Pascal B. Les Reflexions sur la Geometrie en general (De
l'esprit gomtrique et de l'art de persuader), 1657-1658.
90. Peano C. Notations de logique mathmatique. Turin, 1894.
91. Poincare H. Sur la generalisation d'un thorme d'Euler
relatif aux polydres// Comptes rendus des seances de l'Aca-
dmie des Sciences, 1893, v. 117, p. 144.
92. Poincare H. Complement a Analysis Situs// Rendiconti del
Circolo Matematico di Palermo, 1899, v.13, p. 285-343.
93. Poincare H. La Science et l'Hypothse. Paris, 1902 [.
: . / / .
. ., 1983. . 5-151].
94. Poincare H. La Valeur de la Science, Paris, 1905 [.
: . / / .
. ., 1983. . 153-281].
95. Poincare H. Science et Methode. Paris, 1908 [.
: . // . .
., 1983. . 283-403].
96. Poinsot L. Memoire sur les polygones et les polydres / / J.
de l'Ecole Polytechnique, 1810, v. 4, p. 16-48.
97. Poinsot L. Note sur la thorie des polydres / / Comptes
rendus de l'Acadmie des Sciences, 1858, v. 46, p. 65-79.
98. Polya G. How to solve it. Princeton, 1945 [. :
. . ., 1959].
99. Polya G. The teaching of mathematics and the biogenetic law
/ / The scientist speculates (d. L. J. Good). London, 1962,
p. 352-356.
100. Polya G., Szege G. Aufgaben und Lehrstze aus der Analysis.
Berlin, 1925.
101. Polya G. Mathematics and plausible reasoning. V. III,
London, 1954 [. : .
. ., 1975].
102. Polya G. Mathematical discovery. V. I, N. Y., 1962 [.
: . . ., 1970].
103. Popper . R. Logik der Forschung. Vienna, 1934 (Pop
per .R. The logic of scientific discovery. London, 1958)
[. : ,
. ., 1983].
104. Popper . R. The open society and its enemies. London, 1945
[. : .
. . 1-2. ., 1992].
105. Popper . R. Logic without a s s u m p t i o n s / / Aristotelian Soc.
P r o c , 1947-1948, v. 47, p. 251-292.
106. Popper K. R. The nature of philosophical problems and their
roots in science / / Brit. J. Philos. Sei., 1952, v. 3, p. 124-156.
107. PopperK.R. The poverty of Historicism. London, 1957 [.
: . . ., 1993].
108. Popper . R. Conjectures and refutations. London, 1963
[. : .
. . ., 2004].
109. Popper . R. Science: problems, aims, responsibilities / /
Federation Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. Federation P r o c , 1963, v. 22,
p. 961-972.
110. Quine W. V. O. Mathematical logic. Cambridge (Mass.), 1951
(1-th ed.: 1940).
111. Raschig L. Zum Eulerschen Theorem der Polyedrometrie.
Festschrift des Gymnasium. Schneeberg, 1891.
112. Reichardt # . Losung der Aufgabe 274 / / Jahresberichte
Dtsch. Math. Vereinigung, 1941, Bd. 51, S. 23.
113. Riemann B. Grundlagen fur eine allgemeine Theorie der
Functionen einer vernderlichen complexen Grosse, Inaugu-
ral dissertation. Gttingen, 1851.
114. RobinsonR. Analysis in Greek Geometry// Mind, 1936, v. 45,
p. 464-73.
115. Robinson R. Plato's earlier dialectic. Oxford, 1953.
116. Rudin W. Principles of mathematical analysis. N. Y., 1953.
117. Rssel . Recent work in the philosophy of mathematics / /
Int. Monthly, 1901, v. 3.
118. Rssel . Principles of mathematics. London, 1903. w
119. Rssel . Mysticism and logic. London, 1918.
120. Saks S. Theorie der Integrale. Warsaw, 1933 (Tr.: Theory of
the integral. Warsaw, 1937). Q
121. SchlafliL. Theorie der vielfachen Kontinuitt ( 1 8 5 2 ) / / N e u e \^
Denkschriften der allgemeinen Schweizerischen Gesellschaft [Q
fr die gesamten Naturwissenschaften, Bd. 38. Zrich, 1901. /*>
122. Schroder E. ber die Vielecke von gebrochener Seitenzahl ^w
oder die Bedeutung der Stern-polygone in der Geometrie / /
Z. Math, und Physik., 1892, Bd. 7, S. 5 5 - 6 4 .
123. Seidel Ph. L. Note ber eine Eigenschaft der Reihen, welche
discontinuirliche Functionen darstellen / / A b h a n d l . Math.-
Phys. Klasse der Kgl. Bayerischen Akademie Wiss., 1847, Bd. 5,
S. 381-394.
124. Somuerville D. M. Y. An introduction to the geometry of
n-dimensions. London, 1929.
125. SteeinitzE. Polyeder and Raumeinteilungen// Encyklopaedie
der mathematischen Wissenschaften. Leipzig, 1914-1931,
Bd.3.
126. Steiner f. Leichter Beweis eines stereometrischen Satzes von
Euler//J. die reine und angew. Math., 1826, Bd. 1, S. 364-367.
127. Steinhaus H. Mathematical snapshots. N. Y., 1960. Revised
and enlarged edition.
128. Szabo A. Deiknymi als mathematischer Terminus fr
Beweisen / / Maia, 1958, Bd. 10, S. 1-26.
129. Szabo A. Anfnge des euklidischen Axiomensystems //Arch.
History. Exact Sei., I960, Bd. 1, S. 37-106.
130. Tarski A. ber einige fundamentale Begriffe der Meta-
mathematik / / Comptes rendus des seances de la Socit des
Lettres de Varsovie, 1930, v. 23, p. 22-29. Tr.: Tarski A. Logic,
semantics, metamathematics. Oxford, 1956, pp. 30-37,
131. Tarski A. Fundamentale Begriffe der Methodologie der
deduktiven Wissenschaften, I / / Monatshefte Math, und
Physik, 1930, Bd. 37, S. 361-404. Tr.: Tarski Ar. Logic,
semantics, metamathematics. Oxford, 1956, p. 60-109.
132. Tarski A. On the concept of logical consequence (1935) / /
Tarski A. Logic, semantics, metamathematics. Oxford, 1956,
p. 409-420.
133. Tarski A. Introduction to Logic and to the methodology of
deductive sciences. N. Y., 1941; 2-nd ed., 1946 [
: .
. ., 1948].
134. Turquette A. Goedel and the synthetic a priori / / J. Philos.,
1950, v. 47, p. 125-129.
135. Waerden B. L. van der. Topologie und Uniformisierung der
Riemannsches Flachen// Bericnte der Math. Phys. Klasse der
Sachsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Leipzig, 1941,
Bd. 93, S. 148-160.
136. Whitehead A. N., Russell B. Principia mathematica. Cam-
bridge, vol. 1,1910; vol. II; 1912; vol. III, 1913.
# 137. Wilder R. L The nature of mathematical proof// Am. Math.
Monthly, 1944, v. 51, p. 309-323.
138. Zacharias M. Elementargeometrie / / Encyklopaedie der
mathematischen Wissenschaften, Leipzig, 1914-1931, Bd. 9.



. .:
Lakatos I.
History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions / /
Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Ed. By
R. Cohen, R. Buck, v. 8,1972, p. 174-182.

; 5
.

, ,

. , () -

,

* ; ()

* ,
.
,
;
( , ,
), .

,
:

, .

,
,
, .

,


, ,
. - . .

;
()
(-
) .

- -
- .


. , ,


; ,
, ,
- . ,
( )

1.

1

, ;
(., , [26]).


.

,

.
1.
:


- 5
,
,
XVII XVIII .
,
,
:
, ,
( ,
)
, 2. 15

,
3.

, , 20
.

.
,
() - 25
2

.
,
. ,
, ,
. (
. .)
3

, .
4.
. -,
,
; -,
()
.

.

-
. ,

,
,
5.
15 ,
, ,
, .
:
, -
20 .

. ,
,
-
25 .

, , -
4
^ -
^ , ,
,
5

.
,
.
205

.
, , ,
.
5


, -
( )
6,
, ,
: ,
, ,
7. -
, 15

.


, , , - 20

.
-
:
. 25
, , , ,
. -
,
.
, ,
. ,
,
,

, : 35
,
6
. 1 .
7
( -
) . [30].
,
.

8. -
5 :

;

;


.


15 .
-
,
,
. -
20 , , .
, -

, , ,
-
25 9. ,

10.

; -
.

, -
8
-
.
9
. 23-27
[1].
,
.
10
., , [6, . 377].

( ) (
) .
,
5
,
.
, ,
. -
,
.

,

( ), 15

:
11. ,
, -
- 20
12.
-
,

25
,
,

, .

11

:
.
[22].
12

, -
, , , .
.


,
. -
, -
5
:
,
.

10 ,
(, , ,
).

:
15 ,
,
13. ,

: -
20 . ,
,

14,
. -
25
( ), 15.
13
,
, . [34, . 105-106 187-189].
14
)
,
^ [3] : -
^ , -
. (, ,
* -
.)
15
,
.
209
, ,

.
,
. - 5
,

, ,
,

16. ,
, ,
.
(
. 15
,


.
. - 20

, (
) (
),
, . (

,
).
16

. , ,
,
( )
(
), . [32, . 390-408]
[35, 2]. (
:
, (
)
, .)

. -
,
, -
5 .

, ,
,
, ,
, ,

.
:
, ,
15 , .

;
,
,
20 .)

,
.
,
25 :

. ,

:

(), .
-
, ,

35 .
:



40 .
211


17. ,
,
- 5
.

,


, , ,
.
, , -
,
- 15
.
, -,
,
. ,
, 20
.
,
?

, - 25
: -
18.
17
-
.
,
, -

, ,

.
. [36].
18
,

. ,
.


-

.
5 , ,
,

(
) ,
m .
,


,
15 . -


(1935)19.
-
20 : -
,
,
-
, -
25 .
,
,

,
^
; ,
^ , -
Q
,
19

,
,
[34, . 93-116].
213
-
, ,

. ,
, 5
:
, ,
.
,
ad hoc ( -
)
,

() .
15
,
.

-
, . 20
modus tollens:
,
20.
(
, - 25
.


21.
-
()
,
20

,
.
,
, : . [34,
. 131].
21
. [34, . 99-100].

,
22.)
- ,
5
.

.
() -

, -
, ;

-, , -
15 ; -
.


23. , ( ,
20 ),
,
; -

, . -,
25 ,
,
, , ,
; ,
(
) ,
( )24.
22
. -
^ 2.
g ".[1].
24
-
6 ,
,
,
; -
:


,
, , 5
, ,
25.


. , , (
) (1)

(
) (
) (2) - 15
:
,

,
- 20
.

26.
,
- 25
-

, ( )
,
,
.
25
. [1, . 64-74].
26
,



(. [2, 69]). , ,
[48, 46] (. [34, . 184]).
,
, , .
-
27.
, -
,
5 .
( ), -
, ,

.
-
, ,

,
, (
15 ) -

, .
JS^AK -
,
20 , .
, ,

, ?
-
25 , -
,
( )
28.
-
.
27
,
()
^ -
% . -
6 ,
,

(.
[49, 15], [34, . 121]).
28
. [60, 61].
217
D.
-

,



; , 5
()
29.

.
,
,
.


- 15
,
- ,

30.
20
,
.
(
,
) - 25
, ,
,
29

, , (
) ;
. [33, 34].
30
:
.
, :
,
[48, 8].


.
, ,
,
. ,

?1.
,
,
.

,

.
, ,
, ,

32.
,
,
-
.
31
:
.
[2,
. 201]. [4]
,
(. 169), , , ,
,
(. 167). [16]
, .
, , ,
,
, . (.
[34, . 121,123]).
32
, ,
,
.
219
(, ,
) ,
. (
)
33. - 5
( ) ,
.

:
, , ,
,
,
. ,

, ; 15
-
,

. (
), 20
.
: !,
34 -
.
- 25

, .
,
, ,

, :

, (
, , ).
, - 35
-
33
. [32, . 383-386; 33, . 162-167; 34, . 116,
155].
34
. [48, 85].
, :
,
,
35,

,
,

,
.
,
,

( );
,
,

, ,
(
)36. -
35
. [11, II, . VI, 10]
36

,
, ,
, .
ad hoc:
,
(ad hoc l),
, ,
(ad hoc 2), ,
, , ad hoc
,
(ad hoc 3). ad hoc l

, ,
. .,
[29]. ad hoc 2
-.
ad hoc 3
221
,
,
(, ,
)37.
( - 5

, ,
,
,
. -


. , -

-.
,
, ad hoc 3,
( .
[34, . 175]).
37
,
, ,
( -
, ).

, , ,

, . ,

. (
, ,

.)

. PI
, , ,
2. 2
ad hoc, ,
, . ,
P I ,
2.

,
38.

39.
,
,

, .


, ,
40.)
- ,

,



.
,
(
) .
,
38
., , [34, . 120-121].
39
., , [32, . 385; 34, . 121].
40
, , ,

, .
( )

;

,
(. . 27).

--
; . [48, 18, 19; 54, . 131-133; 58. . 112, 238-239. 243; 34,
. 184-189].
223


,
41.
- 5
,
. ,
, ,
.
-
.
.
. , ,
,
. 15
42
,
(
-
. - 20
,

. ,
-
, 25
( -)

43.


,
41
: .,
, [1, . 48].
42
, -, ,
; . [17; 18; 19].
43
-


(. [58, . 10]),
, ,

44.)
-
5 , -

. ,
,
, -
. ,

Q.
(, ,
),
O

QL
15 . , -
,
,
c: ,

x , -

20
=r

CL

. -

-
25 .

x ,

CL
.
,



^ 60- -
g 35 . , -

-
44
.
2 [58, . 10].
225
. (
, )
,
,
, , 5

45-


,
. , ,
(
, )

, , , 15
, ,
,
,
. ,
, - 20


,
,
46. - 25
,

:
.
,
,
, ,
.
, () 47.
45
. 1, , , ; 2.
46
,
; . . 19.
47

[24, . 224]. ,

1900 ,
. -
,
, ,
, ,
. ,
,
:
ad 48.
: -

;
,
.


.

49. ,
, ,
.
, ,
,
. -

, .
(, ,
), ,

, ,
,
,
,

. ,
, .
48
. . 36.
49
.
[46, . 4, 78].
227
,

() .
,
5
. ,

,

:
,
50.

.
, 15

,


, 20
. , ,

.

: - 25
,
51.

,

. , -

,

- 35
50
. [59; 43].
51


; . [12].
,

,
,
5
. ,
,
.
, -
, , post hoc
,
52,
,
. post hoc. -
15 post hoc
,
53.
52
. 47.
53
. , ,
,

,
- (. [40; 41; 42]).
,
, :


[40, . 648]. .:
(,
)
, :
, ,
. (
, .
, ,
, :
, ()
.
).
229
,
,
, -

. - 5
. ,
,

.
,

.
(,

. , [] 15
,
,
.

54. . 20
, -, ()

,
(,
, 25
)55.
,
,
56.
, -

. , ,
,

, - 35
.
54
. [27, . 239]; .
55
. [17, . 215].
56
.
,
.
,

. , , -
.


, 57.

; : ,
.
,
,
,

.
, , ,

,
( )
ad hoc. ,
,
58.
57
. 2.
58
, ,
.
. (
,
, ,
)
. -

, ,

. -
, ,

modus tollens
231



( ).
5
. ,

,
.
,


.)


, 15
. , -

(. [34, . 106]). ,
,
.
,
;

, .
,

. , ,
,

(. [34, . 136]).
,
.
,
. (
.)


,
, -
5
.

,
59.

,
,
, , , ,
-
15 . ,


,
-
20 .


.

25 ,
.

. ,
, , -
,

.
,
. . , -
g 35 ,


59
;
,
; . . 15.
233

.

.
5
,

,
. ,
,
,
, .

.
, 15

,

,
. - 20

. -,
, , ,
(,
25
) (
,
,
).
60.
60

.
;
.
,
.

:
. -
-
,


,
.
-
,

61.
,
- ,

, 62.
,
:
,
.

. , , -


. -,
, ,
; , -,
, ,
.
, ,
,
.
61
,
, , ,
, .
;
. (. [60; 61; 43; 44].)
62
, ,
( ),
, . ,
,
.
:
.

,
- 5
.

,
.
. 1913 -
.
, ,
. , ,
,
, 15

.
1913 .
, ".
( 20

, -
,

.) 25


,
, ,

64. ,
63

,

. ,

[10]/
64

[29]; -
,
.
:
, .
, ,
, 65.

66. -

[34, . 138, 140, 146].



, 1969 . ,
, ,
, :
,
, , (.
[38]). ,
, : ,
:
, ,
, . ,
, , -,
,
. (. [27, , 256].)
65
. [73].
66
, ,

,
( ) ()
,
,
(
) () .
,

-
.
[1] ,

.
237
67'.
,
,
,
- 5
,
. ,


; , -
.

,
: ,
15
,
, ,


20
68.

,
, ,
. 25
,

.
,
, , -
, (, ,
) ,
-
67
. [54, 31].
68
,
( ),

,
, (. [44]).
,
.
,
69. ,

, , <-
,
,
.
.

69
,
1 (
), 2 ( ).
2
1 .
2.
:



:
(1)
,
: - 5

, ,
-
(
) (
*),
70.

* 5 . 10 Conjectures and Refutations. The


Growth of scientific Knowledge (New York, 1963) [
: . .
, ., 2004] ,

,
.
;
, ,
; :
,
,
, : -
:
. -
. .
70
, h ,
q, p(h,e) = q,

,
,
:
, *,
,

.


.
(2) -

.
. -


,

,

, a p(h,e) = q
. (,) = q , ,

. (
, ,
; .
[33, . 411-417]).

, ;
, .

,
.
* ,


, ,
( ) . -
. .
241
.
.
(
) (
) . - 5


(

),

71. ,

, -
15

.

,
(, 20
, *) ,
,

.
25


72.
71
. [34, 11, 85]. .
[35, . 13].

.
*
() ,
, ,

. - , .
72
[32, . 390]
[35].
-
,
. ,
, ,
5 ,
.

,
,
, -
. ,
,
-
( )
15 -
.
,

( ) ( -
20 )

,
.
-
25 .
: ,
(
) .
-
,


. ,
^ , -
g 35 - (-
6 - ) -
, ,
-
, -
40
243

. ,
-
-

, ( ,
)
.

. :

(
)


, -
,
-
7^. ?
74,
, 15
, .
? ,
,
.
: - 20
;
- 75.

, ?
73
. [48, 4 11].
, , .
74

( -
, ) [50, . II,
. 11], [58, . 20].
75
. [48, 11].
:

, ,
,

76.

,

:
,

, .

77. ,

. ,
:
? >>78.
, , .
:
76
.
77
[48, 4].
(1935) ,
,
. ,
1957 .
,
.
. [35].
78
,
.
, [58] ,
,
(. 49).

.
? .
[29, . 177].
245
, .
, ,
783, .
, ,
, , 5
,
,
, .

,

,
. ,

, 15
,
. , -
(-), -
,
(), - 20
,
()
, .
,
() - 25
,
,
,

79.

, , ,
,
,
- 35
? ,
. , , ,
78
[52, . 33-37].
79
. [48, 29].
^
,

. ,

,
,

,
.

,
;
, 80.
80
, , , ,

; ,

. ( ,
,

, .)


.
.
,

, ,
,
.
, -
, , modus tollens,
, ,
modus ponens. (. [31].) -

:
[70, 71]. ,
. . 122.
,
:

, .
- 5
(
), (
)
81.
,
,

.
, , :
, - 15
: ,

, .

20
, ?
-
?82
, , , :
. 25

,
81
,

. (. [48, 10].) ,

.
82
, [58, . 38] ( ). ,
,
(, )
( ).
( ) ,
,
.
,

.
.
5 :


,
? -
? ,

83. ,
, -
,
15 . ,
,
,
.

20 :
.
, ,


25 ,


84. ,


-
.

,
35
:
-
83
. [34, . 100-101].
84
., , [48, 18].
249
85.
, ,
, , ,

- 5
. ,

, ad hoc:


,
,

ad hoc
. 15
,
,
. ,
,
, 20
86. ,

(
ad hoc),
, - 25

,

.
, -

:
... ( )
...
... 35
87. -
85
[34, . 135].
86
, , . 138 .
87
. [48, 24].
-
88.
:
, . -
5
,
,
.
, -
,
1913 ,

, -
. -
15 , ,
-
89.
,
-
20 . ,
-

. :
. -
25 ; ,
,

-
. , ,
88
. [34, . 140].
89
^
:
^ , -
^ : [55,
. 394]. :
,
. - , . (.

).
251

,
,
(1935)
. 5


90. ,

,
91,
,
.
, ,
, 15
,
,
,
.
, 20
92.
,


. 25
90
, ,


, (),
[27,
. 236].
. 129.
91
, ,
( )
[48, 15]. , ,

, -#/>;
?
92
[17, 19].
, ,

.
, , ,
-
;

93.

,
,
( )
, --

93
. [48, 30; 50, . 2, . 220-221]. ,
,
, ,
...
.
.
,

, .
-
[34].
,

, ,
*
. -
,
,
,
[7].


,

.
253

94.

.
( ) - 5

,
,
,
( ),


, .
, ,
, - 15
,
,
.
, , ,
- 20
95. . -
94
. [58, . 220, 239, 242-243; 59, . 965]. ,
,
( )

. , ,
,
,
( ),
, [59,
. 965]. , ,
, , ,
.
,

,
,
?
95
. [58, . 246].
,
,
,
.
*
( ),
,
.

,
96.
,
:
.
96
,
[1].
, -
, ,

.
(
), ,
;

; ,
, , ;
,
.

,
, ,

[1, . 60-74]. ,
,
,

.
(
) .
255
-
-
, .
-
, , . 5
,
(
) ,
-
. -
:

.
. ,
, , 15
. , -
, ,
, ,
97.
, 20
, ;
, 98.
,

99, 25
, ,
. ,

.
, -
, ()
,
. , ,
97
. [11; 51; 1].
98
, ,
,
,
.
99
. [48, 19].
, ,
,
()
10.
, , , 101,


.
,
, 102.

- ,

103.
, , -



104.
, ,
-
100
. [46, . 70].
101
. [24]; . [62].
102
. [9, . 61]. [5] ,
, [ ]
, , ,
( , );

:
, .
103
. [36].
104
,
. , ,
( -
) .

:
, (
. . 106).
. () -
, ,
105.


106.
,


,

, ,
,
. . -

,
, , -
.
(, -, ) ,
,
,
-
105
. [47; 25; 23; 17; 18]. [29; 33; 34].
106
. [24]. ,


. , ,

,
. , ,

,
,
, (. [21]).
, 1 12
, 1
, 2.

, [36].
107. ,
,
: ,
, -
5 - 108.
,
, ,
,
109. ,
,
.

110.
107
,

. -
, ,
: ,
,
,
, .


( . [68]).
108
,
-
, ,
.
:
,
:
, -
, ,
[34, . 114].
109
, ,

[36].
110
. [65; 66;
64] , -
,
,
()
, ,
, - 5
.
,
.

-
111. ,

( , ,
)
, - 15


112.

, ,
[38].
.


(1970) [25] [15].
111
. [17; 18; 19; 27],

* ,
,

, ,
.

,


(. [34,
. 175]; . . .
1870 1900 [73]).
,
.

,

.

.
.




.

,
.
,
.

,
,
:
.
()
,
() 113.
, -
,
?
-
, , ,

.
113


. [34, . 127-131].
261
,

,
,
- 5
. ,

,
,

114.

, ,

- 15
.
, ,


. 20
,

,

. , 25
,


, -
.
,
,
; 114

,
,
,
. (. [53])
,
.
,

115.
--116. -
5


117.
-
10 :
-
.


15 118.
,
,
,
, , -, -
20 ,
. ,
, -
-
. ,
25 ,


; , , -
115
,
..-
^ .
116
--
^ ; , . [67, . 13; 58,
g . 242]; . [34, . 168,
169].


; . [29,
.].
118
. .
263

, .
,
:
- 5

. ,

,
, -
, -
119.
,
, ,
15
,
, ,

; ,
- 20
,

, , ,
120. ,
25
,
: ,

121.
, , -
, ,
. ,
119
. [34, 3(c)].
120
[34, . 138-173].
121
:
[11, . 6, 10; . 4, 4].
,
,
(. [37]).

(, , )
,
( ) -
5 , ,

. ,
-
. ,



,
111. , -
15 ,

.
,

20 :

.
. ,

25 ,
.
122

,
,
.

(, , -
^ ).
Q , -
-
, ,
,
.
, . 80.
265


. ,
,
5
,

-

.

,
(,
,
, - 15
,
,
, . .),
,
. , 20
,
,


. - - 25
,


. -
-
, ,
-

, .
35
,
,

.
40
. ,
,

, ,
5 (

, ) ,

.
m ,
,
.
,
--
15 .
,
,
( ,
), , -
20 ,

,
,
. -
25

(
), ,
-
.
, -

123.
^
35 -
,

123
. . 9. (
, , .
.)
267
( , )
,
,
, ,
, 5
124.
-

: ,
, ,
-
125.
,
,
15
--

124 )
,
.
,
,
;
,
,
,
, .
,

: ,
,
,
.
125
. [8] [20,13].
126

,
. -
.
,
. ,
,

,
, ,
-
, .
,

. .
, , ,

: ,
127.


,
,
.

. (,
,
.)
.
,
. ( .
[50, . 1, . 71-72, . 2, . 305-306; 57].)
,
, , , ,
, .
127
, -,
.
, , , ,
.

,
, ,
.
, ,
.
269
.
( ,
)
,
, , - 5
.
-
,
-
,
,
-
.

,
, , 15
(, ,
)
128.

. 20
.
, -
128
(, , )
, ,
().
[31; 28] ,

,
.
, ,
. (,
, ) .

( )
, .
-
5
- .
,
:
. -
, -
, ,
,
. ,
. -
15 , ( ) ,
, --
,
.
,
20
,
,
. ,
,
25
.


? -
, , ,

,
. , , . ?
, . -
35

,
,
,
40 , -
271
, ,
,
,
. , ,
, - 5
,
129, ,
,
.
,

, .
.
,
, , 15

130 , 131.


- 20
132. - -
129
,
, ,

.
130
-,
(
) .
131

, .
132
, , , ,
, ,

.

, , ,
,
. (
. [63].)
,
,
,
( , ,
, , ,
)133.

133
, ,
, , ,
, ,
,
. -
, , -, (
) .
. (., , [58, . 135].)



/ , ,
,
, , - 5
.
,

,
-
. ,
.
-,
( ) (
) () 15
, , -, ,


.
- 20

,

,
, - 25

,
134. ,
: Quod erat demonstrandum.

., , [28, . 157; 32, . 387].


1. Agassi J. Towards an Historiography of Science. The Hague


1963.
2. Agassi J. Scientific Problems and their Roots in Metaphy
sics// M. Bunge (ed.). The Critical Approach to Science and
Philosophy. New York, 1964, p. 189-211.
3. Agassi f. Sensationalism// Mind, 1966, v. 75, p. 1-24.
4. Agassi f. Popper on Learning from Experience / / N. Rescher
(ed.). Studies in The Philosophy of Science. 1969, p. 162-171.
5. Bernai J. D. Science in History. 1-st Edition. London, 1954.
6. Bernai ]. D. Science in History. 3-rd Edition. London. 1965.
7. Beveridge W. The Place of the Social Sciences in Human
Knowledge// Politica, 1937, v. 2, p. 459-479.
8. Cantor G.A. Further Appraisal of the Young-Brougham Con
troversy / / Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science,
1971.
9. Cohen I. B. The Birth of a New Physics, 1960.
10. ComptonA. H. The Size and Shape of the Electron// Physical
Review, 1919, v. 14, p. 20-43.
11. Duhem P. La thorie physique, son objet et sa structure. Paris,
Chevalier et Rivire, 1905 [ : .
. . ., 1910].
12. Elkana Y. The Conversation of Energy: a Case of Simulta
neous Discovery? / / Archives Internationales d'Histoire des
Sciences, 1971, v. 24, p. 31-60.
13. Ewald P. The Myth of Myths / / Archive for the History of
Exact Science, 1969, v. 6, p. 72-81.
14. Feyerabend P. K. Realism and Instrumentalism: Comments
on the Logic of Factual Support// M. Bunge (ed.). The Criti
cal Approach to Science and Philosophy. New York, 1964,
p. 280-308.
15. Feyerabend P. K. Reply to Criticism / / R. S. Cohen and
M. Wart of sky (eds.). Boston Studies in the Philosophy of
Science. New York, v. II, 1965, p. 223-261.
16. Feyerabend P. K. A Note on Two Problems of Induction / /
British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 1969, v. 19,
p. 251-253.
275
17. FeyerabendP. . Consolations for The Specialist//1. Lakatos
and A. Musgrave (eds.). Criticism and the Growth of Know
ledge, Cambridge, 1970, p. 197-230.
18. FeyerabendP. K. Against Method// H. Feigl and G. Maxwell
(eds.). Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, v. 4
Minneapolis, 1970.
19. Feyerabend P. K. Against Method. 1971. (
) [. .: .
/ /
. . .,
1986. . 125-466].
20. Forman P. The Discovery of the Diffraction of X-Rays by
Crystals: A Critique of the Critique of the Myths / / Archive
for History of Exact Sciences, 1969, v. 6, p. 38-71.
21. Hall R.f. Kuhn and the Copernican Revolution / / British
Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 1970, v. 21, p. 196-
197.
22. Hempel C. G. Review of Popper (1935)// Deutsche Literatur
zeitung, 1937, p. 309-314.
23. Holt on G. Einstein, Michelson, and the Crucial Experiment /
Isis, 1969, v. 6, p. 133-197 [. .: .
, // -
. . ., 1981].
24. Kuhn . The Copernican Revolution. Cambridge, 1957.
25. Kuhn T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago,
1962 [ : .
. . 2. M, , 1977].
26. Kuhn . Science The History of Science / / D. L. Sills (ed.). _
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968, v. 14, 5"
p. 71-83. CD
27. Kuhn T. Reflection on my Critics// I. Lakatos and A. Mus- Q
grave (eds.). Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge Cam- "<
bridge, 1970, p. 237-278. |~Q
28. Lakatos I. Infinite Regress and the Foundations of Mathe- /
matics// Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 36, ^*?
1962, p. 155-184.
29. Lakatos I. Proofs and Refutations / / The British Journal for
the Philosophy of Science, 1963-1964, v. 14, p. 1-25, 120-
139, 221-243, 296-342 [. .: .
. ., 1967].
30. Lakatos I. Popkin on Scepticism / / W. Yourgrau and
A. D. Bieck (eds.). Logic, Physics and History, 1970, p. 220-
223.
31. Lakatos L A Renaissance of Empiricism in the Recent Philo
sophy of Mathematics / / I. Lakatos (ed.). Problems in the
Philosophy of Mathematics, 1967, p. 199-202.
32. Lakatos I. Changes in the Problem of Inductive Logic / /
I. Lakatos (ed.). The Problem of Inductive Logic. Amsterdam,
1968, p. 315-417.
33. Lakatos I. Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Rese
arch Programmes// Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society,
1968, v. 69, p. 149-186.
34. Lakatos I. Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific
Research Programmes// I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave (eds.).
Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge, 1970.
35. Lakatos I. Popper on Demarcation and Induction / /
P. A. Schilpp (ed.). The Philosophy of Sir Karl Popper,
1971.
36. Lakatos L A Note on the Historiography of the Copernican
Revolution, 1971.
37. Lakatos L The Changing Logic of Scientific Discovery, Lon
don, 1973.
38. Lakatos L, Musgrave A. (eds.). Criticism and the Growth of
Knowledge. Cambridge, 1970.
39. McMulhn E. The History and Philosophy of Science a Taxo
nomy// H. Feigl and G. Maxwell (eds.). Minnesota Studies in
the Philosophy of Science, v. 5, Minneapolis, 1970, p. 12-67.
40. Merton R. Priorities in Scientific Discovery / / American So
ciological Review, 1957, v. 22, p. 635-659.
41. Merton R. Resistance to the Systematic Study of Multiple Dis
coveries in Science// European Journal of Sociology, 1963,
v. 4, p. 237-282.
42. Merton R. Behavior Patterns of Scientists //' American Scho
lar, 1969, v. 38, p. 197-225.
43. Musgrave A. Impersonal Knowledge: A Criticism of Subjec
tivism. Ph. D. thesis, University of London, 1969.
44. Musgrave A. The Objectivism of Popper's Epistemology / /
P. A. Schilpp (ed.). The Philosophy of Sir Karl Popper, 1971.
45. Musgrave A. Kuhn's Second Thoughts// The British Journal
for the Philosophy of Science, 1971, v. 22, p. 287-297.
46. Polanyi M. The Logic of Liberty, 1951.
47. Polanyi M. Personal Knowledge, Towards a Post-Critical Phi
losophy. Chicago, 1958.
48. Popper K. R. Logik der Forschung. Wien, 1935.
49. Popper . R. What is Dialectic?// Mind, 1940, v. 49, p. 403-
426.
50. Popper . R. The Open Society and Its Enemies. V. 1-2,
London, 1945 [. .: .
. . 1-2, ., 1992].
51. Popper . R. Naturgesetze und theoretische Systeme / /
S. Moser (ed.). Gesetz und Wirklichkeit, 1948, p. 65-84.
52. PopperK. R. Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge//
H. D. Lewis (ed.). Contemporary British Philosophy, 1957,
p. 355-388.
53. Popper . R. The Aim of Science //Ratio, 1957, v. 1, p.
24-35.
54. Popper K. R. The Poverty of Historicism. London, 1957 [.
.: . . ., 1993].
55. Popper . R. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. London, 1959
[. .: , / /
. . ., 1983].
56. Popper . R. Philosophy and Physics / / Atti dei XII Con-
gresso Internazionale di Filosofia, v. 2, 1960, p. 363-374.
57. Popper K. R. Facts, Standards, and Truth: A Further Criticism
of Relativism. 4- The
Open Society and Its Enemies, 1961.
58. Popper K. R. Conjectures and Refutations. The Growth of
scientific Knowledge. London, 1963 [. .: .
. .
., 2004].
59. Popper , R. Science: Problems, Aims, Responsibilities / /
Federation Proceedings, 1963, v. 22, p. 961-972.
60. Popper K. R. Epistemology Without a Knowing Subject / /
B. Rootselaar and J. Staal (eds.). Proceedings of the Third
International Congress for Logic, Methodology and Philoso- _
phy of Science. Amsterdam, 1968, p. 333-373.
61. Popper K. R. On the Theory of the Objective Mind// Pro- ~Q
ceedings of the XIV International Congress of Philosophy, ^
v. 1, 1968, p. 25-33. I'D
62. Price D. J. Contra Copernicus: A Critical Re-estimation of &
the Mathematical Planetary Theory of Ptolemy, Copernicus ^w
and Kepler / / M. Clagett (ed.). Critical Problems in the His
tory of Science. 1959, p. 197-218.
63. Priestley J. B. The Image Men, 1968.
64. Scheffler I. Science and Subjectivity. New York, 1967.
65. Shapere D, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions// Philo
sophical Review, 1964, v. LXXIII, p. 383-394.
66. Shapere D. Meaning and Scientific Change / / R. G. Colodny
(ed.). Mind and Cosmos. Pittsburgh, 1967, p. 41-85.
67. Van der WaerdenB. Sources of Quantum Mechanics, 1967.
68. Watkins]. W. AT. Political Tradition and Political Theory: an
Examination of Professor Oakeshott's Political Philosophy / /
Philosophical Quarterly, 1952, v. 2, p. 323-337.
69. Watkins J. W. N. Influential and Confirmable Metaphysics /
/ Mind, 1958, v. 67t p. 344-365.
70. Watkins J. W. N. Negative Utilitarianism// Aristotelian So-
ciety, Supplementary Volume 37, 1963, p. 95-114.
71. Watkins}. W. N. Decision and Belief// R. Hughes (ed.). De-
cision Making, 1967, p. 9-26.
72. Watkins J. W. N. Against Normal Science// I. Lakatos and
A. Musgrave (eds.). Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge.
Cambridge, 1970, p. 25-38.
73. Williams L. P. Normal Science and its Dangers// I. Lakatos
and A. Musgrave (eds.). Criticism and. the Growth of Know-
ledge. Cambridge, 1970, p. 49-50.


-

. .:
Lakatos I.
Falsification and the Methodology
of Scientific Research Programmes /
Criticism and the growth of Knowledge. Ed. by
I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave. Cambr. Univ. Press. 1970.
P. 91-195.
1. : ?

,
(proven)
.
,
; 5

, ,
.
?
. -

.
,
,
, 15
, .
,
, -

- 20
,
1,
( ,
),
2. 25
1

. .
.
[93].
2

. . . .:
.
,
*
: . .
. ,
,
, ,
. , ,
, , .

, - ,
,
.
,

[134], [135] [98]. [ ,


(, ), .
.
, . , .
,
,
. ,
. ,
.
,

(
).
!
, ,
:
, ( ,
) ,

. - . .].
* ,
. ,
corroborated; ,
,
(. . [161, . ., . 192]). - . .
,
.

, ;
(commitment), ,
.
. . ,

3.
,
.
. , ,
,
,
, , ,
;

. ,
, ,
, ,
. ,

. -
3
[89] .
. -
, , . ,
. . ,
,
,
.

. .
,
, ,
,
,
, ( )
. , , -
.

.
. ,
. , -
5
, -

.
,
, ,
.
. ,

,
15 .
(, )
.
.

20 .
,
,

-
25 . ,

,
? ,
. ,
,

^ .
, -
^ -
g 35 . .
(
);

. -
40 ,
.

, , ,
- ,
- 5
,
.
2.

) ()
. .

,
,
-
.
,

. ,

( ),
() , -
,

.
( )
,

, , .

. -


, .

,
. ,
,
,
,
,
,, .
287
,
, ,
,
,
4, , 5


5.
,
, , -

.
; ,
( )
. 15
,
.
, ,
,
, , . 20
,
,

, ,
25
.
,
4


., ,
. . [152, . 14]. <...>
,
, .
5
- , -
,
(
), ,
,
.
. ,
: ,

,
5
( ,

) (
,
).
,
.

:
15 ,
,
,
.
( -) -
20 .

, ,
,
(
25 ,
)
6. ,
, :
-
,


.
,
35 -
6

,
. . [93, . 367,
361, . 2].
289
.
. ,
,

, - 5
; ,
7.
, ,
-
,
,
8.
-
,
, , is
.
, ,
.
,
20
, ,
.

: (
) . 25
,
,
. ,
;
. -

.
,
()
- 35
-
7
. [93, . 353 ].
8
[176, . 683]. . .: [91,
. 167].
.
.
, ,
-
5 ,
,
,
. ,
,
;
, 1.

,
, .
15
,
.
. ,
, -
20 :
, 9,
,

, -
25 - .

, :

, -
, , ,

, ,

10.
9
[118, . 144].
10
,


.
291
, -
,

, 11.
, 5

. ,
,
:

.

:
,
. : 15

,

,
"" ""12. 20
-
. ,
:

- 25
,
?. :
,

; -
,
...
11

: ,
, ,
, [163, . 38; . .,
. 247].
12
. [161]. . :
[. ., . 229].
,
- ,
, .
-
5 ,
.
;
.
, ,
13.
-
,
,
. ,
15 ,
,
,
;
, ,
20 , ,
. ,
,
, ,

25 ,
. :
,
,
, ,

, ,
, -
13
[27, . 367-368].
. [26].

, ,

,
[27, . 19].
293
,
.

.
5
.

,
,
-
, , ()
, . (
,
).
, - 15
,

(
), ; ,
. ( 20

[])14.


, - 25

.
14
. [161, 4 10; .
., . 54-60, 75-78]. ,
.

,
. ,
,

(
) ( ).

.

: ,


5 .
, ,
15.
.
, , , , -

. .
; 1)

. ,
15 ,
,

.
, -
20 , .

, ,
,
,
25 .
-
, ,
, ,
. -
,
16.
prima facie [
(.) .] -
15

,
, .
16
, , ,
, :
. . [64].
295
. -
,
;
,
, - 5

, ,
,
, -
-, ,
, -
,
( ) ,
.
, - 15
, , , ,

,
. ,
20
,
. ,
,
. ,
, - 25
, cogito,
ego, .

,
-

. ,
tabula rasa,
,
. - 35
,
, ,
,
,
; , 40
, ,
, (
)
11\
2)
, -
.
,
:

.
,
;
, ,
, ,
18. ,
19.
,
.
, -

17
,
,
. ,
.
. . .
.
,

, .
18
. [161, . 29, . ., . 140].
19
, , ,
1837 . (. [161, . 29, . 3, . ., . 140]).
, ,
,
, . , ,
(,
, ),
( ).
297
,
. ,
, -
20,
, . , 5
,
21. ,
,

: -
, , 22.
3) ,

,
. , - 15

*
/
,
20
, .
21
,
, ,
- ,
,
- [161, . 9,
. ., . 74].
22
,
, ,
, , ,
.
,
, tabula
rasa ,
.
.

.
, ,
.

:
,
.
5 ,
,
.
,
. - , -
10
(N) (I),

.
, .
15 ? , , ,

, , ,
, N ? .
-
20 ,
',
. , ,
,
-
25 .
' ,

. -
, -
23.
23
,
,
-
( ),
, ,
. (

, ,
).
.
' ,
-
. .
? 5

? !
, 1
.

,

. ,
(, ,
) - 15
.
,
. .

-- 20
, -
? .
,
, -
25
.
.
,
. !
, -
? .
,
, ...

24. 35
24
,

.
-
,

,
- 25.
,
- (
) (
) ,
-
( ,
- )
. ,

. [
,

,
. ,
,
. ,
, ,
.
,

, .

,
:
.
, .
, ,

. - , .].
25


, ? [162, .
38, . ., . 247].
-
, ?
301
;
,

,
, 5
, ,
,
,
. -
, -

,

.
- , - 15
, , ceteris
paribus [ (.). -
.]26;
.
, 20
, , ceteris paribus,
, ,
.
,
, - 25
, ,

,
modus tollens,
, , -
27. -
26
ceteris paribus, ,
.
27
, -
,
. ,
,

. -
, ,
,
prima facie
,
5
(probabilistic) ,

,28 ,
ceteris paribus,
m . -
,
,
,
-
15 , ,

, . ,

.
20 ( , ,
ceteris paribus
, , ,
,
.
25
1950 1960 ..

.

,
- , ,
,
. , -
X , -
35 ; -

Q -
^ , ,
, .
28
. [161, . 8].
303
,
.

,
, - 5
,
.
,
, -
, -
.
,
ceteris
paribus, .
, - 15
,
.
)29.
:
; 20
-
- (probable) ;
,

. , 25
, ,
.
, ,
.
, -
,

, , .

- 35
,
. -
29
, III
.
,
.

, ,
5 ,
.

, ,
-
, ,
, , , -
, ,
, , ,
, ,
15 , ,
. , ,
-
,
,
20

.
,
. , -
25 , -
, ,
-
.

) .

g
-
.
"**
,
.
( )
?
,
, , ,
, , 5
,
. -
?
*}

* ( fallibilism)
, -, . ,
,
. .


. , ,
\
, , , . ,
; ,
,
.
.

, ,
. ,
-
, .
. ,
1-8-
, :
Q
|
, ?

,

.

, ,
.
. -

,
,
.
. ,
,
. . -. .
306
?
,

?
5
.
,
, .

.
, - ,

;
. -
15
.
,
,
, -
20 30.
, ,

,
. , ,
25 ,
; - ,
-
,
- ,
,
31.
30
-
^ ; . [161, . 19; . ., . 105-107];
% [157, . 23, . 3 . 25; . ., . 2, . 247, 433].
31
,
,

,

.
307
,
,
; ,
32.
- 5
, ,
, . ,
,
.
, ,

,
.
;
33. , 15



.
, , 20
,
,
. ,

( ) - 25

( ),
.
32


, ,

.
, , ,
, , .
,
, ,
.
.
33
. [204], [203], [205].

34.

, , ,
,

.
,
, .
,
, ,
, ,
: , ,
,
35.
,
, ,
, ,
,
.
: -
34
., [149], [150, . ., . 5-152], [127],
[106], [107]. ,
,

(
. .
[161], . 19 20 [. .,
. 105-112]).
35

[149]. [127]
,
[150]
,
,
( )
, ,
, ,
.
309
-
36.
, ,

, - 5

,

;37
.
, -
, , ; - \
,
.
15
.
,
, ,

. - 20
, ,
, , () -
36
Loci classici [: (.)
. .] [140] [154].
.
, ,
, ,
, , .
, ,
, ,
,
. ,
,

,
,
, . (
2- (1914) [40]).
37
[40, . VI, 10].
,
,
(-) >>38,
-
5 ,

, , ,
39.
(,
, )
(
-) ,
,
. -
15 ( )
(
-) ,
, ,
, , ,
20
40.

, 41.
,
25 ,
.
,
.
-
.
. , -
38
[161, . 30; . ., . 145].
39
^ -
^ .
, -
,

.
40
[161, . 27; . ., . 132].
41
, . 28 [. ., . 136-138].
311
-
,

,
, . 5

, ,
,
42,
. , ,
,
,
(background Knowledge),
(, )
43. 15
, ,
,
, ,
44.
20

,
, , ,
, ,
. 25
, ,
, .

, , .
, -
-
, ,
.
.
42
[161, . 30; . ., . 143], [166, . 291-292].
43
. [163, . 390; . ., . 360].
44
,
, . [161, . 28; .
., . 136-137].
,
,
.
,
5 , .

.

.
, ;
,
-

, . -
15
,

*5. ( ,
.
20 ,
, ,
, ,
, .
, -
25 ,
,
46).
, ,
, -
(
)47. ,
45
-
^ -
$ .
46
-
[57].
; 47


?
,

, , ,
.
- 5
. ,

.
, (
), -

48.

, .
- 15
,
, ,
-49.

( 20
,
50).
,

, 51. 25
,
,
,
.
-
.
,
48
. [161, . 22]. -
,

.
49
. [161, . 30; . ., . 145].
50
. [161, . 387].
51
[161, . 30, 29; . ., . 148].
, ;
.
,

5 ( ,
).
,
. ,
-
( ),
.
, ,
.

15 :

,
>>52.
, , -
20 :
,
53. ,
:

25 ... ,
...,
,
54.
, -
, 55.
-
, -
52
^ [159, . 134; . ., 10, . 44].
% ,
. -
: , .
53
^ . [155].
54
[161, . 82; . ., . 213].
55
, . 214.
315
em .
,
:
,
. - 5
: ,
,
,

,
. ,
( ),
.

57. 15

; .

:
. , 20
( ) ,
( ), ,
, ( ) ,
( )58.
56
(
),
, . ?
, , :


[161, . 87; . ., . 116].
, [92],
,
.
.
57
-
: , .
58
,
. : , -
,
:
,

( ).
,
,

59.

,
- ceteris
paribus.
,
, ,
,
...
, ,
,

...?60 ,

.
,
",

" [161, . 28; . ., . 137]. ,
,
tO, ,
.
59
. [161, . 68]. , -


.
. . [27, .
VI]. ( ,

, -
).
60
[153, . ., . 237].
317
,
?61
, ,
,
, - 5
?62
?

, (
): -
ceteris paribus ,
, ,

.
, - 15

,
ceteris paribus N3.
63 ,
, - 20
. ,
,
ceteris paribus
N2. :
ceteris paribus - 25
.
, ceteris paribus
.

ceteris paribus? ,
, ,

.
, ceteris paribus
. 35
61
, . 238.
62
[159, . 133; . . 10, . 44].
63

. [93, . 397 ].

ceteris paribus,
.
, ,
5 ,
N2, a
, , , ,
,
Nv . (-
10 , ,
,

ceteris paribus;

15 ,
ceteris paribus
).

,
20 :
;
.
,
- ,
25 ,

,
^.
, , ,
, ,
,

65.

35 , ...
66, .
64
[161, . 9; . ., . 74].
65
.
66
.
319

,
.

5
,
:
.
,
ceteris paribus, -

,
67.
,
68 - 15

, ,
69.
67

,
,
.
68

, :
.
69
,
,
. . .
,

.
, ,
, , ,
,

. (
() . [161, . .,
. 167-172]. ,
; . [161, . 401, 7].
320
, ,
.
, ,

5 ,
,
, ( ,
)
?70 , -
- ,

,
- ,
,
15
?

(,
, ). [
60 ., .
,
, (!)
, . ,
, . , . -
,
:
,

, , .
,
-
^ ,
,
^ . . , , , -
^ -
,

, ,
. - . .].
70
. ; . [210].
321
,

,

*, 5
(-)
7 1 .
. -

-
.
,
- -
,
. 15
,
,
,
, ,
, 20
.



. 25
. -
, ,
- ?
,
.
,
,
.

* . -
. .
71
,
, ,
.
[ 1991 [201).
.
.
,
.
5
. , ,
,
,
.

,
, ,
.
, ,
15
. ,
*.

,
20 .
, -

. . :
,
25 - ;
,
72.

* . -
-.
,
.
:
,
, -
.


. - . .
72
[177, . 83].
323

.
,
, ,
. , 5
, :

.
, , ,
73.
, -
,
,
. , ,
15
74,
,

. , ,
, - 20

-
,
,
75, - 25
, -
73
, - -
.
74
[139, . 356].
75
[74, . 621]. [4]
(. . 16 ). ,
,
. ,
,
[49, . 27]. ,
, ,
,
[27, . 20].
, .
, , -
76.
, , -
77, -
5 ? 1934 .
,
( ,
) - ,
, :
m ,
"" (
"") .

-
15 ...
,
- ( ,
) ""
78.
20 ,
,
,
,
, -
25 79.

,
, ?
, ,
? - , -
76
[74, . 622].

( , ),
,
.
77
[139]
78
[161, . 26, [. ., . 129].
79
, ,
(. [139]).
325

,
!
.
- 5
,
;
, .
?
, -
.
,
, ?
,
- 15
80.

,
81. ,
- 20
, ,
,
*.
80

:
. ,
. [93, . 395 ].
81

. .: [95], [96], [97].
* [96] . ,
,
- (
)
- .
, ,
,
( )
( )
-
,
,
, ,

5 ,
,
.
, -
, ,

,
.
.
, -
15 ceteris paribus82. -
,
,
. ,
. , -
20 ,


,
ceteris paribus .

,
[. ., . 238].
:
?
,
" " ( ,
. 239), ;
,
. -
. .
82

ceteris paribus.
.
[161, . 18, .
., . 101] [27, . 20].
327
,
. ,
,

; - 5
,
,
.

, -
,
.
1) ( )
;
, 15
;
2)

:
83. 20
:
)
:
;
2') - 25
,
.
,

. , . -

. (
)

. , , 35

, -
83
[1] scientia
negativa (. [5]).
84. 85.
, ,
84
, -
, -:
,
,
, , ,
. , ,
-,
,
,
. ,
,
, ?
. , ,
?
.
?
85
, , , -
, , ,
. .
. [ . . .: .
. . ., 1986. . 109-124.
(
) .
. , . .
. ,

; ,
, -
^
, .
^
% . . ,
--
* , , , ,
,

(Feyerabend P. On the Critique of Scientific reason / /

( )

,
(1) (2), , ,

, , ,
. ,
.

)

.



( ),
.
,

,
.
,


( ), ,
.

Essays in Memory of Imre Lakatos. Ed. by R. Cohen etc., Dordrecht,


1976). (1978)
. . (.: .
. ., 1994. . 101-107).

,
-
. - . .].
:
(
!);
(-
5 2).
,
;
, ,
.
,

, , (,
,
). -
15 ,
'
: 1) '
,
,
20 ;86 2) '
,
( )
; 3) - 1
87.
25 ,
. -,
,
,
; -


.
,
( ) -

86

, .
87

. [93,
. 375-390].
331

,
,
,
5
,

,
.

?
,
?
, -
, - 15
ad hoc, ,
88. , -

*.
- 20
,
?89 ,
, -
88
, (
), , , ,
. ,


ad hoc
,
.
* bon sens
,
, .
(. . 69-86). - . .
89
, ,
, ,
,
[140, . VI, 1].
?90 ,
,

- .
. ?
.

. -
,

; ,
,
- ,
-
. , ,
,
,
, ;

,
, .

ad hoc, ,
91.
,
,

, . ., ,
,
90
,
([85,
. 476]); ,
,
, ,
([39, . XIII).
91
[161, . 19 20; . ., . 106, ].
, ,
, [92,
. ., . 24].
333
, ,
. ,
,
, .
, - 5


, .
,
.
Tv T2,
3, ...,

(
), 15
. ,
, , -
.
,
( 20

), -

,
, , . - 25
,
(

), -
,
,
31. , -
92
PI , :
, ,
2

.

.
,
, ,
93.
,
, ,
; .
,
*. -
93
,
, .
, (
), ,
, ,
. ,

.
* , ,

. ,
. , ,
. , ,
,
; , ,
,
, .
, , , -

. ,
"
" ...
" " ,
.
,
,
?
,
,
? (
. . . . 105-106). - . .
335
,

.

5
, ,
.

,
(. . )
(
) ,
, - .
,
34. 15
,
,
() .
, .
. 20

95.
94
[93] :

; , ,
, , , ""...
(. 386).
, ,
. .
95
,
,
-
. , --
, ,
[ "
"]
[
, ceteris paribus ]
(. [163]). ,


. ,
,
.

.
-
. -,
,
.
,
, .

96. ,
,
97.
,
,
,

.
,
98.

, - ,
,
, ,

.
96
[157, . 2, . 233; . ., . 269-270].

: , [
] ,
, ,
. ( ,
. .); [ . . .].
97
[161, . 30; . ., . 145].
98

[161, . 87; .
-
;
, ,
. ,
, - 5
, ,

,
,

,
. ,
".
, ,
, , 15
.
,
. ,

- 20
.
.

.
, - 25
:
" "
2,

., . 116]. ,
. ,
,
[55, . 227; . .,
. 425]. ,

[ , . 254; . ., . 460].
,
,
.
99
. [93, . 387 ].
( , 2
,
^. , "
" " "

,
, 100.
,
:
,
, -
? -
.

.
,
.
.

;
,
1. -
100

, ,
.
,
.
, , ,
.
.
. ,
,

,

. ,
.
101

.
: Exem-
plum docet, exampla obscurant. [ ,
. .].
,
( )

; ,
( ,
), 102.
,
,
;

.
, :
,
,
103. ,
:
-
n+1- .
- ()
,
.
,
-
102
, '

, , ' .
.

. , ,

, ,
, .
,
. . [93,
. 384-386].
103
. [161, . 85; . ., . 224].
, . -
,
:
,
, ,

104. -
,

, 105. -

106,

*
. . .
:

,
! - . .
104
,

. ,
,
( ) ,
([156], . ., . 29).
, ,
. ,
, , , ,
;
.
,
,
' (
). ,
[163, . 246].
, ,
,
' .
105
. [55, . 254-255; . ., . 461].
106
[161, . 87; . ., . 116].
341

- .

107 ,
. 5
-
.

,
,
. ,
,
,
,
. , 15
, ,
,
,
108.
- 20

.
,
, , .
- 25

.

, -
. ,
107
[161, . 30; . ., . 143].
108
,
,
( )
. ()
, ( )
.
, -
. .
,
,
, ,
, , -
5 .
-
.
,
, . -
.
.


, .
15 ,
;

(
). -
20 ,
, ,

, ;
, 109.
25
,
; ,
, ,
,
. (
)
110.
. , ,
1678 . : -
109

. [6].
,
;
.
343
(
) ,

.
. 5
, -

,
.
, . . 1843 .
, , ...
, ,
, , ,

, 112. 15
: ,
, .
, , ,
,
, 20
?
,
,
113.
, - 25
111
. [105]. ,

, .
, ,
.
112
[128, . 2, . 23; . ., . 456].
113
. . .
, ,

( ,
) [206, . 95-96]. ,
, ,

. .
, ,
. , ,

114.
5
,
,

ad hoc,
, ,
-
115.
,
-
15 ad hoc,
,
, ,
,
, -
20 ,
ad hoc.
.
,
, :
25 .
,
1916 , ,

( , -
, ,
,
), ,
,
-
g 35 ; ,
I-

114
[83, . 305]. . [93, . 394].
115

ad hoc,
([203, . 2, . 317]).
345
,
,
,
; ,
, 5

(,
,
).
, ,
, ,
,

,
, , 15
(
).
, ad hoc, a ,
116.
, 20

( ),
(
), :
-- 1924 . 25
117.
, ,

. , ,
.
.
,
,
116
[93],
ad hocl (p. 389);
.
ad hoc, .
117
ad hocl, a ad hoc2 (. [93, . 389).
. , (. 387).
. ,
, ,
( )
,
5 ceteris paribus,

, ,

.
,
- ,
,
,
, , ,
15
. ,
, ,
.
. -
20 . -
,
, ceteris
paribus .
, -
25 , ,
,
,
- ,
,
. ,
,
: ,
, ,
-
35 ,
.
,
,
, ?
40 .
347
.
- ,
- .
, ,
, - 5
, .

,
, .
- ,
, ( ,


),
. 15
,
.
, -
()
, - 20
. .
,

, ,
- 25
118.
, ,
:
, ,
() . -
,

118

,
, 3:

,
,
.
348
,
- .
,
N: ,
5 frr^m^r2.
N ,
,
,
- ,
(
.)
,

.
15 , ,
,
,

( , -
20 .)
N
.
XVIII .
,
25 ( ,
), (. .
),

, , , -
.

^
.
s

g 35 ,
, -
*
. ,
, -
40 , -
349
,
119.
,
,
, 5
.
, , ,
,
, ,
.


, , ,
,
. 15
( , ,
, ,

. , ,
- 20
,

:
. ,
, : 25
,
, X


, ,
. -
119
-
[20], .
,
,
,
. .: [98],

. [168].
,
. ,

, ,
5 ,
,
( )
*. ,
, -
10 -,
,

,
.)
15 ,
, ,
,
, ,
. ,
20
, .

.
, , -
25
. ,
,
( ),
,

-
,

* ,

, .
,
, . .
[161, . ., . 96]. - . .
120
[161, . 22; . ., . 117].
351

120,
,
121.
, 5
, ,
. ,

?
-
?
- ,
(
)
, - 15
.

- ,
.
, 20
,
122.

,
25
, ,

.

-
1815 1911 .
()
, ,
" "
35
,
(R) = 35,5 -
121
[161, . 107].
122
. [161, . 29; . ., . 138].
. ,
R123.

, ,
5 , .
,
. , ,
R
. ( , -
,
.)
,
= (
)
15 ; = ()
35,5.

, , ,

20 : X
- 35,5, X
, ,
- .
R?
25 (Rj) : X
.
-,
.
Rj. -

1 2.
Tj :


, ,
,
* , ,
[4, . 18]. ,
?
? .
2 ,.., 17, ,

. 2 X 17
Pi> 2> *Pi7'
, - 5
, 2 . ,


]. , ,
, . To, -
, ^ Rr
.


. 15
?
, 1 ,
?

, . , , - 20
-

,
,
, 25
, .

,

-


.
,
, 35
.

,
: -
, , 40
,
.
,
.


.
, ,
,
-
( ).
, ,
,
,
,
,

,
,
( ),
,
124.

:
, ,
,
.

.
124
,

,
.
(
, )
: .
,
,
.
355
,
, .
,
.
, , 5
; ,
, :
125.
,
,

.
?
:
, , , - 15
, ,


126.
, - 20
, -
125
:
,
. ,
. ,
,

, , , ,
.


,
, , ,
;
.
126
,
, -;
,
, .
.
-
127
,

128.

.

. ,

, -
127

: . (,
[92]).
128

, . ,
1 1694 .,
.
,
, , ,
, .
7 : ,
, ,

;
.... ,
20" (, , ,
). ,

. ,
.

.
,
, ,
,
. , , ,
, .
:
. ,
, , ,
129. ,
, 5
-
. -
, ,

, , ,
,
.

130.
- 15
, 131;
,
, .
,
; 20

-
( ,
?). ,
- 25
.
-
,
,
. -
. -
129
.
,
, ,
.
130
[157, . 2, . 23, . 218; . ., . . . 252].
131
, , , ,
,
[4, . 20].
,

.
,
5 ,

,
,132 < , ,
-
. . >. ,
,
, .
.
-
15 ,

. ,
,
.
20 ,

. ,
.
; -
25

.

[55, . 226; . ., . 423].


3.


,

.
, 5
, ,
,
. ,
,
-
.
,
,
( ),
, , 15
( )133.

,

: , - 20
, .
, ,
-
133
,
()
(, , ). ,

, ,
,
.
134. , ,

,
: .

135.
, ,
, ,
, , .

,
( ),
,
.
,
( -
),
, .
,
,
( ),
136.

134
[161, . 11 70].
-
: ,
.
135
. [200]. ,
-
,
,
, ,
(. 356-357).
136

. [160] [200, . 350-351].
) :


.
modus tollens,
, ,
, 5
,
,
; modus tollens

. -
,
, ,
,,
. -
, - 15
. ,
.

.
, - - 20
.
,
( , ),
,
. , 25
,
.

,
-
.
137.

modus tollens
- 35
137
[100, . 4, . 11].
.

; ,
-
5 138.

-
139. ,

, .

. , ,
, , , ,
-
15 140.
( )
,
.
,
20 , -
, ,
,
,
.
25 ,
.
,

, ,
.
138
, ,
,
^ . -
. -
,
139
[98].


,
ceteris paribus.
, , , ,

;

. , 5

. ,
,
,
,
.



. , 15

,


. - 20
,
,

. , ,
, 25
,
, ,
. ,
.
,

.
) :


,
, .

-
5 .
.
,
, . ,
* , -
10 - .
,
. ,
,
.
15 ,
.
, ,

. -
20 ,
, ,
,
,
, , ,
25 ,

, ,
.
s

g . -
,
;

, ,
35 .

141.


- 5
.
.
,
,
,
.
( ,
),
.
, 15

.
,
,
. 20
- ;
,
, ,
.
- 25
,
. ,

.

.
141
( )
, .
.
(. [92, . 300 ; . ., . 98 ],
).
, ,
, ,
, .

.
( ),
.

, ..
, .

, ,
, ,

.
,
142.
(
),
, ,

; ,
.
143.
142
.
:
,
.


.
,
, ,
, , ,

.
.
[174, . 101-102].
. ,
[55, . 229].
143

. [98].
367

,
, .
(
, 5
), ,
.
.
,
-
- ;
,

.
, 15
, .


. ,
: 20

,
.
:
, , , - 25
, .
,
, , . ,
, ,
,


145.

, . 35
144
. [195].
145


( ).
,


; -
5 , ,

146. ,
+1
- , ,

.
,
.
-
15
: ,

?147
( ,
20 .
-
, .

,
25 ,
.)
,

: ,
-
146

. , ,
,
35 .
147
. [92, . 324-330; . ., . 131-137].
,


40 .
. ,
,
,

, , 5
.
, ,
,
.
,


,
. ( , ,
, - 15
,
(. . ),
, ,
,
, .) 20

) :



.
,
: , 25
,
,
,
,
.
( ,
, ,
: (1)
; (2)
35
,

,
.

:
*.
.)

(6) :
,
6

1815 .
,
\ .

, ,
,
.
, -

*

,
-
.
-
.
. (.: . . . . 115);
, .
:
,
. .
.
( )
( . . .
. . 4. ., 1967. . 310). - . .
;
,
,

,
148.
:
,
.
,
,

,
149.
, ,
,
. ,
,
,

. , ,
,
, , 1860 . ,
148
,
.
. , ,
36.
149

.
1815 .
. ,
, , ,
,
.
,

, ,

[171].
- 150.


, .
5 ,
: .
,
, ,
-
,
151.
1886 .,
, [ ]
-
15 ,
152. ,
,

,
20 -
. , 1886 .

153. ,
(
25 ):
,
154. , ,
, , ,
150
. . ,
,
, ,

,
. , ,
[117].
151
[116].
152
[33].
153
.
154
[33, . 491].
-
, (
) .

, 5
;
,
.
,
-
,
, , ,
,
,
155. , - 15
-
;156
,
,
1815 ., 20
157.

,
, ;
, , 25
, ,
.
( -
, , ,
, -
,
. -
155
. [92, . 4; . ., . 22-60].
156

[34], ,
.
;
.
157
[184, . 50].
,
: - ,
, XIX ,
-
5 .
,
, ,
, ,
, -
, 158.
,
, ,
,
. -
15 ,
159.
,

; -
20 , ,
.

, -
.
25 ( ,
XIX .)


.

158
^ .
159
%


,
;
, .
375
(2) : ,

5
( )
160.

: 1)
; 2) -
; 3) ,
: 4) ,
( ,
); 5) , .
: 15
(
,
)
? , ,
- 20
, .

. ,

, - 25

-161. ,
: (1)
( )
, -
, -

160 , ,
; ,
. -
, .
161
, , -
,
,
[209].
"" . (2)

,

5
. (3)


V
m = bv, h
. (4)
,
,
, ,
15
,
h/2. ,
, ,

20 h/2. (5) "
" , . .
, ,
,
-
25 /2.
,
,
, -
, -
,
. -

:
-
g 35 . -
. ,
,

-,
162
[13, . 874; . ., . 147-148].
163. ,
, ;
,
164.
, - 5


.
,
,
. -

,
.
ad hoc, - 15

, ,

165.
20
, ,
,
.
*
, - 25

,

, .
1922 . .
: ,
163
. , --
( ,
, , ).
164
[77].
165
ad hoc
; , ,
, ,
, .
[. . ], [
]
, ,
166.
5 ( -
,
: Allez en
avant et la foi vous viendra [
{(pp.). - .]. : no
lo , , ,
;

167.
-
15 , ,
- ,

168.
, ,
20 ,
:
.
, 30-40 .

25
,

169. ,
,
,
, -

)170.

g [16], .
167
[115, . 311].
168
, ,
, .
169
[21, . 206].
170
. [180, . 170].

171
(
);

*. . , -
171
,
, . .
,
.
, ;

.
()
,
, ,
. ,

, ()

; ,
.
,

(
).
(
)
. [92, . 335; . ., . 144].
* . , ,
: -

, ,
, ,
,
;
( ,
.),
,
;
,
. ,
172,

. ,
,
,
;
:

ad hoc
. ,

173.

;
,

,
.
, .
; ,
,
, ,
,

,
,

.

,
, ,
. - . .
172
[16, ].
173

.
:
, -
( ,
,
. ,
,
,
, , ,

174. ,
,


175, ,

.

176).

;
. , ,
,
.
,
... ,
,
[156, . ., . 35, 38].
,
,
, , .
(
-) ,
; 24-

, .
174
.: [87].
175
[19, . ., . 113].
176
.
:
,
, ,
[25, . ., . 304].
,


, , . -
5
.
,

, -
,
:
.

, (-
15 ) ,
;
,
.
. ,
20 177.
. , 14 1990 .,
,
,
; -
25 . ,
,
1905 ., ,
1913 . .
-
,
, ()

177
^ -
Q . [209], . 103-104.
: -

.
[148,
. ., . 661].
,
;

.
5
,
, .
,
,
()
.
( ),
( ),
, , ,
15
, ,
, , ,
178.
,
, - 20
,
,
. ( 1925 .)

. 1925 . 25
,


.
178
. [98]. ,
, ,
;
(. [168]).
(. .
),
, .

,
.

()

-
5

. 1925 .

.

.
: -
? ,
-
15 , >>179.
, ,
, ,
( ?) ,
, .
20
.
:
-
.
25
.
179
[47, . ., . 238].
, , -
, , , , , ,
.
, [72, . ., . 91-106];
[163], [168]. [56]
,
.

, , ,
, , , ,

, .

.
:
,
5
(1 . . .) ,
(XIX .).
XX
, -,
180.
, ,
.
,
. -
: 15

;
,

; , 20
() ;181

,
, . .
: 25
180
[169, . 31, ].
. : ,
-
... ,
.

, ,
...

,
(Nature, 1969,
v. 222, . 1034-1035).
181
.
[17].

,
,
,
5
182. 1913 ,
,
,
183.
. 1913

. (
Mj),
, -
15 :
[
].
1913 . [
(1885) (1908)],
182
,
:
. 1913 .; .
5- ; ,

, ,
( ).

,
: , ,
,
(, , )
.
183
[35]. 1748 .
:
, , ,
,
... []
:
[114, . 8].
,
.
: -
(1914), -
(1922) (1924). 5

1913 .,
:
1) , 2)
(), 3) (),
.
, , ,

:
, - 15
, ,
,

,
.- 20


184.

, , 25
184
,
[92].

( ) . ,
. 7, . 298-307 [. ., . 97-106].
, ,
V - + F = 2,

; ,

pV = RT
(
),
.
,
. ,
,
185.
5
1 . ,

.
, -
1
-
.
1896 .
. ,
15
1898 .,
,
. ,
, -
, ,
,
. ,
.
, -
25
, ,
,
: ) ,
, , ,
; )
,
186.
185
. [80, . 77; . ., . 86].
186
[59]. ,
,


(. 65). , -,
. -

.

:
. , - 5
, .
()
: ,

, .

,
-.
.
: , - 15

.
, ,
,
- 20
187. 188.
,

.
. 25
, ,


[140]. ,
:
, ,
.
93-
-
,


.
187
[14].
188
[51].
. ,
(monster-adjustment) 189
:
, 2 .
5 , , Mv
2, , 2
, ' ^190
: , ,
2 -
.
,
;
,
; , , -
15 ,
:
m e ^ m e / t l + ^e/mn)] 1 9 1 .

3. ,
20 192.
2
3; , 2 3
,
17 20, -
25 .
189

. . [92, . 127;
. ., . 33].
:
4686 .
190
[60].
191
[15, . ., . 149-151]
^ . ,
Q , -
.
*
[61]; ,
,
.
[62].
391
:
193.

.
. 5
1915 . (
) ,
()
, ,
, -
,
.
,
, ,
. 15
,
,
.

20
,
.
.
,
1891 194. - 25
,

, ,
195. ,
, -

196.
193
,
, "
" [77],
194
[123, . 287-289].
.
195
[131].
196
[185, . 68].
. ,
;


5 .
-

.
, ,
m
1913 . ,
1916 .; ,
,
.
15
:

;

20 .
,
,
,
-
25 >>197.
,


. . , -
197
[78]. [56, . 83-
87]. .

,
( 1925) . ,
,
( 1925 .)
, ,
,
, .
393
M. ,
: ,

... ,
- 5
, .
, ;
- ,
,
.
, , ,

. ,
(. . )
, ; 15
, ,

, . ,

- 20
, ,
,
. , [ ,
] ,
. 25
,


, ,
, ;
, ,
,
198.

, - 35

.
-

[24, . 180]; . .
,

. ,
, ,
5 ;
, . ,

, ,
.
-
, ;
,
,
, -
15 ,
,

.
-
20
.


;
25 -.
.
1)
Hv 2, 3
, ,
,
. 4,
,
.
^ -
g 35
199. -

199

, , ,
.
,
, .
2) -
( ,
), 5
, 2, 3, 4, ,
4. 4
,
4 ( )
. , -
, , ,


.
3) , - 15
, , ,
^ 2, 3 4.

, ,
, 20
,
200.
- ,
(
, - 25
^ ..., 4),
, - ,


. , -
, ,
, , ,
201;
200
,
,
,
, . .
[93, . 387].
201
. [113, . 21].
,
,

, -
5 , ,
,
, 202.
,
. -
,

.

(
15 ),
(
),
,
-
20 .

, .

:
25 ! ,
,
,
, -
202
,

,
-
-^ , ?
,
?

. . - ,
, ,
, . [92, . 298; . ., . 117-118].
203.

(, ).
, ,
(, 5
,
)
.

(, ),
(,
).
.

, . - 15
ad hoc ,
. ,
()

: v = h [(m+1)2 - m2 ] / 82 J, 20
.
m2 m(m+l), ,
ad hoc.

. 1924 ., 25
ad hoc ,
1925 .
. ad hoc, a
, ,
;


1913 . ,
,
. ,
, ,
: , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, ... [191, . 43].
,
204.
(
, , -
5 )205.
,

, .
.

.
ad hoc,
: ,
206.
15 , , ,
, -,
.

.
20
( , 1924 .),

( ).
,
25 ,
,
,
( )
ad hoc, , -
204
. [196], [197].
205
[80, . 146-148, 151; . ., . 154-155].
206

.: [115, . 311-313].
,
; , , .
.


.

. ,
.
,
. - 5
. , ,

1914 ., 1924 .?

) :

, , 15

,
,

, , - 20
, .
(, , ,
,
,
, - 25
207).
,
Weltanschauung,
,
, -
,
, , ,
, ,
. ,
. ,
,
207

,
.
, ,
.

, ,
, -
, .

(, , ),

,
, ,
, ,

208.


}
,


,
. -
( -)
,
, ,
} ,
208
,
,
,
.
,

;

,
. , An
PI Am
2,
, .
,
,

,
209. 5

,
. ,
,
. -

. ,
.

15
. ?
, ,
.
.
^ 20
. 2:

.
,
2. - 25
,
,
. ^
, ,
, -
,
;
.
, !
, , 35
209
,

.
, , .
,
0:

(
), .
,

-
; ,
0210. ,
,
, , ,
211

. 2

, .
-

210
:
,
" , "

"
". ,
, ,
,
, , [161, .
27; . ., . 131-132].
:

. "
XVI ",
" " [139, . 362].
211
,

. ( )
,
.
. ,
,
,
,
. , 5
, ,
,
,
-
-
1905 . ,

( ..),
( ).
, - 15

,
.
, , ,
, - 20
. , , -
,

. ,
- 25

,

211.
212
,
,
:
.
213
-
- ( )
,
, (
) ;
.

,
, -
.
5 ,
, ,
, .

,
m 214.
.

,
-
15 . G
- +1- , w+1-
n-,
. w+1-
,
20
,

(
).
25 ; ,
,
, ,
, ,
, , -
, ,
. ,

,
s
,
g 35

21
, ,


.

.

, ,
, 5
(,

,
).

,
, n-
-
215. (
) , 15
, .
:

. ,
w+1- ( n+k-u) 20
,
,
.
,
, 25
,
.

, -
,

, *.
215
-
,
.
*
,
, ,
, -
-
,
,
216,
,
,
.
,
,
, .
,
. .
:
.

, . ,
-
,
, -
-,
.


. - . .
216
;
(. [192, . 327-328;
. ., . 134]) , ,
, ;
.
,
,
(List der Vernunft),

, , ,
, ,
. ( , , -
, ,

).
ad hoc
ad hoc
, .
.
, - 5

.


, ; -


,
; ,
, 15

217. ,
1802 .

; 20
,

,
. ,
, , 25
,

,

:
,
. ,
: ,
.
:
(
); , . . ,
( ); , ,
(
).
.
,
,
,
5

,

.
,
,
.
-
1887 ,
15 ,
-,

218. ,
, ,
20
,
.

(1) -



25 219,

1881 . ,
, ,
;
,

218
. [161, . 30; . ., . 144].
219
.: [63], [189], [188].
[109].
(, ).
,


( , - 5
, ,
). ,

: ,

.
, 1881 .

220.
- 15
, .
, ,
,
, ,
[ ] - 20
221. ,
,
. -
. ,
, 25

;
222. , ,

;
,
. ,

, ,
. , 35
:
220
[122].
221
[122, . 128; . .\
222
[126, . 335].

,
, ;
, .
5 ,
,
, ,
; -
, -

.
. ,
223.
.
15 ,
, -
, , .

; -
20 ,
,
;

, 224.
25
,
.
: ,
,
, -

,
,
225.
223
. [103]. .
[108].
224
[126, . 341]. ,
[142, . 34].
225
, . 341; ( . . .).
,
(
); ,
1881 .,
. (
, ,

, , 226).
, ,
,
227, ,
,
,
, 228.

,
, ,
; ,
, --
,
22*,
.
-
226
. [126]. ,
: 1887 .
,
. . 33 ,
1887 . ,
( . . .; [23, . ., . 213])
[ .
1920 . . .\
227
1900 .
,
-
- ,
, (.
[129]).
228
[104].
229
( . . .).

,
230.
,
,
,231 ,

111.
( 1897 .)

.
. ,
,
-
230
[109].
221
[108].
232
, ,
,
, -
; ,
(. [208, . 53], [208, . 28-30]). ,
ad hoc. To,
, ad hoc
,
(. [99, . 624). -
ad hoc ad hocl
(. [161, . 20; . ., . 111]).
, ad hocl ad hoc2.
, [67] -
. , ,
ad hoc ,
,
, " "
(degrees of adhocness), []
, " "
[162].

,
.
,
. ,
. -
,
- 5
233.
, 1887 .
:
;

, ,
1892 .234 , -,
-

; 1904 . 15

,
235.

- 20
,
, ,
. ,

236. - 25
-
-, ,
,

. , , -
233
[124, . 478].
234
:
,
, , ,
([]), . . .).
235
[130].
236 -
,
, .
-

237. .
,
5 ? . ,
1881 . .
, ,
. ,
-
10
238.
,

,
15 ad hoc, ,
,

,
.
20 ,
-
.

-
25 ;

. ,
,
, -
- ;
,
, -
237
[10, . 530; . ., . 407]. ,
1905 .
.

(1902 .) [.:
. . . .-., 1929. .
.] ,
(. [45, . 817; . ., . 181]).
,

239.
- ,
, ,
,
,
,
.

,
.



.
, -
, ,
,

,
. , -

,
, , :
239
, 1925 .
,
, ,
;
, ,

. ,
,
[151, . 12-14; . . ., . 37-39].


, ,
, , , -,
, .
,
,
,
.
1981 1935 .,
,
,

240. (
.
,
,

- 241. -
240
,

.
, ,
, ,
. ,

, -
, .
1887 . ,
. ,
. , 1925 . (
, , [79],
) , (. [125]
[175]).
241
., , [44, . 17-18], . [39].
, ,
( ) ,
,
,
.
,
(

).

242.)

,
, 1881 1886 . 5
.

1881 .,
.
1887 .

, ,
( ),
,
, , 15
243.
,
,
.
1887 . 1887 , 20
1905 -
,

,
(1907 ) 25
,
,
, 244,
-
-
. , ,
242
., , [38]: ,
, ,
,
,
. .
[173], [16].
243
[183, . 29].
244
. - . . [183, . 29].
,
,

,
, ,
1887 .

; , ,
245.
, ,
-
,
. ,
,
, -
,
,
Science
,
.
246. ,
*, -
245
,
(.
[46, . ., . 149]). ,
,
([122], [123]),
.
,

. ,
, ,

. : ,
(. [48, . ., . 150]).

[129].
* , ,
.
, -
,
[]
247. , ,
, ,
,
.

, ,
-,
248.

(2) -


. ,
,
, ,

249.

.
, --
,
.
, ,


,


, ,
... [45, .
., . 188]. - . .
247
[45].
248
[190].
249
[147], [161, . 30,] [65, . 37];
; ,
- .
250. ,

. ,
1913 -
5 , ,
, , , . .
, , , , , ,
.

, .
,

. -
, .
15

.
, ,
. ,
20 , . ,
,
,
. ,
,
25 , ,
,
. ,

;
, ,
.
251.

:

25
. [191, . 18];

, , ,
.
251
[144, . 36; . . ,].

,
, .
,
. 5
(Phil. Mag., October,
1913)

,
. -
, , ,
,
"
" .
, 15
,

;
, ,
, 20
252.
,
, , ,
,
. - 25

. ,
,
ad hoc, ( )
253,
252
[28].
253
,
[145], ,
,
, .

. , -
,
.

254;
, -

, .
, ,
: -
- - (
)255.
:
-


. (
). ,

, , ad hoc
,
.
:
,
.
,
[148,
. 41; . ., /660]. ,

,
,
.
254
[146],

.
255
, ,
, . . [191, , 18]. ,
, ,

,
,
.
[42].
-,

256. , ad hoc,

, 5
,
,
--
.

() -pacnad

, , -

.
,
, ,
. - 15
-
1914 . , ,

,
, 20


.
,
, 25
257.

- 1914 ,
, -
. 1922 .
256
., , [81, . 547].
257
[141].
,
.
,
.
.
. , . . . ,
,
,
. , .

, .
,
258.
. ,
, ,
,
,
259. .
, -
,

, -
, ,
,
.

-- (1924 )
,
260.
(, , )
-
258
[50].
259
[121].
260

. 1964 . -
: ,

, .
,
, ,
[198, . 13].
;
, -.

,

, :
-261
,

-
,
; , -
,
.
,
-
-
262.

263 1930 .
, -
.

, ,
264.
261
, ,
, [161,
. 242; . ., . 367, 496].
262
[65, . 72-74]. (
), , ,
, ,
.
, , 1928-1929 .,
.
263
. ,
1932 .;
[65]. (.: . . .,
1969. . 213-214. . .).
264
. [141, . 160].

(1931 .),
, .
(1932 .) , , ,

265. ,
,
1933 .,
, ,
, 266.

.
,
; -,
267. ,
,
.
,
.
.
: -
.
, 268,
,
269.
. ,
, -
265
[19; . ., . 109].
.
1932 . :
, ,
(), .
266
[211].
267
,
- . -
, ,
[19, . 380-383; . ., . 105-110].
268 [49].
269
[73].
,
,


.
,
,
270.
. ,
1933 .:


-pac-
. ...271;
, ,
,
.

-
272. 273,
,
.
. 1933-
1934 . --

.

(
). -
270
. [132], . 823.
, -
, , -
,
[71,
. 164].
271
[121, . 132].
272
, [192], [88].
273
.
[179, . 335-336].
274.
- , ,
.
,
5 .
, ,
, - .
,
--
,

,
.
1936 .,
15 . .
, ,
, .
1936 .
.
20 , ,
--
,
275.
. , -
25 ,
. ,

-
-
,

,
,
276. ,
35 , -

, -


^ [52], [53].
275
[182].
276
[36].
,
, ,
,
,
, 5

277. .
,

. : , --
, ,
278.


. , , 15
Nature.
, ,

. ,
: , 20

-


25
-
, 279.

. ,
, RaE,

-,
1933-1934 .
, , ,
. - 35
-
277
[36].
278
[143].
279
[20, . ., . 206].
, 1936 -

280.

;

-
,
,
. ,

: ,
,
281.
280
1933 1936 .
ad hoc ; .,
, [9], [12], [86]. By 1966 . :
, [. . ] -

- ,
-. , ,
, , .

, RaE ,

-
. ,
.
,
-
[. . ] [212, . 6].
281
,

1936 1950 .; 1950 .
.
, . (,

, ,
; . [181]).
-
,
,
.
, - 5
,
.
, ,
.


.

. .
- : 15
,
.
:
,
. , 20

, ,
,
. 30- .,
, 25
. , ,
282.
,
.

, (1) ( )

-,
; (2) ,
, 35
(""),
;
(3) ,

[194]; . . .


283.
. ,
5
- .

,
, , .
, :
,

.

( J .

,
15 , ,
,

. ,

20 ,
,


,
25 ( ,


). , ,
g
-
. ,
,
;
-
283
[137, . 65-66].
.



( ), - 5


.
. XVIII
, ,
--
,


. XIX - 15
,
,

.
- 20


(
, ,
). 25
, ,

,
, ,
, , -
,
. (


35
, ,
,
.

, 1926 . . 40
,
284)*.
284
[11, . 129].
,
, .
,
:
, ;
- .
, - X,
.
,
. ,

, ,
. . (- X ,
,
.)
:
? - X :
? , !
?
*
( !)


;

. .
, -
^gP ,
, , -
^ , .
Q -
,
, , ,
! , , ,
. ( )
- --
,
.

.
,
, ,
,
, ,
(
) ; ,
, ,

285. , , ,

. ,
,
, .
.
, :
,
,

,
, .
,
-
,
, - -
,

. - . .
285
,
- :
.
,
,
, ,

, .
.

, ,
,
2*6. ,
,
,
ad hoc, , .
,
287.

, .

; ,

.
, ,
,
ad hoc288.
286

,
,
, .
1969 .
287
[93] , ,
. ad hocl ,

( ), . .
; ad hoc2 ,
, :
.
288
( [146])
. ,
ad hocl, ad hoc2,
, ,
ad . ( ) ad
hoc
. ,
ad .

,
, , ,

; , -
,
. ,

.

.



. - 15

. -, , ,
, ,
, ,
20
, ,

,
. (
, , 1917 .?) - 25
, ,

, , ,
.
-


.
,
, . 35

[119] ,


ad hoc3.
,
289.
,
,
.

,

. G , (, ,
290) ,
289
[119] [112],
,
,

,
, -
. ,
,

" ",
;


, ,
. , ,
[ ] ,
, ;
,
, ,
,
.
, ,
ad hoc3. ,

,
,
,
.
290
.: [92].
, ,
,
,
,
,
, *91.
,
,

, , ,
,

292. ,
,
, ...
293. , , ,


.

, ; ,
,
,
,
291

.
:
,
.

-,

. , ,
:
( ) .
, ,
( ) .
292
[154, . 9, . ., . 74].
293
.

294. ,
,
,
, ,
; ,



,
,
295.
,
,
;
.
.
, ,
.

294
[156, . ., . 28]; . [163,
. 49; . ., . 264]. , -,
[161]
,

.
295
,


() ;
,

. ,
[91] [92],
,
(., , [92], . 7,
).
4.


-
.
,
,
- 5
,
. , , ,
,
.
-
,
.
, , -
, , ,
, , - 15
, ,
296. :
, .
,
- 20
297. , ,
, ,

,
. , 25
,
.
, .
.

296
[202, . 231].
297
.: [90]; [89].
.

, ,
.
5 . --
.
,
, . ,
, -

.

.
.
15
:
, ,
. ,
,
20 ,
.
,
, ,
.
25 , , --
, ,
, ,
. ,
.

,
. - ,
-
, -
35 , , ,
.
,

.
40 ; -

298 .
,
.
:
,
.
;
;
.
-
,
.
,
,
-
.

. , ,
, ,
299.
298
, - -

, -

.
[58].
299
, ,

, ,
- : -
-
. (
,
,
, ,
,
. ,
, , -

,
,
,
, ,

.

, -
, . .
, .
, ,
. ,
- .

; ,

,
). [
,
,
,
, ,
, , .

. ,
,

, :
, ,

. . ,
-
. ,
, , .
, ,
.
,
. - . .].
,
,
. ,
,
, s
,
,

. ,
,

;

,
. 15
, ,
,
, .
.
, - 20
, , , ,
,
,
301.
300
,
,
-
.
301
,
, , , :
.
, : [166], [165], .
[193].
, [161] [163]

. ,

:
. [135].

302.
, -,
: ()
(
)303.


; ,
,
.
,
.
302

.
,

, ,
; . [95], [96] [98]. ( [92]
-
; [93]
-
).
303
, . .
;
- .
,
; ,
( ) ,
.
. ,
,
. , ,
:
,
,
- .
[98]. ,
, .
:
,
-


20- .,
,

. - 5
, ,
,

. ,

,
.
,
,
- 15
.
304

, 0
, 20
,
, 305. -
304
. [94].
305
, , ,
. (
, -

, ; . [7, . 1, . 38,
2- .). (. [80] [138])
0. [118]
-
. !
, 2
.

20- .,

50- . ,

306,
,

307.
()
. ,

; ,
,
, ,
308.

.
,
[138, . 70].
,

(. [116, . 54). ,
:
.
: ,
-
, ,
,
. ( ,
,

; . [41, . 274-275]).
306
[158].
307
[161, . 242 ; . ., , 365].
308
[163, . 38; . ., . 247].
, .

,

. ,
! 2.

,
, ;
,

309.

,
. 20 [153]
[157]310. -
309

,
[161],
[133].
, ([8]), -
.
310
[154]
ad hoc, . (, -
nepl) ,
,
.
, ,

,
ipso [ (.) , .].
,
ad hoc,
; , -
nepl ,
: , ,
,
,
[161, . 20; . ., . ].
([160])311. ,

,
. , ,
5 ,

,
;
-
,
.
,
: (. .
), , ,
15 ,
.
(
) , ,

20 ,
.
ad hoc
.
, -
25 312. ,
,
, ,
, ,
ad hoc3.
,


. -
s
.
g 35 -
. -

; 311
. [91, . 388-390].
312
(
) .
,
, -
, .
1934 .

313,
314 .
50- .,


( 1957 .)315.
313
., , [161, . 4; . ., . 60]; .
[167, . 93]. ,
. ,
,
, .
.
314

(. [31] [73]).
:
,
.
,
, ,
.
315
,
:
,
...

, , , ,
... ...

.
,
- ,
,
. , ,
,


, , .


.

. ,

,
, ,
316. 50- .
, ,
317.

,
318.

.

, (. . ,
, ,
) .

,
. ,
,
, " ,
(. . "
")"; ,
, .
316
., [154, . 66]; 1959 .
, :

;
, , 15- .
. [. . ., . 93-96].
317
. [163, . 198-199; . . ., . 248];
1958 .
318
. [200], [199], [2], [3].
453
, , -,

, ,
;
. - 5
,
,
, , ,
,
. -,
-

,

, . 15
,
- -
.
,
( 20

)
,
, (background) ,
. , - 25
,
,
. ,

319. -
,
.
,

- , [ 35

]320.
319
[172, . 11].
320
; .
454

.
,
,
5 , ,
, .
,
,
-
.
--

;
-
15 .
,
. , -,
,
-
20 ,
,
321. , ,

, -, ,
25 322.
321
,
(,
);
,
,
^ , ,
(. -
^ 2- [40]).

,
, -
* ,
.
.
, , -

.
,
(
) hu h2, , hn, ] J2, . , Jn, 5
hj , ] -
,
,
; ',
. , -
.

, ,
,
h, , - 15
,
, ; h2 ,
1 , h3 ,
2 . ,
2 20
-,
.
.
(1)
Iv, - 25
;
,
,
( -
, ,
) (2) h2; ,

, , -


, ,
, [172].
, ,
;
.
= 2 . (3) h3,
,
(4)
, ,
5 , ,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
, , (5)
h2, ,
, 323.
.
15 ,
, ,

,
, .
20

?
?
"" 324
25

( )
,
.
(
) ,
( )
: &
.
g 35 -.
( ) -

323

. [92].
324
[163, . 10; . ., . 362].
, &
. &
H
.
. 5


-, ,
modus tollens, ,
-
, ,
ceteris paribus , -

.
modus tollens, - 15
325.
,
.
,
. 20
,

(1)
( ), (2)
{), 25
(
). ,
,
,

-
325

, [29]. -
, ,
[187, . 7]. [32].
, ,
ceteris paribus
.
. .
, -
(, ,
, , ,
,
,
, , , ,
)326.
,
,
,
,
.

.
,

,
( ,
) .

, ,
.
()
,
,
!
,
,
, ,
326
,
,
,
,
(. [67] [68]).
[62] . [76]
: ,
,
,
[70, . 1092].
,
. ,
, ,
,
, . , 5
,
,
327.

.
,
.
,
( ,
, 15
). ,


,
, - 20
, , , ,
.

.
, - 25
327

,

. ,
,
, []
,
, (. [82, .
117-118]). ,

, .
,

- (. [93, . 387-390]).
- , ,
,
.

5 , , , ,
.
-

, -
328.

(
) ,
-
15 , , ,
, , .
--,

,
20 ,
. ,
,


25 ,
; ("verissimi-
litude"), . .

329. , -
,
328
. [176], [178] [18].
: ,
^ . -
.
... [178, . 787]. , ,
, (. [154, . 2 4]).
329
~* . [163, . 10],
; (trustworthiness)
. [93, . 390-405] [95].
461
,
.

, .
, , - 5
, ,

; ,
,
, , -
,
,
330.
330
,
. - ,
(iruthlikeness); ,
, , -
,
(unverissimilar) . -,

, ,
,
.
[163,
. 10]. ,
, .
-

,
. ,
, ,
(. [163, . 399; . ., . 351]).
, , ,

, ,
, , .
,

; ,
, , ,
,
.

,
. ,
, ,
[163, . 231; . .. 35].


.

.
,
,

. , :
,
, ?
? ,
, , -
,

, t i n t2,
\1 t l ,
tl, , t2? (. [161,
. 232; . ., . 350-351]).
. , ,
. , ,

,
. : , , ,
" ",
, ,
,
, [88, . 265]. ,
, , ,
. ,
.

1. Agassi ]. How are Facts Discovered / / Impulse, 1959, v. 3,


10, p. 2-4.
2. Agassi ]. The Confusion between Physics and Metaphysics
in the Standard Histories of Sciences / / Proceedings of the
10th Intern. Congress of the History of Science. 1964, v. 1,
p. 231-238.
3. Agassi]. Scientific Problems and their Roots in Metaphysics//
The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy, ed. by
M. Bunge, 1964, p. 189-211.
4. Agassi]. Sensationalism// Mind, 1966, v. 75, p. 1-24.
5. Agassi J. The Novelty of Popper's Philosophy of Science / /
Intern. Phil. Quart., 1968, v. 8, p. 442-463.
6. Agassi ]. Popper on Learning from Experience / / Studies in
the Philosophy of Science, ed. by N. Rescher. 1969.
7. AyerA. Language, Truth and Logic, 1936 (2 ed. 1946).
8. Bartley W. Theories of Demarcation between Science and
Metaphysics / / Problems in the Philosophy of Science, ed.
by Lakatos and Musgrave. 1968, p. 40-64.
9. Becke, Sitte. Zur Theorie des -Zerfalls / / Zeitschrift fr
Physik, 1933, Bd. 86, S. 105-119.
10. Bemal]. Science in History. 1965 (3 ed.) [. .:
. . ., 1956].
11. Bernstein R. A Comprehensive World: On Modern Science
and its Origins. 1961.
12. Bethe, Peierls R. The Neutrino// Nature, 1934, v. 133,
p. 532.
13. BohrN. On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules / / Phil.
Magazine, 1913, v. 26, p. 1-25, 476-502, 857-875 [.
.: . / / .
, . . 1. ., 1970, . 84-148].
14. BohrN. Letter to Rutherford, 6.3.1913; publ. in [22], p.
XXXVIII-XXXIX.
15. Bohr N. The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen / / Nature,
1913, v. 92, p. 231-232 [. .: .
/ / . . , . 1, . 149-151].
16. BobrN. The Structure of the Atom. Nobel Lecture// Nature,
1921, v. 107, p. 104-107 [. . .
/ / H, . . , . 1, . 1970, . 285- 292].
17. BobrN. Letter to Nature// 1926, v. 117, p. 264.
18. Bohr N. Chemistry and the Quantum Theory of Atomic
Constitution / / Journal of the Chem. Society, 1932, v. 1,
p. 349-384 [. .: .
// . ., , . II, ., 1970.
. 75-110].
19. Bohr N. Light and Life / / Nature, 1933, v. 131, p. 421-423,
457-459 [. .: H. / / .
. . , . , ., 1970, . 111-119].
20. Bohr N. Conservation Laws in Quantum Theory / / Nature,
1936, v. 138, p. 25-26 [. .: .
/ / . . , . II,
., 1970. 202-203].
21. Bohr N. Discussion with Einstein on Epistemological Pro
blems in Atomic Physics / / Albert Einstein, Philosopher-
Scientist, ed. by Schilpp. 1949, v. 1, p. 201-241 [. .:
. H.
/ / . . , . II,
., 1970. . 399-433].
22. BobrN. On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules, 1963.
23. BornM. Einstein's theory of Relativity, N. Y., 1962 (1 ed.
1920) [. .: .
. ., 1972].
24. Born M. Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck// Obituary Notices
of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1948, vol. 6, pp. 161-180.
25. Born M. The Statistical Interpretation of Quantum Mecha
nics. Nobel Lecture (1954) [. .: .
/ / .
. ., 1963. . 301-315].
26. Braithwaite R. The Relevance of Psychology to Logic// Aris-
* totelian Society Suppl. Volumes, 1938, v. 17, p. 19-41.
w 27. Braithwaite R. Scientific Explanation. Cambr., 1953.
28. Callendare. The Pressure of Radiation and Carnot's Principle
//Nature, 1914, v. 92, p. 553.
29. Canfield, Lehrer . A Note on Prediction and Deduction / /
6 Philosophy of Science, 1961, v. 28, p. 204-208.
* 30. Camap R. ber Protokolstze / / Erkenntnis, 1932- 1933,
c; Bd. 3, S. 215-228.
31. Carnap R. Review of Popper's Logik der Forschung / / Er-
kenntnis, 1935, Bd. 5, S. 290-294.
465
32. Coffa. Deductive Prediction / / Philosophy of Science, 1968,
v. 35, p. 279-283.
33. Crookes W. Presidential Address to the Chemistry Section
of the British Association / / Report of British Ass., 1886,
p. 558-576.
34. Crookes W. Report at the Annual general Meeting / / Journ.
of the Chem. Society, 1988, v. 53, p. 487-504.
35. Davisson C. /. The Discovery of Electron Waves. Nobel
Lecture, 1937.
36. Dirac P. Does Conservation of Energy Hold in Atomic
Processes?//Nature, 1936, v. 137, p. 298-299.
37. DiracP. Is there an Aether?// Nature, 1951, v. 168, p. 906-907.
38. Dorling. Length Contraction and Clock Synchronisation: the
Empirical Equivalence of the Einsteinian and Lorentzian
Theories// The British J. for the Phil, of Science, 1968, v. 19,
p. 67-69.
39. Droyer. History of the Planetary Systems from Thaes to
Kepler. 1906.
40. Duhem P. La Theorie Physique, Son Objet et la Structure, 1905
[. .: . ,
, , 1910].
41. Ecoles L. . The Neurophysiological Basis of Experience//
The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy, ed. by
M. Bunge, 1964.
42. Ehrenfest P. Welche Zuege der Lichtquantenhypothese
spielen in der Theorie der Wrmestrahlung eine Wesentliche
Rolle?// Annalen der Physik, 1911, Bd. 36t S. 91-118 [.
.: .

/ / . . .
., , 1972. . 118-145].
43. Ehrenfest . Zur Krise der Zichtather-Hypothese. 1913.
44. Einstein A. ber die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen
ber das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung / / Phy-
sikalische Zeitschrifth, 1909, Bd. 10, S. 817-826 [.
.: . . . , . Ill, M., 1966.
. 181-195].
45. Einstein A. New Experimente ueber den Einfluss der Erd
bewegung auf die Lichtgeschwindigkeit relativ zuz Erde / /
Forschungen und Fortschritte, 1927, Bd. 3, S. 36 [.
.: .
.// .
. , . , ., 1966, . 188-189].
46. Einstein A. Letter to Schroedinger. 31.5.1928 [. .:
. . . ., 1971, . 237-238].
47. Einstein A. Gedenkworte auf Albert A. Michelson / / Zeit
schrift fur angewandte Chemie, 1931, Bd. 44, S. 638 [.
.: . . / /
. , . IV, ., 1967, . 149-150].
48. Einstein A. Autobiographical Notes// Albert Einstein. Phio-
losopher-Scientist, ed. by Schilpp, 1949, v. 1, p. 2-95 [.
.: . / /
. . , . IV, ., 1967, . 149-150].
49. Ellis, Mott N. F. Energy Relations in the -Ray Type of Ra
dioactive Disintegration / / Proceed, of the Royal Society of
London, Ser, A., 1933, v. 96, p. 502-511.
50. Ellis, Wooster. The average Energy of Disintegration of
Radium E / / Proceed, of the Royal Society, Ser. A, 1927,
v. 117, p. 109-123.
51. Evans E. J. The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen / / Nature,
1913, v. 92, p. 5.
52. Fermi E. Tentative di una teoria dell emissione dei raggi
beta// Recerci Scientifici, 1933, v. 4 (2), p. 491-495.
53. Fermi E. Versuch einer Theorie der -Strallen. I / / Zeitschrift
fur Physik, 1934, v. 88, p. 161-177 [. .: .
-// . . , . 1.1971. . 525-
541].
54. Feyerabend P. Comments on Gruenbaum's Law and Con
vention in Physical Theory / / Current Issue in the Philo
sophy of Science, 1961, ed. by Feigl and Maxwell, p. 155-161.
55. Feyerabend P. Reply to Criticism / / Boston Studies in the
Philosophy of Science, ed. by Cohen R. and Wartofsky M.,
1965, v. II, p. 223-261 [. .: .
// , 1978. . 419-470].
56. Feyerabend P. On a Recent Critique of Complementarity//Phill.
of Science, 1968-1969, v. 35, p. 309-331, v. 36, p. 82-105.
*m 57. Feyerabend P. Problems of Empiricism II / / The Nature and
w Function of Scientific Theory, ed. by Colodny, 1969.
58. Feyerabend P. Against Method / / Minnesota Studies for the
Phil of Science, 1970, v. 4 [. .: .
. , ., 1986. . 125-466].
59. Fowler A. Observation of the Principal and Other Series of
lines in the Spectrum of Hydrogen / / Monthly Notices of the
; Royal Astionomical Society, 1912, v. 73, p. 62-71.
60. Fowler A. The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen// Nature,
1913, v. 92, p. 95.
61. Fowler A. The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen / / Nature,
1913, v. 92, p. 232.
62. Fowler A. Series Lines in Spark Spectra / / Proceed of the
Royal Society of London (A), 1914, v. 20, p. 426-430.
63. Fresnel A. J. Lettre Franois Arago sur l'influence du Mou-
vement Terrestre dans quelques Pheno-menes Optiques / /
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1918, v. 9, p. 57.
64. Galileo G. Dialogo dei Massimi Sistemi, 1632 [..:
. .
.-., 1948].
65. Gamow G. Thirty Years that Shook Physics, 1966.
66. Gruenbaum A. The Falsifiability of the Lorentz Fitzgerald
Contraction Hypothesis// Brit Journ. for the Phil of Science,
1959, v. 10, p. 48-50.
67. Gruenbaum A. Law and Convention in Physical Theory / /
Current Issues in the Philosophy of Science, 1961, p. 40-
155.
68. Gruenbaum A. The Duhemian Argument // Philosophy of
Science, 1960, v. 11, p. 75-87.
69. Gruenbaum A. The Falsifiability of a Component of a Theore
tical System// Mind, Matter and Method. Essays in Philo
sophy, 1966, p. 273-305.
70. Gruenbaum A. Can We Ascertain the Falsity of a Scientific
Hypothesis? //Studium Generale, 1969, p. 1061-1093.
71. Heisenberg W. ber Aufbau der Atomkerne / / Zeitschrift
fr Physik, 1932, Bd. 11\ S. 1-11, Bd. 78, S. 1956-1964 [.
. . / /
. , , , , 1975].
72. Heisenberg W. The Development of the Interpretation of
Quantum Theory.// Niels Bohr and the Development of
Physics, 1955 [. .: .
// . ,
M , 1958, . 23-45].
73. Hempel . Review of Popper's Logik der Forschung / /
Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1937, S. 309-314.
74. Hempel C. Some Theses on Empirical Certainty// The Review
of Metaphysics, 1952, v. 5, p. 620-621.
75. Henderson. The upper Limits of the Continuous -ray Spectra
of Thorium and C11 / / Proceed, of the Royal Society of
London Ser. A, 1934, v, 147, p. 572-582.
76. Hesse M. Review of Grunbaum's The Falsifiability of a
Component of a Theoretical System. / / The British J. for the
Phil, of Science, 1968, v. 18, p. 333-335.
77. Hevesy G. V. Letter to Rutherford 14.10.1913 [quoted in:
Bohr N. On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules,
p. XLII].
78. Hund. Goettingen, Copenhagen, Leipzig im Rueckblick / /
Werner Heisenberg und die Physik unserer Zeit, ed. by Bopp,
Braunschweig, 1961.
79. Jaffe G. Michelson and the Speed of Light. 1960.
80. Jammer M. The Conceptual Development of Quantum Me
chanics, 1966 [. .: M.
. ., 1985].
81. Joffe A. Zur Theorie der Strahlungserscheinungen / / / /
Annalen der Physik, 1911, Bd. 36, S. 534-552 [.
: . . //
2- , ., . 2. . 12-24].
82. Juhos . ber die empirische Induktion// Studium Generale,
1966, Bd. 19, S. 259-272.
83. Keynes L. M. A. Treatise on Probability, 1921.
84. Koyre A. The Significance of the Newtonian Synthesis / /
Newtonian Studies. L., 1965.
85. KoestlerA. The Sleepwalkers. 1959.
86. Konopinski, UhlebenckG. E. On the Fermi theory of-radio-
activity// Physical Review, 1935, v. 48, p. 7-12.
87. Kramers. Das Korrespondenzprinzip und der Schalenbau
des A t o m s / / Die Naturwissenschaften, 1923, Bd. 11, S. 550-
559.
88. Kudar. Der wellenmechanische Charakter des -Zerfalls,
I - I I - I I I / / Zeitschrift fuer Physik, 1929- 1930, Bd. 57,
S. 257-60, Bd. 60, S. 168-75, 176-83.
89. Kuhn T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago,
1962 [. .: .
. ., 1975].
90. Kuhn . Logic of Discovery o r Phychology of R e s e a r c h ? / /
Criticism and the G r o w t h of Knowledge. Cabr., 1970, p. 1-23
[. .: .
^% / / . .
^ ., 2001, . 5 3 9 - 5 7 6 ] .
91. Lakatos I. Infinite Regress and the Foundations of Matric
es matics / / Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume, 1962,
v. 36, p. 155-184.

92. Lakatos I. Proofs and Refutations / / The British J o u r n a l for


; the Philosophy of Science, 1963-64, vol. 14, p. 1 - 2 5 , 1 2 0 - 3 9 ,
2 2 1 - 4 3 , 296-342 [. .: .
. ., 1967].
93. Lakatos I. Changes in the Problem of Inductive Logic// La-
katos I. (ed.): The Problem of Inductive Logic, 1968, p. 315-
417.
94. Lakatos I. Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific
Research Programmes / / Proceedings of the Aristotelian
Society, 1968, v. 69, p. 149-186.
95. Lakatos I. Popper zum Abgrenzungs und Induktions
problem / / Lenk H. (ed.): Neue Aspekte der Wissenschafts
theorie, 1971.
96. Lakatos I. History of Science and its Rational Reconstruc
tions// Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, ed. by
R. Cohen, R. Buck, v. 8,1972, p. 174-182 [. .: -
.
/ / , ., 1978. . 203-269].
97. Lakatos I. Replies to Critics// Ibid., p. 174-182 [.
.: . ////
. ., 1978. . 322-336].
98. Lakatos I. The Changing Logic of Scientific Discovery. Lon
don, 1973.
99. Lakatos I. Proofs and Refutations and Other Essays in the
Philosophy of Mathematics, London, 1974.
100. Laplace P. S. Exposition du Systeme du Monde, 1796 [.
.: . , ., 1861].
101. LarmorL. On the Ascertained Absense of Effects of Motion
through the Aether, in Relation to the Constitution of Matter,
and on the Fitzgerald Lorentz Hypothesis// Philosophical
Magazine, ser. 6,1904, v. 7, p. 621-625.
102. Laudan L. Gruenbaum on The Duhemian Argument / /
Philosophy of Science, 1965, v. 32, p. 295-299.
103. Lorentz H. A. De l'Influence du Mouvement de la Terre sur
les Phnomnes Lumineux / / Versl. Kon. Akad. Wetensch, Q
Amsterdam, 1886, v. 2, p. 297-358. *<
104. Lorentz H. A. The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Ether// | ~Q
Versl. Kon. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, 1892, v. 1, p. 74-77. /*gg&
105. Leibnitz G. Letter to Conring. 19.3.1678.
106. Le Roy E. Science et Philosophie / / Revue de Mtaphysique
et de Morale, 1899, v. 7, p. 375- 425, 503-562, 706-731.
107. Le Roy E. Un Positivisme Nouveau// Revue de Mtaphysique
et de Morale, 1901, v. 9, p. 138-153.
108. Lorentz . A. Stokes' theory of Aberration / / Versl. Kon.
Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, 1892, v. 1, p. 97-103.
109. Lorentz H. A. Versuch einer Theorie des electrischen und
optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern, 1895.
110. Lorentz H. A. Concerning the Problem of the Dragging Along
of the Ether by the Earth// Versl. Kon. Akad. Wetensch. Am
sterdam, 1897, v. 6, p. 266-272.
111. Lorentz H'. A, The Rotation of Earth and its Influence on
Optical Phenomen// Nature, 1923, v. 112, p. 103-104.
112. Lykken. Statistical Significance in Psychological Research//
Psychological Bulletin, 1968, v. 70, p. 151-159.
113. McCulloch L, R. The Principles of Political Economy: with a
sketch of the Rise and Progress of Science. 1825.
114. MacLaurin Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical
Discoveries, 1748.
115. Margenau H. The Nature of Physical Reality. 1950.
116. Mart'gnac. Commentary on Stas1 Researches on the Mutual
Relations of Atomic Weights. 1860 (reprinted in: Prout's
Hypothesis// Alembic Club Reprints, v. 20, p. 48-58).
117. Maxwell I. C. Theory of Heat. 1871.
118. Medawar. The Art of the Soluble. 1967.
119. Meehl. Theory Testing in Psychology and Physics: a Metho
dological Paradox / / Philosophy of Science, 1967, v. 34,
p. 103-115.
120. Meitner L. Kernstruktur / / Handbuch der Physik, Zweite
Auflage, 1933, Bd. 22/1, S. 118-152.
121. Meitner L., Ortbmann. ber einer absolute Bestimmung der
Energie der primren -Strahlen von Radium E / / Zeitschrift
fuer Physik, 1930, Bd. 60, S. 143-155.
122. Michelson A. The relative Motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous Ether / / American Journal of Science. Ser. 3.
1881, v. 22, p. 120-129.
123. Michelson A. On the Application of Interference Methods
to Spectroscopic Measurements, III// Philosophical Maga-
zine. Ser. 3/1891-1892, v. 31, p. 338-346, v. 34, p. 280-299.
124. Michelson A. On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Ether
// American Journal of Science, Ser. 4., 1897, v. 3, p. 475-478.
125. Michelson A., Gale. The Effect of the Earth's Rotation on
the Velocity of Light// Astrophysical Journal, 1925, v. 61,
p. 137-145.
126. Michelson A., Morley E. W. On the Relative Motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous Ether//// American Journal of
Science. Ser. 3 / 1881, v. 34, p. 333-345.
127. Milhaud. La Science Rationelle// Revue de Mtaphysique
et de Morale, 1896, v. 4, p. 280-302.
128. Mill f. St. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive,
Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence, and
the Methods of Scientific Investigation, 1843 [. .:
. .
.
. ., 1914].
129. Miller D. . Ether-Drift Experiments at Mount Wilson / /
Science, 1925, v. 41, p. 617-621.
130. Morley E. W.y Miller D. Letter to Kelvin (1904) / /
Philosophical Magazine, Ser. 6, v. 8, p. 753-754.
131. Mosely G. G. Letter to Nature//Nature, 1914, v. 92, p. 554.
132. Mott N. F. Wellenmechanik und Kernphysik / / Handbuch
der Physik, Zweite Auflage, 1933, Bd. 24/1, S. 785-841.
133. Musgrave A. On a Demarcation Dispute / / Problems in the
Philosophy of Science, ed. by Lakatos I., Musgrave A., 1968,
p. 78-88.
134. Musgrave A. Impersonal Knowledge. Ph. D. Thesis, University
of London, 1969.
135. Musgrave A. Review of Ziman's Public Knowledge: an Essay
Concerning the Social Dimensions of Science / / The Brit.
Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 1969, v. 20, p. 92-94.
136. Musgrave A. The Objectivism of Popper's Epistemology / /
The Philosophy of Sir Karl Popper, 1973.
137. Nagel E. The Structure of Science, 1961.
138. Nagel E. What is True and False in Science: Medowar and the
Anatomy of Research// Encounter, 1967, v. 29, 3, p. 68-70.
139. Neurath O. Pseudorationalismus der Falsifikation// Erkennt
nis, 1935, Bd. 5, S. 353-365.
140. Nickolson I. W. A possible Extension of the Spectrum of
Hydrogen / / Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 1913, v. 73, p. 382-385.
141. Pauli W. Zur alteren und neueren Geschichte des Neutrinos
/ / Pauli W. Aufstze und Vortrge ber Physik und Erkennt-
nistheorie, 1961, p. 156-180.
142. Pearce Williams. Relativity theory: Its Origins and Impact
on Modern Hhought, 1968.
143. PeierlsR. Interpretation of Shanklan's Experiment// Nature,
1936, v. 137, p. 904.
144. Physics at the British Association// Nature, 1913-1914, v. 92,
p. 353-365.
145. Planck M. ber eine Verbesserung der Wienschen Spektral-
gleichung / / Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen
Geselschaft, 1900, Bd. 2, S. 202-204 [. .: M.
/ / .
. , ., 1975, . 249-250].
146. Planck M. Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung
im Normalspektrum / / Verhandlundgen der Deutschen Phy
sikalischen Geselschaft, 1900, Bd. 2, S. 237-245 [. .:
.
/ / , . , ., 1975.
. 251-267].
147. Planck M. Zwanzig Jahre Arbeit am Physikalischen Weltbild
/ / Physica, 1929, Bd. 9, S. 193-222 [. .: M.
/ /
. . . , ., 1975. . 568-589].
148. Planck M. Scientific Autobiography, 1950 [. .:
M. / / . ,
. , ., 1975. . 649-663].
149. Poincare H. Les geometries non euclidiennes// Revue gene
rale des Sciences Pures et Appliques, 1891, v. 2, p. 769-774.
150. Poincare H. La Science et l'Hypothse. 1902 [. .:
. / / . .
., 1983. . 5-152].
151. PolanyiM. Personal Knowledge. Towards a post-critical Phi
losophy, 1958 [. .: M.
. . ., 1985].
152. Popkin H. R, Scepticism, Theology and the Scientific Revolu
tion in the Seventeenth Century / / Problems in the Philoso
phy of Science, ed. by Lakatos I., Musgrave A., 1968, p. 1-28.
153. Popper K. Ein Kriterium des empirischen Charakters theo
retischer Systeme / / Erkenntnis, 1933, Bd. 3, S. 426-427
[. .: .
/ /
. ., 1983. . 236-239].
154. Popper . Logic der Forschung, 1934;
: [160].
155. Popper . Induktionslogik und Scheinlichkeit// Erkenntnis,
1935, Bd. 5, S. 170-172.
156. Popper . What is Dialectic?// Mind, 1940, v. 49, p. 403-426
w [. .: . ? / / -
(). ., 1986].
157. Popper . The Open Society and its Enemies, v. III, 1945
[. .: . -
, . III, 1992].

158. Popper . The Aim of Science / / Ratio, 1957, v. I, p. 24-35.
: 159. Popper K. The Poverty of Historicism, 1957 [. .:
. / / ,
1992, 8, . 49-79; 9, . 22-48, 10, . 29-58].
160. Popper . Philosophy and Physics// Atti del XII Congresso
Internazionale di Filosofia, 1960, v. 2, p. 363-374.
161. Popper . The Logic of Scientific Discovery. 1959 [.
.: Ilonnep . , . I -
VII, X / / . ., 1983, .
33-235].
162. Popper . Testability and ad-Hocness of the Contraction
Hypothesis / / British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,
1959, v. 10, p. 50.
163. Popper K. Conjectures and Refutations, 1963 [. .:
Ilonnep . .
. . 1, 3, 10 / /
. ., 1983, . 240- 378].
163. . Quantum Mechanics without The Observer//
Quantum Theory and Reality. Berlin. 1967.
164. Popper K. Normal Science and its Dangers// Criticism and the
growth of Knowledge, 1970, p. 51- 58 [. .: Ilonnep
. , / /
. . ., 2001. . 525-576].
165. Popper . Epistemology without a Knowing Subject// Pro
ceed, of the Third Intern. Congress for Logic, Methodology
and Philosophy of Science, Amsterdam, 1968, p. 333-373
[. .: Ilonnep . .
. . 3.
/ / . .
., 1983. . 439-459].
166. Popper . On the Theory of the Objective Mind / / Procee
dings of the XIV International Congress of Philosophy, 1968,
v. 1, p. 25-53.
167. Popper K. Remarks on the Problems of Demarcation and
Rationality// Problems in the Philosophy of Science, ed. by
Lakatos I., Musgrave A., 1968, p. 88-102.
168. Popper K. A Realist View of Logic, Physics and History / /
Physics, Logic and History, ed. by Yourgrau, Breck, 1969.
169. Power. Introductory Quantum Electrodynamics. 1964.
170. Prokhovnik. The Logic of Special Relativity, 1967.
171. Prout W. On the Relation between the Specific Gravities of
Bodies in their Gaseous State and the Weights of their Atoms
/ / Annals of Philosophy, 1815, v. 6, p. 321-330.
172. Quine W. From a Logical Point of View. 1953.
173. Rabi. Atomic Structure / / Recent Advances in Science, ed.
by Murphy G., Shamos M., 1956.
174. Reichenbach H. The Rise of Scientific Philosophy. 1951.
175. Runge . Ether und Relativittstheorie //Die Naturwissen-
schaften, 1925, v. 13, p. 440.
176. Russell . The philosophy of Bergson, London, 1914.
177. Rssel B. Reply to Critics / / The Philosophy of Bertrand
Russell, ed. by Schilpp, 1943, p. 681-741.
178. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy, 1946 [. ne-
.: . .
, 1997].
179. Rutherford ., Chadwick L, Ellis. Radiations from Radio
active Substances. 1930.
180. Schlick M. ber das Fundament der Erkenntnis// Erkenntnis,
1934, Bd. 4, S. 79-99.
181. SchroedingerE. Might perhaps Energy be merely a Statistical
Concept?// II Nouvo Cimento, 1958, v. 9, p. 162-170.
182. Shankland R. An Apparent Failure of the Photon Theory of
Scattering// Physical Review, 1936, v. 49, p. 8-13.
183. Shankland R. Michelson-Morley Experiment / / American
Journal of Physics, 1964, v. 32, p. 16-35.
184. Soddy F. The Interpretation of the Atom. 1932.
185. Sommerfeld A. Zur Quantentheorie der Spektrallinien / /
Annalen der Physik, 1916, Bd. 51, S. 1-94, 126-167.
186. St ebbing. Pragmatism and French Voluntarism, 1914.
187. Stegmueller W. Explanation, Prediction, Scientific Systemati-
zation and Non-Explanatory Information// Ratio, 1966, v. 8,
p. 1-24.
188. Stokes G. On the Aberration of Light// Philosophical Maga-
zine, 3 sen, 1845, v. 27, p. 9-15.
189. Stokes G. On Fresnel's Theory of the Aberration of Light//
Philosophical Magazine, 3-d sen, 1846, v. 28, p. 76-81.
190. Synge ]. Effects of Acceleration in the Michelson-Morley
Experiment// The Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin
Society, New Series, 1952-1954, v. 26, p. 45-54.
191. Ter Haar. The Old Quantum Theory, 1967.
192. Thomson J. ]. On the Waves associated with -rays, and the
Relation between Free Electrons and their Waves / / Philoso-
phical Magazine, 17th Sen, 1929, v. 7, p. 405-417.
193. Toulmin S. The Evolutionary Development of Natural Science
/ / American Scientists, 1967, v. 55, p. 456-471.
194. Treiman. The Weak Interactions// Scientific American, 1959,
v. 200, p. 72-84.
195. Truesdell C. The Program toward Rediscovering the Rational
Mechanics in the Age of Reason / / Archive of the History of
Exact Sciences, 1960, v. 1, p. 3-36.
196. Uhlenbeck G. E.t Goudsmit S. Ersetzung der Hypothese vom
unmechanischen Zwang durch eine Forderung bezueglich des
innerren Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Electrons / / Die Natur-
wissenschaften, 1925, Bd. 13, S. 953-954.
197. Uhlenbeck G. ., Goudsmit S. Spinning electrons and the
structure of spectra// Nature, 1926, v. 17, p. 264-265.
198. Waerden van der B. L. Sources of Quantum Mechanacs, 1967.
199. Watkins J. Between Analytic and Empirical// Philosophy,
1957, v. 32, p. 112-131.
200. Watkins]. Influential and Confirmable Metaphysics// Mind,
1958, v. 67, p. 344-365.
201. Watkins J. When are Statements Empirical?// British Journal
for the Philosophy of Science, 1960, v. 10, p. 287-308.
202. Watkins ]. Hume, Carnap and Popper / / The Problem of
Inductive Logic, ed. by Lakatos I., 1968, p. 27282.
203. Whewell W. History of the Inductive Sciences, from the
Earliest to the Present Time, v. 1III, 1837 [. .:
.
, . IIII, ., 1867-1868].
204. Whewell W. Philosophy of the Inductive Sciencies, Founded
upon their History, v . . H I . 1840.
205. Whewell W. On the Transformation Hypothesis the History
of Science// Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, 1851,
v. 9, p. 139-147.
206. Whewell W. Novum Organon Renovation. Being the second
part of the philosophy of the inductive sciences. 3-ed., 1858.
207. WhewellW. On the Philosophy of Discovery, Chapters Histo
rical and Critical, 1860
208. Whittaker From Euclid to Eddington, 1947.
209. Whittaker E, History of the Theories of Aether and Electri
city, v. II, 1953.
210. Wisdom C. The Refutability of Irrefutable L a w s / / The
British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 1963, v. 13,
p. 303-306.
211. Wu. Beta Decay// Rendiconti della Scuola Internazionale di
Fisica, Enrico Fermi, XXXII Corso, 1966.
212. Wu, Moskowski. Beta Decay, 1966.


. . 04050 20.02.01.
111399, , . , 3.
-


77.99.60.953..003959.04.08 22.04.08.

111399, , . . 3

:
111399, , . , 3
.: (495) 3053702; 305 6092; : 3056088
E-mail: info@aprogect.ru
www. aprogect.ru

10.08.2008 .
841081/2. .
. . . . 25,2. 3000 .
3376.



.
610033, . , . , 122


, ,
.
:
111399, , . , 3,
, .


.: (495) 305-37-02, : 305-60-88

:
e-mail: info@aproject.ru


/ .

.


. . ..


(1902-1994),
XX .
,
.
,

. ,

.
:
,
.
,

,
,
,
,
.

.





. . A.B.


,


.
,
.

, ,

.

, ,
.



...


. . .. ,
..


, ,

. ,

.
,
,
, , ,
.

, ,

,
.

,
.

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi