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In this case study, I will discuss the archaeological context of the Coffin of Taiuy (Figure 1) currently on
display at the British Museum. I will likewise draw some points of comparison between it and other
similar objects, particularly, the coffin of Katebet (Figure 5), exhibited alongside it. My work is divided in
three main sections. In the first one I will explore the history of the discovery of the object; secondly, I
will comment on its material aspects, and finally I will discuss some of the symbolic meanings that would
One of the bigger issues behind this study is the development of funerary iconography in Ancient
Egypt. For this reason, I intend to contrast a specific coffin at a determined point in the development of
Egyptian mortuary culture with the wider context around it. By means of this I hope to be able to
elucidate the cultural process that led to the creation of the Coffin of Taiuy. The main source I will use for
this study is Gianluca Miniacis Rishi Coffins and the Funerary Culture of Second Intermediate Period
Egypt.
As Taylor notes, the rishi type appears to have been originated at Thebes, and all save one of the coffins
that have reached us come from Theban cemeteries (2010, 224). Taiuys is not the exception. It was found
in Western Thebes, at el-Birabi, by the Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter who undertook several
expeditions into that part of Egypt between the years 1911 and 1914. It is coffin number 15 in complex C
62, tomb 64 (Miniaci 2011, 221). See Figure 3 for a map of the complex.
Before moving onto the object in terms of itself, it is necessary to know that Carters numbering
system places the coffin of Tawy lower in the sequence of the burials recorded, and should therefore,
represent an earlier interment in the tomb (Miniaci 2011, 96). This shows us the popularity of the C 62
complex as a burial ground, and Carter also notes that some of the coffins appear to have been reused
(1912, 4).
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Figure 1: Wooden anthropoid coffin of Taiuy.
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In his notebooks, Carter also describes how all the tombs in the C 62 complex were shut off by
the use of sand bricks and stones in the corridors. Figure 2 shows the blocked passages of tomb 62 / 62,
but tomb 64 was in a similar condition (Miniaci 2011, 100). These measures probably were meant to
discourage grave robbers, nevertheless, there is evidence of mummies being re-wrapped (102). The means
used to prevent access to the tombs also provide us with another interesting archaeological detail. Two
funerary cones among the debris bear the cartouche of king Ahmose. There is, Miniaci notes a
noteworthy absence of any other successive kings names (2011,101), which shows us that this complex,
unlike the nearby C 37, fell out of fashion after the reign of Ahmose.
By way of general remarks, I must note that both tomb complexes abound in rishi coffins,
however, the material conditions were not ideal for their conservation. Del Vesco remarks on the damage
that flooding caused to the Necropolis (2009, 139), and the Carter wrote of the destructive presence of
white ants that damaged the wood whereof many objects were made (1912, 51).
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Figure 3: Plan of complexes C 37 and C 62.
(Cited by Miniaci 2011, 85; after Carnarvon, Earl of, Carter, H. 1912, 37), edited by me.
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Material Aspects, Manufacture and Dating
Taiuys is an anthropoid coffin made out of sycamore wood, a native timber (Miniaci 2011, 221).
Whereas woods like cedar were reserved to high-ranking people, sycamore fig wood was usual for
individuals of humble rank (Taylor 2001, 220). It appears that this object as many others like it (rishi
coffins from the 17th and 18th dynasties) was hollowed out of a tree trunk (223). It has the following
dimensions:
Height: 195cm
Width: 50,5 cm
While we could just take a look at the label for dating, certain typological aspects of this coffin
can help us to deduce an approximate point of origin in the development of Egyptian funerary culture
without any curatorial help. The fact that we are dealing with an anthropoid coffin, also called mummy-
shaped or mummiform, is the first clue, as it was during the Middle Kingdom that these objects were
introduced. (Miniaci 2010, 49). As Taylor notes, the first extant example dates back to the 11 th dynasty
(2001, 222). The shape of the coffin therefore establishes a terminus post quem date. It simply could not
have been fabricated before the 11th dynasty. We know this because of its shape, however, the decoration
The plaster surface is highly decorated, with a long central inscription panel inscribed in
hieroglyphs and, more conspicuously, a coat of painted feathers, otherwise known as a rishi pattern. The
central column of inscription has been a feature of coffins since around the later Middle Kingdom (Taylor
2001, 222), but the rishi decoration is more historically specific. This pattern is first attested in 17 th
dynasty funerary paraphernalia (Taylor 2001, 223). Miniaci notes, however, that some rarely recorded
instances of such coffins can be found for private individuals during the late Middle Kingdom (2010, 49).
Nevertheless, as Figure 4 attests, it is only during the 17 th dynasty that both royal and non-royal mummies
could find their resting place in rishi coffins, which implies that during this time, these coffins found the
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Figure 4: Social distribution of rishi coffins across time
Rishi is a word borrowed from the Arabic that literally means feathered. The term was first used
by Luigi Vassalli to refer to a particular style of decoration which according to him distinguishes these
coffins from those of qualunque altra epoca. It mainly consists on the presence of two lunghe ali, a
Even though the rishi pattern helps us establish a more exact terminus post quem date, after this
we start finding problems. When looking at curatorial comments, the dating of this coffin is not
completely straightforward. The British Museum online catalogue sets it in the 17 th dynasty. However, the
museum label states it belongs to the early 18 th dynasty, about 1550-1500 BC. Miniaci likewise supports
the latter dating (2011, 221). In my opinion, if it was made during the 18 th dynasty, it must have been
before the paradigm change that Taylor discusses wherein anthropoid coffins started to represent human
simulacra with their arms crossed over their chest, as is the case of the Coffin of Katebet, (Figure 5), an
example of a late 18th dynasty burial, which is exhibited alongside the Coffin of Taiuy. The fact that Taiuy
was a private individual hardly helps us determine the antiquity of this coffin as, as Figure 2 shows, it was
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Figure 5: the Coffin of Katebet
In terms of pictorial composition, the feathers function as both horizontal and vertical elements.
At about the height of the torso, they mostly obey a horizontal organisation and as they make their way
downward, they rather favour the latter. It is important to note that the feathers are only present on the
front of the coffin. However, its body is divided horizontally by four yellowish bands that do run down
the sides (see Figure 2) and therefore provide some compositional continuity between the lid and the
box of the coffin. These bands, as Taylor suggests, may have been taken over from the iconography of
Many of the elements of this coffin have a symbolic function linked to reincarnation. First of all, the
feathers can symbolise the figure of the Goddess Nut, embracing the ba of the deceased and welcoming it
into the afterlife. Miniaci provides an alternative reading wherein the feathers directly represent the ba
itself, manifested as a bird, perhaps the heron (2010, 56). A similar point of view is that of Dodson and
Ikram, who propose that the feathers represent the ba, however, not manifested as a bird, but as a human-
bird hybrid, a composition that we now associate to the New Kingdom (204). Finally, Oeter Lacovara
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suggests that the feathered pattern could be derived from royal attire (2007, 39. Cited by Miniaci 2010,
54).
Moving on to other symbolic elements, the central panel is inscribed with the htp di nswt formula
This prayer provides the groundwork for the identification of the deceased with the god Osiris.
This ties in with another element of iconography. Taiuy, although not a royal person, is wearing a nemes
headdress, which we see in the coffins of both private and royal individuals (Minaci 2010, 50). This,
however, is not an usurpation of royal prerogatives but rather a symbolic means of identifying the
deceased with the pharaoh, and therefore with the god Osiris (Miniaci 2010, 56; Taylor 2001, 224). The
green pigments which dominate the colour scheme of the coffin are also reminiscent of Osiris, who is
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Other symbolic elements are the eye panel on both sides side of the coffin (See Figure 1),
represented by the symbol. This was not meant to be purely decorative, but actually pragmatic, as it
would have enabled the soul of the deceased to see out of his coffin (Taylor 2001, 220). In more general
terms, speaking about the anthropoid coffin as a whole, Taylor reaches the conclusion that it evidently
acted as a substitute body for the deceased and represented him in the transfigured state to which he
A final ritualistic element of this coffin I believe is worth mentioning is the bottom band, which is
decorated with black and red spots, possibly intended to represent the sandy desert as certain vignettes of
the Book of the Dead use this convention (Handbook Mummies 1938, 32).
Conclusion
I would like to end this essay with a reflection on the task of the archaeologist that I believe follows
naturally from the symbolic elements I have been discussing. The archaeological record tends to skew our
perspective. We may know the material conditions where a certain coffin was found, the wood it is made
from, and binomial of the kind of ant that caused it to deteriorate, but the fact that we call the object a
coffin, or a sarcophagus means that we are missing something fundamental about the culture that
constructed it originally.
The word coffin comes from the Greek , which simply means basket. The word
sarcophagus traces its origin to , from (meaning flesh) and (meaning eating). It
was used in the phrase , meaning flesh-eating stone (Klein 1971, s.v.).
Etymologically, therefore, the purpose of a sarcophagus is to eliminate the flesh and perhaps release the
In the culture of Ancient Egypt, the body was in a way an attribute of the soul, and instead
seeking its elimination, funerary rites sought to preserve it. Instead of the word sarcophagus, the Ancient
Egyptians used words as djebat meaning 'shrine', but also the rectangular sarcophagi of the New
Kingdom. Furthermore, the word neb ankh used to refer to coffins means literally 'lord of life'. The word
sukhet denotes a mummy cartonnage and means egg, and finally the word mwt could mean both coffin
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and mother. (271-3). We can understand the use of these terms intellectually, but as our thoughts are
determined by the fascism of language as Roland Barthes (1977) would put it, it is impossible to adopt
That being said, a methodological approach towards the archaeological context of an object can
allow us to cheat this impossibility, insofar as it is philosophically possible. Through understanding the
ritual importance of a bodys resting place, the protection that Ahmose bestowed on complex C 62 takes
on another light. Such an act therefore should be interpreted in the context of the culture in which it
occurred. The same could be said about the act of unwrapping mummies and robbing their graves.
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References:
British Museum. 1938. Handbook to the Egyptian Mummies and Coffins Exhibited in the British
Museum.
Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities. I. E. S Edwards, 1909-1996;
Alan W Shorter; Sydney Smith, 1889- London: The British Museum, 1938.
British Museum Catalogue a. Coffin of Taiuy. EA54350. London. Retrieved on 13 March 2017 from
World Wide Web:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?
objectId=117246&partId=1&searchText=rishi&page=1
British Museum Catalogue b. Coffin of Katebet. London. EA6665. Retrieved on 13 March 2017 from
World Wide Web:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?
objectId=124664&partId=1&searchText=Mummy+of+Katebet&page=1
Carnarvon, Earl of, Carter, H. 1912. Five Years Explorations at Thebes: A Record of Work Done
1907-1911. London.
Del Vesco, P. 2009. Archaeological context: formation processes. In: Betr, MC and Del Vesco, P
and Miniaci, G, (eds.) Seven Seasons at Dra Abu El-Naga: the Tomb of Huy (tt14): Preliminary
Results.
Dodson, A., Ikram, S. 1998. The Mummy in Ancient Egypt: Equipping the Dead for Eternity. London:
Thames & Hudson Ltd. 204
Lacovara, P. 2007. A rishi coffin from Giza and the development of this type of mummy case.
In Hawass, Z. and Richards. J. (eds). The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt: Essays in
Honour of David B. OConnor. Cairo: Conseil Suprme des antiquits de l'gypte. 3-46.
Miniaci, G. 2010. The Iconography of the Rishi Coffins and the legacy of the late Middle
Kingdom. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 46, 49-61.
Miniaci, G. 2011. Rishi Coffins and the Funerary Culture of Second Intermediate Period Egypt.
London: Golden House Publications. 221.
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Taylor, J. H. 2001. Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. Chicago. The University of
Chicago Press. 214-43.
Vassali, L. 1867. I monumenti istorici egizi: il museo e gli scavi d'antichit, eseguiti per ordine
di S.A. il Vicer Ismail Pascia: notizia sommaria. Milano. 137.
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