Data Networking:

Transport Control Protocols and

Internet Protocols

An informative essay.

Department of Engineering
California State University
 The objective of this research paper, is to convey a comprehensive

understanding of a variety of critically important OSI model network devices, as well as

a fundamental understanding of protocols used to make these networks operate.

Establishing and maintaining robust network connections are important to everyone

from students and consumers to businesses and governments. Without a reliable

network, data communication comes to a stop. By implementing various network

components, one can build out an incredibly reliable, efficient and substantial data

network. This document explains various network devices that are designed to extend,

enhance and enrich a data network. In order for these devices to operate, there must be

an official procedure or system of rules governing these digital manipulations. These are

referred to as Transport Control Protocol (TCP), which is responsible for reliably

delivering data to a destination, and Internet Protocol (IP) which directs data packets

from node to node around a network and throughout the world when necessary.

Repeaters

Establishing good network connections are important to everyone these days.

Without a reliable network, work becomes inefficient and monotonous. Implementing

critical network components, allows one to build out a robust, reliable network for an

efficient and substantial data connection. One obvious problem is signal attenuation. Its

not possible for a signal to be sent through a wire of infinite length (perhaps though, with

infinite energy or a superconducting infinitely long wire, both of which are a long shot).

Overcoming the issue of signal attenuation in a network (both wired and wireless) can

be implemented with a repeater. This type of device operates on the physical level of
the OSI model. A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too weak or

corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern.1 A repeater can extend the path length of

a network when cable limits are reached. More than one repeater can easily be

implemented between segments of the network cables. Introducing a repeater, does not

alter the LAN to the point where it is no longer called a LAN. Seemingly, we can

implement an unlimited number of repeaters to get a distance of any length we want,

but this is simply not the case. Dr. Moussavi points out in his book titled, Data

Communication and Networking (2011), Repeaters do not filter the signal. Therefore, if

a signal contains noise or other disturbing signals, these will be amplified as the signal

undergoes amplification.2 The following illustration (Figure1), demonstrates the use of a

repeater, assuming the distance between computing sides, is substantial enough to

require the use of a repeater.

Figure 1. Basic repeater diagram.

Key points for repeaters are, a repeater connects segments of a LAN. A repeater

forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability. A repeater is a regenerator, not an

1
Forouzan, 2004, P. 388
2
Moussavi, 2011, P. 247
amplifier.3 A repeater is also closely related to a HUB, though there are a few key

differences.

Hubs

Since a HUB is closely related to a repeater, it is fitting to elaborate on it next.

Simply put, a hub is a hardware device that provides the illusion of a single network

segment to which multiple stations attach.4 In a general sense, a hub can refer to any

number of devices being connected together, a hub is actually a multiport repeater.5

Hubs do not re-route information, nor do they filter or amplify. A hub will send the

incoming message out to all ports attached to it, allowing one to inexpensively build out

a smaller sized network such as a home or office. A hub does not offer additional

performance or network boost, but it does offer a reliable and cheap way to build out a

smaller network. The use of hubs, must be carefully implemented, too many hubs will

cause a degradation of signal quality, as well as increase the chance for data collision

(which causes problems). Dr. Moussavi wrote in his book Data Communications and

Networking (2011), Hubs are at the heart of the star network topology. They use

half-duplex transmission mode, which means they cannot send and receive information

at the same time.6 Figure 2, shows a simple star topology network. Advances in hub

design have incorporated other features. Dr. Moussavi points out in his book, that we

now have passive hubs (original designs), active hubs (multiport repeaters, which can

3
Forouzan, 2004, P. 388
4
Comer, 2005, P. 420
5
Forouzan, 2004, P. 388
6
Moussavi, 2011, P. 248
also amplify and filter out noise) and intelligent hubs, which monitor and direct traffic for

network performance boost. Like repeaters, hubs operate in the physical layer of the

OSI model.

Figure 2. Hub network, star topology design.

Bridges

Bridges are designed to operate in a layer above the physical layer in the OSI

model (layer 2). A bridge has similarities to a HUB or repeater, except it's a much more

intelligent device. A bridge has the ability to compare incoming data with an address

table that is stored in its memory, and given to it by an administrator, or by asking for

everyone's address that is connected to the network. As mentioned in Forouzans book,

a bridge operates as a physical layer device because it regenerates the signal received

(like a repeater, or repeating HUB). And a bridge operates in the data layer, because it

can check the MAC address and make a decision on whether or not to push a frame to
a particular device or network.7 Being called an active device, we know a bridge must

look at all incoming messages, and check for incoming and destination instructions. It

will also wait until the information path is clear, before sending. This will require the use

of data storage, in a buffer. Bridges are often referred to as a layer-2 switch, they are

guided by software.8 Bridges are implemented in large networks, to connect segments

of smaller parts to that network. They boost network efficiency and add to the

performance of the network. An example sighted in Forouzans book, can help us

understand why an active device such as a bridge can help a networks performance,

starting with Figure 3. If a frame destined for station 712B1345642 arrives at port 1, the

bridge consults its table to find the departing port. According to its table, frames for

712B1345642 leave through port 1; therefore, there is no need for forwarding; the frame

is dropped. On the other hand, if a frame for 712B1345641 arrives at port 2, the

departing port is port 1 and the frame is forwarded. In the first case, LAN 2 remains free

of traffic; in the second case, both LANs have traffic.9 So here we clearly see an

advantage in this scaled down example. Instead of sending to all ports, we choose a

route and save bandwidth on the other. It is crucial to a larger network, to operate using

this type of device.

7
Forouzan, 2004, P. 390
8
Moussavi, 2011, P. 249
9
Forouzan, 2004, P. 391
 Figure 3. Bridge. Picture credit to Data Communications and Networking, by Forouzan.

Switches

Switches are an important part of extending a network for performance and

reliability. When implemented in the second second OSI layer, switches can work as a

virtual circuit between source and destination, without sharing links of other stations.10

This means that switches establish a link with the destination, and send information to it

without sending to anyone else. Switches are capable of two way communication, which

helps with maximizing bandwidth efficiency. A switch is able to forward a data frame,

drop a data frame, or transmit to all other ports on the network. A two-layer switch can

also be described as a bridge with many ports and a design that allows for faster

performance. Implementation of a switch avoids data collision issues, as they are

designed to minimize this. Packet switching is a big performance booster for this

10
Moussavi, 2011, P. 250
method of connecting LANs or computers. A switch implementing packet switching, can

send parts of information through different paths, allowing for data to be sent to the

destination more quickly. The outgoing message will be labelled with ordering numbers,

sent in separate packets, and reconstructed at the destination. This will allow the

network to be more productive, offering better bandwidth efficiency ratio, and overall

performance. Figure 4, shows a small network of computers operating with a switch.

Figure 4. Switch network. Credit to M. Moussavi in Data Communication and Networking (2011)

Routers

Routers are layer 3 devices in the OSI model. They operate in the network level,

which is above data level and physical level. Routers often share internet access with all

devices connected to it. It is also possible to connect other devices, such as printers, fax

machines, or gaming machines to a router. Routers receive data packets from one of

the networks its connected to and reads the packets internal destination label, and

then decides to route the data packet based on either the routers internal routing table

of connected devices or its routing policy to send the packet on its way. Routing tables

can be manually configured by the network administrator or dynamically. When

dynamically configured by the router itself, most routers use Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol, hosted on a server software stack on the the router.

When a device initially connects to a network it sends a generic data request

across the whole network asking for an IP address from any device on the network, any

DHCP server on the network can see and respond to this request though there's

normally only 1 DHCP server on a network many can be present to share the load and

increase performance. DHCP assigned IP addresses are not permanent like a manually

configured static IP and have a lease that has to be repeatedly extended while the

device is connected to the network. Once the device has disconnected from the network

the lease will expire and the router can re-assign the associated IP address to a new

device that connects to the network.

Routers also route data through to via the device believes to be the most efficient

route based on its destination. The router determines this with internal data tables that

are known as Routing tables. If the router knows a route for the destination of the data

packet its handling it will direct it accordingly, if it does not have a known route, it will

route the packet based on a general routing protocol. If the destination is directly

connected to the router the packet can be directed there instead of sent to another

router for the process to continue. Each time a packet is forwarded is known as a hop.

When initially sent, a packet can have a max hop count and when this is reached the

packet dies and does not continue hopping. When the packet is returned to the sender

it carries with it the count of hops it took to get to the destination, some routing protocols
use this hop count as their primary metric but these fail to account for other useful

metrics such as round-trip time and load on the routers along the way.

Routers are also able to talk to each other to recommend better routes using

protocols such as Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), per RFC-792:

ICMP messages are sent in several situations: for example, when a datagram cannot reach its

destination, when the gateway does not have the buffering capacity to forward a datagram, and

when the gateway can direct the host to send traffic on a shorter route. (RFC-792, Page 1)

This ability to relay system status and alternatives allow routers to be very reliable at

sending data across a network. This communication enables adaptability to changing

network conditions, keeping reliability high and maintain peak performance as well.

While this may make routers seem to have a quite narrow focus, they can be

further classified into 5 types, Core routers, Edge routers, Bridge routers, Virtual

Routers, and Wireless Routers. Some devices combine some or all of these

classifications into one physical unit. Core routers are normally placed as the backbone

of a network with these devices having the largest data throughput demand. These

devices also need to be able to transfer data through multiple different interfaces with

zero latency. To keep up with the demands of a growing network and the new interfaces

Core routers are typically supercomputers and devices have a relatively short service

life and will be repeatedly replaced as technology progresses. Edge routers are typically

the transition point from the core routers of the internet service providers to end users

and customers. Bridge routers are also known as brouters, can act as routers for

request they understand and can act as a bridge and just pass data packets along for

protocols they don't understand. Virtual routers are simulated routers in a network that
actually consist of multiple physical routers internally. This is known as Virtual Router

Redundancy Protocol (VRRP). Virtual routers behave transparently as a single router to

the network devices communicating through the virtual router. The virtual router

consists of a master physical device and slave devices. If the master physical router in

the Virtual router setup fails, then VRRP dictates that a backup router take its place and

that devices traffic is rerouted to an operational router allowing for no lost data during a

transmission. If a backup router fails, other backup routers wait for an action command

from the master device on how to handle the failure. Wireless routers connect wireless

devices such as laptops and cellphones to the internet by acting as a wireless

transceiver converting the wireless signals to data sent to and from network devices.

Gateways

A gateway is a piece of networking equipment that can act in any or all 7 layers

of the OSI model, and differs from a router in that its main task is translating protocols

and interfaces. A device acting as a gateway also often acts as a router and hosts a

DHCP server, thus requiring only one physical device to be assigned an IP address and

allowing data to only pass through one device to be sent out over the network. In a

residential network a gateway may not only double as a router but also a modem for

connecting to the Internet Service Provider. Gateways in commercial settings will

commonly have firewalls incorporated as well, again saving latency by only needing 1

device to perform many services to the network. Gateways have historically been a

typical hardline connection for internet connections, but new technologies have also
adopted gateways as well. Some new instances of gateways are Internet-To-Orbit (I2O)

Gateways, Cloud Gateways, Internet of Things (IoT) Gateways.

Per Telecommunication Engineer Ghulam Jaffer, an I2O gateways job is:

... to convert protocols from one network on the ground (internet) to another network, or device in

orbit by routing and translating the radio or laser waves to a protocol that can be understood by a

user-end TNC. 11

As stated, an Internet to Orbit gateway connects ground networks to low earth orbit

networks, enabling remote areas to have an internet connection that were previously

infeasible to connect via cabling. With I2O network speed increasing with

advancements in technology, we can possibly expect to see more of these devices in

everyday life, since they consolidate infrastructure and remove physical proximity

limitations.

Cloud Gateways translate an internet connection plus a program that abstracts a

service like google drive into a physical storage medium connected to your computer.

These devices are gaining popularity for the same reasons that I2O is gaining

popularity, less hardware to maintain on site and a more centralized system. Figure 1

below is a visualization of how a network of core routers, gateways, edge routers and

clients are connected.

11
Jaffer, G., Nader, R., & Koudelka, O. (2011). Internet-to-orbit gateway and virtual ground station: A tool
for space research and scientific outreach. Acta Astronautica, 69(7/8), 658-666.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2011.05.021
 Figure 5 (From: Researchgate.com, Real traffic logs creation for testing intrusion detection

systems)

Firewalls
Per Cisco.com, a leading firewall manufacturer, a firewall is defined as, ... a

network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and decides

whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined set of security rules.12 As

aforementioned, firewalls are often implemented as part of gateways and routers since

all data transmission is already going through those devices for analysis anyway. This

filter is necessary to prevent undesirable access to your machine including some

hacking attempts, and other traffic that could congest the network the device is attached

to.

Network Interface Cards, Network Cards, and Network Adapters

Network Cards and Network Interface Cards (NIC) are a unique component of a

network in that they can be used for many different purposes. Also, while their names

are similar the distinction is necessary, Network cards operate in the physical layer

12
What Is a Firewall? (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2017, from
http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/security/firewalls/what-is-a-firewall.html
handling analog signals, while Network Adapters operate in the data link layer. A

Network Interface Card can handle both tasks acting as the interface from a device on a

network to the network itself. Due to their ability to act as 2 devices in one they are very

commonly incorrectly referred to as a network card or network adapter even though it

does the job of both. NICs commonly interface with a device on the network over a local

data bus such as Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) or Universal Serial Bus

(USB). A NIC will accept a request from the attached device over its local data bus and

convert the data request into a data packet for transmission on the network then convert

the packet to analog signals that can be sent over the network to routers for distribution.

Internet Reference Model

The Internet Reference model, much like using the OSI model, is a layer-based

system and uses four layers, as opposed to the seven layers used by OSI. These layers

are as follows; Network access layer, internet layer, transport layer, and application

layer. Contrasting the internet reference model to the OSI model, the internet reference

model has combined both the physical and data link layers together into one layer, the

network interface layer. The internet and transport layers correspond to the network and

transport layers of the OSI model while the application layer combines the session,

presentation, and application layers of the OSI model. The internet layer is controlled by

IP, each layer has its own protocols and unique functions.
 13

Figure 6: TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

Application Layer

The best known protocols of the application layer are as follows; Hyper Text

Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

(SMTP), and Telnet. Now as to what these protocols do in the application layer; HTTP

supports file transfers between the client and server, FTP enables the end to end

transfer of ASCII text files or binary data records, SMTP defines the mechanisms

needed for mailing between hosts, and finally Telnet allows the user the ability to

implement terminal sessions using a remote host. The initial importance of Telnet was

to connect several manufacturer specific terminal networks together.

13
From: technet.microsoft.com, TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
 As traveling data packets move from the application layer they change by adding

a header to them, which is called encapsulation. Each layer has its own analyzation of

the data packets with the application layer keeping them in their original context. The

Transport layer with segment the data packet by using TCP mechanisms to guarantee

that the data is error free, complete, and properly sequenced. These segments are

passed to the IP, transferring them to the target destinations. During the Internet layer

they are at their datagram stage with the packet then reaching its final stage at the

Network Interface layer also known as a frame.

Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface Layer also called the Network Access layer, the lowest

layer of the Internet reference model, is responsible for placing TCP/IP packets onto the

network medium as well as receiving TCP/IP packets off the network medium. The

Network Interface layer is responsible for many different functions. The Network

Interface layer accepts data from the Internet layer in the form of datagrams which are

then encapsulated into frames frames for transmission over the physical medium

mention before. The Network Interface layer is responsible for routing the IP address in

the network to the physical address of the recipient computer which has been saved on

the network adapter card. The Network Interface layer also learns the physical address

of the destination along with the maximum frame size as well as the data packet

structure for safe and efficient delivery. Another function The Network Interface layer

performs is learning the specific type of medium and the exchange rate of data to

signal. The last two properties that The Network Interface layer is responsible for are
the routing data having its information placed as a header for the transmitting frame,

and detecting general errors that may have occurred in any of the past functions. The

Network Interface layer combines the Data Link as well as the Physical layers of the

OSI model.

Internet layer

This layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The

key functions are for IP, ARP, ICMP, and RARP. Internet Protocol or IP is responsible

for IP addressing, routing, and the separation as well as assembly of packets. The

Address Resolution Protocol or ARP is responsible for the resolution of the Internet

layer address to the Network Interface layer address by connecting the IP address to a

MAC address. ICMP or the Internet Message Protocol provides diagnostics in case of

errors in the delivery of IP packets such as an unobtainable receiving address. RARP

counters ARP by connecting MAC address to IP address.

Originally, IP was a connectionless datagram service used within the original

Transmission Control Program or (TCP). The first major use of IP was the version called

Internet Protocol Version 4 or (IPv4) which consists of a 4 byte address that

encompasses the network, host, and multicast IDs all together. When using IPv4 there

are 5 modes for addressing which are selected from the IPs first byte of data. The first

three modes or classes are for different sizes of unicast communication networks for a

large network a logic bit starting with 0 is needed, for a medium network a 10 is

necessary, and for a small network a binary number of 110 will be used. The last two

classes are different in the aspect that one is used in the multicast communication
network when a 1110 binary number is used, the other is saved for use later on and

categorized with a 1111 binary number. Some key aspects of IPv4 is the support for

576 byte packet size, ability to configure manually or using DHCP. Today the need for

more 32 bit addresses, which limits to only about 4 billion unique addresses, has

caused the creation IPv6. The advantage of IPv6 over IPv4 is the increased address

space, IPv6 has 128 bits which allows for approximately 3.41038 addresses. Insert

IP here

Transport layer

The host-to-host transport or transport layer is responsible for providing end-to-end

reliable data delivery and communication service for nodes that demand an extended

bidirectional data exchange. TCP, UDP, and RTP are the most common protocols that

operate at this layer. TCP is responsible for completely and safely providing data packet

delivery from host to host. UDP is used when a reliable connection service is not

needed. This means that error correction is not necessary since the data is halted

before an error is made. Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) also operates within the

transport layer. It provides real time data from the sending to receiving end for data,

audio, and video.

Internet Protocol (IP)

The internet Protocol or IP is the primary communications protocol for the

Internet protocol suite. The Internet Protocol was developed in the 1970s for the internet

by the Department of Defenses Advanced Research Projects Agency or (DARPA), the

result of a resource-sharing experiment called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects

Agency Network). Internet Protocol is responsible for the movement of data packets

from one node to another based on the IP addresses. The IP address consists of a

4-byte host address that is connected to the internet. Its routing function allows

internetworking as well as essentially runs the internet. This interworking lead into Local

Area Networks (LAN) that lead into Wide Area Networks (WAN), which lead into a rapid

growth of information and technology throughout the 1980s by scientific networks, such

as the National Science Foundation Net (NSFNET), allowing many researchers,

programmers, and network administrators to communicate and view a common

depository information.14

In a dedicated router, there is no need for TCP. This is because no signals begin

or end in a router. It main purpose is to transfer information to its destination. The

datagem generated from a sender is told its destination from the IP. If this IP is outside

of the LAN, then it must be routed out onto the larger system. The packet of information

is then bounced to the next available router until it reaches its desired system. The

routing pattern can be seen illustrated in the figure below. Modern routers are outfitted

with various attachments to accommodate the users needs. Some example

attachments are Ethernet, Token Ring, point-to-point synchronousity, fiber optics, etc.

14
TCP/IP: Architecture, Protocols, and Implementation (1993) Sidnie Feit, Pg. 8
 Figure 7: Visualization of router flow, Sidnie Feit (1993)

The IP layer itself accepts commands from the TCP at the source and creates

the datagram. It then sends the information through the router using two main

mechanisms, the subnetwork mask and routing tables. The subnetwork mask is a 32 bit

sequence, commonly seen as 255.255.255.0, determines what is seen as the host

network. Each number is represented by a byte of information. If the byte is written as

255, or every bit assigned to a logic high, then that portion of the IP address is seen as

external to the host address. Conversely if the byte is written as 0, every bit assigned to

a logic low, then it is seen as in the same local network. An example is that an IP

address of 127.0.0.1 with a subnetwork mask of 255.255.255.0 would see 127.0.0.238,

but no 127.0.1.238.

Routing tables is the other mechanic used in IP. These tables are initially set up

manually with a list of static entries. Small networks typically operate just on this static

list, but larger systems require a more dynamic list that can change during operations.

This dynamic system is managed by a Routing Information Protocol, a system that

enables communication between routers. This allows automatic rerouting to areas of

less traffic and theoretically improve time from host to recipient. On a Unix or Linux

operating system, the command to lookup the routing table in the terminal window is

netstat -nr. It will provide information similar to that seen in the figure below.

Figure 8: netstat -nr terminal output on Linux distro Lubuntu

Transport Command Protocols (TCP)

Interconnected factors, IP forms a datagram based on information from the TCP.

IP reports that information: source address, Type of Service, data length, and TCP

options. That information is passed to the TCP settings before passed into the IP

datagram. The most appealing of the TCP settings historically are the flow controlled

duplex communications.1 The hosts act as both sender and receiver, allowing

concurrent transmission in the system. The flow control is decided on the receiver side

on the system, due to limitations built into the transmission systems. This allows the

communication rates of the host to be determined and transmission begins after a

three way handshake.15 In between packets of data, acknowledgement signals are

sent to guarantee communication is taking place between the systems. Before large

quantities of information are sent, one host sends out a packet of information and an

acknowledgement packet. Upon receiving an acknowledgement packet from its target,

the transmitting host will send out its data, periodically waiting for acknowledgement bits

to ensure there is still a connection.

This concludes the research paper, and comprehensive overview of a few of the

many topics that go into building out a working and efficient data communication

network. Without these devices, and protocols governing their behavior, technology

wouldnt be what we know it as today.

15
TCP/IP: Architecture, Protocols, and Implementation (1993) Sidnie Feit, Pg.183