MEASUREMNT

WHAT IS MEASUREMENT?

It means assigning numbers or symbols to objects or characteristics of objects according

to certain specified rules.

MAPPING RULES

Classification: Numbers are used to group or sort responses. No order.

Order: Numbers are ordered.
Distance: Differences between numbers are ordered.
Origin: The number series has a unique origin indicated by number zero.

DATA AND SCALING TYPES

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
NOMINAL DATA

Nominal data are information on a variable that naturally or by design can be grouped
into two or more categories that are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.

Nominal scale is a figurative labeling scheme in which the numbers serve only as labels
or tags for identifying or classifying objects.

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 PROPERTIES OF NOMINAL SCALE

Least powerful level of measurement.

Indicates no order or distance relationship.
No arithmetic origin.
Used in surveys when data are being classified by major sub-groups of population.
Cross-tabulation provides useful information.

STATISTICS USED IN NOMINAL SCALE

Percentage, mode, chi-square, binominal tests.

ORDINAL SCALE

It is a ranking scale in which members are assigned to objects to indicate the relative
extent to which the object possess such characteristics.

It indicate relative position not the magnitude between the objects.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDINAL SCALE

It follows transitivity postulate: If a is greater than b and b is greater than c, then a is

greater than c.

Real difference between two ranks is not known.

Intervals of the scale may not be same.
Addition or taking averages of the ranks are technically incorrect.

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 STATISTICS USED IN ORDINAL SCALE

Appropriate measure of central tendency: Median

Dispersion: Percentile or quartile measure
Rank order correlation
Measures of statistical significance: Non parametric methods

INTERVAL SCALE

Interval data have the power of nominal & ordinal data plus the concept of equality of
interval.

Location or zero point and unit of measurement is arbitrary.

It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
Ratios of difference between the scale values are permissible as they are independent of
the location of the zero point.

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 STATISTICS USED IN INTERVAL SCALE

Central tendency: Arithmetic Mean

Dispersion: Standard Deviation
Product moment correlation
Statistical significance: t-test, F-test and other parametric tests
For skewed distribution: Median (Central Tendency), Interquartile ranges (Measures of
Dispersion)

RATIO SCALE

It possesses all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales, and, in addition an
absolute zero point.

It allows to identify, classify objects, rank order the objects, compare intervals or
differences, compute ratios of scale values.

RATIO SCALE: STATISTICS USED

All statistics used in interval scale

Specialised calculations- geometric mean, harmonic mean, coefficient of variation

SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT DIFFERENCES

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 Respondent: Fatigue, Boredom, Ignorance, Reluctance
Situation: Presence or interference of other person, noise
Measurer: Rewording, paraphrasing, conscious or unconscious prompting with smiles,
encouraging or discouraging etc.

Data Collection Instrument: Too confusing and ambiguous, poor selection of items

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND INSTRUMENT

Reliability
Validity
Practicality

VALIDITY

It refers to the extent to which a test measures what it actually wishes to measure.
Types of Validity:

Content,

Criterion-related,

Construct

CONTENT VALIDITY

The content validity of a measuring instrument is the extent to which it provides adequate
coverage of the investigative question under study.

Determination of Content validity: Judgmental or panel evaluation

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 CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY

It reflects the success of a measuring instrument used for prediction or estimation.

Two types- Predictive and Concurrent
They differ only in a time perspective.

Predictive: Prediction of the future; criterion data are measured after the passage of time.
Concurrent: Description of the present; criterion data are available at the same time as
predictor scores

Method of determination: Correlation

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

Attempts to identify the underlying construct(s) being measured and determine how well
the test represent it (them).

Method of determination:

Correlation of proposed test with established one

Convergent-discriminant analysis

Factor analysis

Multitrait-multimethod analysis

RELIABILITY

Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person with the same
test on different occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items, or under other
variable examining conditions.

Reliability has to do with accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure.

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 COEFFICIENT OF RELIABILITY

Stability
Equivalence
Internal Consistency

COEFFICIENT OF RELIABILITY: STABILITY

Test- Retest: Reliability of a test instrument inferred from examinee score. Same test is
administered twice to same subjects over an interval of less than six months.

Method of Determination: Correlation

COEFFICIENT OF RELIABILITY:EQUIVALENCE

Type: Parallel Forms

Degree to which alternate forms of the same measure produce same or similar results.
Administered simultaneously or with a delay.

Interrater estimates of the similarity of judges observations or scores.

Method of determination: Correlation

COEFFICIENT OF RELIABILITY: INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

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 Types: Split-half, KR20, Cronbachs Alpha
Degree to which instrument items are homogenous and reflect the same underlying
construct.

Method of determination: Specialised Correlational formulae

PRACTICALITY

Economy: Trade-off occurs between ideal research project and the budget.
Convenience: Clear instructions, Easy to administer with proper deign and layout.
Interpretability: Clear instruction about how to interpret the test result.

INTERPRETABILITY

Test manual should contain

Function of the test

Instruction for administration

Scoring keys and instructions

Norms for appropriate reference groups

Evidence about reliability

Guides to test use