SWEPT FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS TO DETECT

POWER TRANSFORMERS SHIPPING DAMAGE

Michael Bocovich
Xcel Energy
763-493-1560 / Fax 612-573-4043

9 September 2011

ABSTRACT

Xcel Energy specifies that new substation power transformers have a Swept Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA)
test performed in the as shipped condition. If winding movement during shipping is suspected, the SFRA test can
be performed again with the transformer on site in the as shipped condition. The results of these two SFRA tests
can then be compared with the expectation that minor winding movement that occurred as a result of shipping would
be detected. Xcel Energy performed several SFRA tests on a transformer in a controlled environment to determine
if this expectation is realistic. The tests consisted of deforming the transformer winding and performing SFRA tests
during various stages of damage. This paper will present that process and results. A different view for frequency
response analysis was discovered to explain test observations; this view will also be presented and explained.

INTRODUCTION

This paper and material were first presented at the 78th International Conference of Doble Clients 27 March 1
April 2011 under the title Swept Frequency Response Analysis, Realistic Expectations.[1] Parts of the paper have
been modified and expanded upon.

Power transformers consist of conductors (coils and leads), an iron core, supporting structures, insulation, and a
tank. Transformers can be modeled as a complex circuit network of capacitance, inductance and resistance. The
conductors have resistance, inductance, mutual inductance between turns and mutual inductance between coils.
Capacitance and resistance associated with the insulation exists between the turns, coils and grounded elements
(core and tank). Every component within the transformer will affect the modeled circuit network of series / shunt
resistance, inductance, and capacitance (RLC). As such, a unique frequency domain transfer function, H(j), can be
used to represent this combination of resistive and reactive elements. The SFRA test set inputs a low level voltage
signal at various frequencies at one end of a transformer winding. The output signal is then measured at the other
end of the winding. A transfer function (output/input) is represented as magnitude 20log10 |H(j)| and angle
tan1(H(j)) with respect to frequency.[2,3,4]

Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) testing on power transformers is relatively new within the power industry.
SFRA is one type of FRA testing. Several excellent case studies exist regarding SFRA testing.[2] Many of these
case studies use SFRA testing to confirm failures within a transformer that had previously been identified through
other testing methods. Supporters of FRA testing claim that the primary benefit of this type of testing is the
potential for detection of minor deviations that might be related to the mechanical or electrical integrity of the
transformer, that are not apparent with other electrical tests.[3] Although the power transformer is tested as a two
port network of inductive, capacitive and resistive elements, the modeled network is more than a few simple passive
elements. It is a very complex, infinitely large network of infinitely small elements.[4] The claim that minor
winding movement (i.e. movement that may affect only a small portion of those infinitely small network elements)
can be detected using FRA. In an attempt to validate this claim, extensive SFRA tests were performed on a power
transformer winding that was deformed with various stages of damage to simulate minor winding movement.

1
THE TEST SUBJECT

A used transformer (in reserve stock) was evaluated for re-deployment. An internal inspection uncovered severe
coking associated with the no-load tap switch and internal cross connection straps. The coking contaminated the
whole transformer making it un-fit for re-deployment. It was determined the transformer is not a good candidate for
rewind due to the particular construction (wrapped core design) and size, so it was made available to validate
expectations. The nameplate reads as follows: Kuhlman, S/N 2-57715, 34.5kV X 68.8kV (Delta) 4.36kV X
13.90kV (Wye), 2.5 // 2.8 / 3.5 MVA, OA / FA, 550C // 650C. Figure 1 shows a photo of the transformer and
nameplate. The transformer was strapped at 68.8kV (Delta) 13.9kV (Wye) nominal.

FIGURE 1
Photo and Nameplate of Test Transformer

2
THE TESTS

System operations took precedence over this particular project. The SFRA testing was conducted over an extended
period of time as resources became available. This resulted in some time lag between initial tests. All winding
damage tests were conducted on the same day. Nine SFRA tests as recommended by the Doble SFRA Users Guide
for a transformer of this type were conducted at each damage stage of the transformer winding.[2] These nine tests
are listed below in Table 1. Some tests were duplicated to verify if minor shifts of the traces could be detected with
no physical change to the transformer.

Source Sensing Configuration

H2 H1 All Other Terminals Floating
H3 H2 All Other Terminals Floating
H1 H3 All Other Terminals Floating
L1 X0 All Other Terminals Floating
L2 X0 All Other Terminals Floating
L3 X0 All Other Terminals Floating
H2 H1 Short [X1 X2 X3]
H3 H2 Short [X1 X2 X3]
H1 H3 Short [X1 X2 X3]
TABLE 1
Two Winding 3 Phase Delta-Wye Transformer Tests

The windings of the transformer were tested both inside the tank and outside the tank. In-tank tests were conducted
under the following conditions: with oil; a change to the no-load tap; and without oil. The transformer was then un-
tanked, coking was cleaned off the no-load tap, and the transformer was configured for 72.4kV (Delta) 13.09kV
(Gnd Wye) to assure all windings were included in the tests. An outer set of coils-the H3 winding-was moved and
distorted to produce the different stages of winding damage. SFRA tests were then conducted at the different stages
of winding damage.

The high voltage bushing leads were cut short to minimize measurement error due to lead movement. The bushing
flanges for the neutral lead connections were not available with the core and coils removed from the tank; neutral
connections were specifically defined as being on the top core yoke. The ground connection was also specifically
defined as being on the top core yoke. The core and coils were not returned to the main tank between winding
deformations for ease of testing and minimization of test resources.

The traces were analyzed closely after all the tests were completed. The interference cancellation feature of the
software produces smoother curve traces. Disabling the interference cancellation of the software produces sharp
transitions on the curve traces. This allowed better viewing of the actual data for a more detailed analysis. This
also allowed better observation of the test frequency resolution.

3
INITIAL TEST RESULTS

Figure 2 shows the initial tests on the transformer. Note that:

1. Core and coil assembly in the tank, full of oil and 65.2kV Tap (blue trace). A change of the no-load tap
from 65.2kV to 72.4kV (red trace) results in a curve shift to the left.
2. Core and coil assembly in the tank with oil removed (green trace) resulted in a curve shift to the right.
3. Core and coil assembly removed from the tank (orange trace) resulted in a curve shift right.

Blue In Tank, Oil, Tap E (65.2kV)

Red In Tank, Oil, Tap A (72.4kV)
Green In Tank, No Oil, Tap A
Orange Un-Tanked, Tap A

FIGURE 2
H2 H3 SFRA Tests, Low Side Open Circuit, Magnitude to Frequency
Various Stages of Transformer Conditions

4
VALIDATING EXPECTATIONS

Slight movement could be detected in the H3-H2 test results associated with having the H3 winding damaged. Open
circuit tests showed more promise for analysis and are presented here. Figure 3 shows the results of eight test curves
overlain on each other. Each curve represents a test conducted at a specific stage of winding damage. The legend
colors are kept consistent in this paper for ease of analysis. Losses greater than 85db are beyond the limitations of
the test set and therefore are not considered. Figure 3 illustrates that shifting or change between the traces is barely
visible. Casual observation of the figure yields little, as the traces look the same with no movement of the windings
detected. However, a more detailed observation limited to within the frequencies of 60kHz and 200kHz is more
revealing. This area of interest is highlighted by the box shown in Figure 3.

Area of more
detailed analysis

FIGURE 3
H2 H3 SFRA Tests, Low Side Open Circuit, Magnitude to Frequency
Various Stages of Damage to H3 Winding - Eight Curves Overlaid on Each Other

Current industry practices consider the presence of additional or the loss of existing resonant peaks as an indicator
of change in the winding. The shifting of existing resonant peaks is also considered to be a change indicator.[3]
Current industry practices do not place significant value on analyzing magnitude valleys and phase angle shifts as an
effective method to determine winding movement. However, for the analysis presented here, magnitude peaks and
valleys will be focused on.

5
Figures 4 through 7 illustrate a chronological view of the damage done to the windings during testing along with an
analysis of the SFRA test results for each damage stage.

The transformer is un-tanked

The no load tap is set at position A
High side leads are cut
Test lead positions for the H3-H2 test
Baseline Tests

Clamping was loosened, no noticeable

movement of the windings were noted

FIGURES 4

The first three tests (two baseline tests followed by clamping loosened) did not show significant shifting of the
traces. A closer analysis of the test results shows shifting of a few peaks and valleys by about one test frequency
iteration between the first two (baseline) tests. The first two base line tests were conducted twenty-one days apart.
A possible explanation for the shift between the two base line traces could be due to additional oil leaching out of
the paper insulation. The test trace produced by loosening of the clamping tracked close to the base line test of the
same day. No visible movement of the windings was observed when the clamping was loosened. The test traces are
shown in Figure 4.

6
 One set of spacers removed
Windings pushed together

FIGURES 5

One set of spacers was removed from the windings (Figure 5) and the two coil sets were pushed together. Two tests
were conducted with a time interval in between to see if changes over time would occur. A comparison of the latest
base line (red trace) with the two tests (1st test blue trace, 2nd test green trace) is done. Figure 5 illustrates that
although the frequency peaks (resonant points) align fairly well, they do not match exactly. The frequency valleys
appear to be shifted to the right by approximately one test frequency iteration.

7
 Two sets of spacers removed
Windings forced together

FIGURES 6

Another set of spacers was removed and the coil sets were forced together (Figure 6). One test was performed
(brown trace) and compared with the most recent baseline test (red trace). Comparing frequencies of peaks and
valleys, some shifting to the right is noted, then the traces appear to align, then shift to the left, and finally align
again. The shifting again appears to be by one test frequency iteration with the exception of the peak at about
163kHz; this appears to be shifted to left by two test frequency iterations.

8
 Three sets of spacers removed
One coil of winding pushed into space

FIGURES 7

For the last set of tests, another set of spacers was removed. Then an outer coil turn was forced between two coil
sets (Figure 7). A comparison of the latest base line (red trace) with the two tests (1st test brown trace, 2nd test
orange trace) is done. The tests appear to align well with a few exceptions where the peaks and valleys appear to be
shifted by one test frequency iteration.

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The short circuit tests as listed in Table 1 were conducted for each stage of winding damage. The results of the short
circuit tests on the same winding are shown in Figure 8. An analysis of the results indicates that short circuit tests
appear to produce trace shifts similar to the trace shifts produced by open circuit tests.

FIGURE 8

CONCLUSION

For this project, a close analysis of SFRA test results was performed knowing the damage that had been done to the
coil sets. Although significant damage was done to the coil sets, the shifting or movement of the test traces was very
subtle. Recent articles have demonstrated that minor shifting of the FRA traces can occur due to magnetic viscosity,
temperature, and water content in insulation.[5,6] Therefore, it is questionable whether or not FRA testing is really
capable of detecting minor winding movements or shifting within a transformer. A successful comparison of two
FRA tests in the as shipped condition before and after transport may not necessarily prove that minor winding
movement did not occur. The time to ship a transformer from the factory to the user introduces other factors that
can influence the FRA test and result in a shifting of the FRA curves even though the windings may not have
moved.

10
FRA TESTING OBSERVATIONS DEMYSTIFIED

Frequency response analysis (FRA) on power transformers is performed viewing the power transformer windings as
an infinite collection of series/shunt reactive and resistive elements. Using this model, the theory postulates that
these elements interact with each other collectively to cause resonance at specific frequencies. The theory logically
assumes that the resonant conditions change as the transformer physical condition changes. There are many case
studies demonstrating the effectiveness of FRA in diagnosing problems in power transformers that seem to support
this theory.[2] The current theory does not seem to thoroughly explain the observations documented in the case
studies. However, during the course of this research, a new theory was discovered that seems to more adequately
explain these observations. This part of the paper will explain this new theory in an effort to share this knowledge
within the industry and offer opportunities for further development. Test results used to validate if shipping damage
can be detected using FRA are used to support this new theory.

The basis of this new theory is to view the transformer windings not as a complex network of series/shunt reactive
and resistive elements, but instead as a transmission system and cavity resonator. The transmission system uses the
conductor as a wave guide. The characteristic impedance is defined by the conductor geometry and the dielectric
surrounding the conductor.

200 0
34.3kHz Magnitude
Other Influences 699Hz
Angle 0 (dB)
(Degrees) Frequency
13.6kHz -180O -20
-200
40.1kHz -360O
-400 -40

-600
71kHz -720O -60
-800
110kHz
-1000 -1080O
-80

-1200
Angle
Magnitude
-100
-1400

-1600 -120
Angle (degrees) and Magnitude (dB) vs. Frequency (log scale)
Test: Xcel-Energy_Maple-Grove_Kuhlman-Electric_257715_2010-01-28_08-30-33, H3-H2
FIGURE 9

The SFRA data shows what appears to be multiple passes through the zero phase angle. The phase angle is not
actually going through zero multiple times, but instead is continuing to decrease. The test set can only measure the

11
output in relation to the input in 3600 increments. If the phase angle is properly represented by extending the angles
in multiples of 3600 it would look like the green trace shown in Figure 9. This is an electromagnetic transmission
phenomenon demonstrating multiple wave lengths traveling through the transformer winding.[8,9]

When the phase angle is viewed with a linear frequency scale (Figure 10), a periodicity of the 3600 transitions
becomes apparent.

Angle vs. Frequency (Log Scale and Linear scale)

Test: Xcel-Energy_Maple-Grove_Kuhlman-Electric_257715_2010-01-28_08-30-33
FIGURE 10

The most accurate periodic frequency measurements are taken from the valleys on the magnitude trace from 80kHz
to 180kHz. These magnitude valleys actually correspond to null points. These are clearly defined points on the
traces (Figure 11) that appear to be less influenced by the complex network interactions within the transformer.

Blue In Tank, Oil, Tap E (65.2kV)

Red In Tank, Oil, Tap A (72.4kV)
Black Untanked, drained, Tap A

90.9kHz, 121.1kHz, 147.8kHz

Avg 28.5kHz

89.9kHz, 115.9kHz, 143.0kHz

Avg 26.5kHz

109.6kHz, 141.4kHz, 172.6kHz

Avg 31.5kHz

Magnitude Traces (linear scale) of three tests Period frequencies shown

FIGURE 11

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Each winding in the transformer can be viewed as a transmission line influenced by reactive and resistive
components, nested coils, and the iron core. Figure 12 illustrates a simplistic view of the transformer as a
transmission line neglecting influences of additional coils, core, and reflections. Consider a signal that is injected
into the H3 terminal of a transformer and received at the H2 terminal. The signal in the transformer takes two
different paths on its way to terminal H2, a direct path and a path that passes through terminal H1. The portion of
the signal that passes through terminal H1 travels twice as far as the portion that travels the direct path. The signal
observed at H2 is the combination of the portion of the signal traveling two wavelengths through H1 and the portion
of the signal traveling one wavelength directly. A peak will occur on the test transformer at 31.5kHz, which is one
wavelength per coil. Successive peaks will occur at multiples of the 31.5kHz fundamental frequency. For example,
at two wavelengths per coil another peak will occur at 63.0kHz, at three wavelengths per coil another peak will
occur at 94.5kHz, etc. Frequencies other than whole multiples of the fundamental wavelength traveling through the
windings combine to result in lower received signals at H2. At some frequencies, the signals cancel, resulting in
null points.
H3 H3

H1 H2 H1 H2

Signal Travel Through the Delta Winding of the Test Transformer

FIGURE 12

The actual transformer winding circuit is more complicated than the simplistic transmission model due to reflections
within the transformer and at the terminals. Figure 13 is a more complex representation of the transmission model
that takes into account the reflections within the transformer and at the terminals. The SFRA test set and cable
impedance is 50 ohms which is not matched to the transformer winding impedance. The transformer tested had a
calculated high side winding impedance of about 2 Ohms which also explains more than 50dB attenuation in the test
traces. The impedance difference will cause the transformer to act as a cavity resonator, defined as A resonator
formed by a volume of propagating medium bound by reflecting surfaces.[7] The propagating medium is the
dielectric surrounding the winding conductor. The reflecting surfaces are due to different impedance transitions.
Resonance does not occur due to the interaction of reactive components, but rather due to the cavity
resonator.[8,9,10] The no load taps, when set other than at full tap, will act as stubs. The stubs introduce additional
reflections and transmission differences which change the characteristics of the FRA trace.

H3 Input Signal Sampled Here

50 Source
and Cable Stubs, Un-Used
No-Load Taps
50 Load
H1 H2

More complex view of transformer as a transmission system and cavity resonator

FIGURE 13

The traveling waves through this circular cavity resonator set up standing waves. Signals of different wavelengths
traveling through the cavity resonator will result in different peaks, nulls (valleys), and nodes. A simulation of the

13
received signal strength at different frequencies can be seen in figure 14. It can be seen that peaks will occur when
the wavelength of the signal is equal to the length of the conductor in each winding. Large nulls (valleys) will
appear with the same frequency periodicity.

Simple Simulation of Received Signal Strength

Magnitude of Received Signal (Normalized)

0.5

0.5

0 1 2 3

Wavelength / Winding Length

Recieved Signal
Magnitude of Received Signal

Mathcad Signal Magnitude vs. Frequency of Simplistic View

FIGURE 14

Key equations and components for the analysis of the three test curves shown Figure 11:
Conductor Length of winding: l [m] = 5.5km (at full tap)
Periodic Frequency: fp (obtained from traces)
Relative Permittivity: r c
Phase Velocity: v p = l x fp = c = 3 x 108 m/sec
r
The transformer under test had 22 stacks of windings. Each stack consisted of 135 turns for a total of 2,970 turns on
the 72.4kV tap. Each disk outer dimension was 27, the inner dimension was 19, with an average of 23. The total
length of conductor in each HV winding was calculated to be approximately 5.5km.

Phase velocity can be calculated knowing the length of travel (5.5km, length of conductor in winding) and the
frequency of the signal for one wave length. Thus

vp = 5.5km x 31.5kHz = 1.7325 x 108 m/sec.

Phase velocity, vp, is dependent on the relative permittivity of the medium of the traveling wave.[8,9,10] A primary
theory is that the conductor acts as a wave guide for traveling electromagnetic waves. The energy of the signal
travels through the insulating medium surrounding the conductor. The relative permittivity of the medium for a

14
traveling wave with these parameters is calculated to be 3.00, which is a reasonable approximation for oil stained
paper.

Test Case Description fp vp r

1 Transformer in tank, Full of Oil, Tap 65.2kV (assumed 90% 28.5kHz
winding length)
2 Transformer in tank, Full of Oil, Full Tap 72.4kV 26.5kHz 1.46x108 4.24

3 Transformer un-tanked well drained of oil, Full Tap 72.4k 31.5kHz 1.73x108 3.00

Observed Periodic Frequencies of Test Curves (Figure 11) Calculated Phase Velocity and Relative Permittivity
TABLE 2

Table 2 shows the observed periodic frequencies of test cases (Figure 11) with calculated phase velocity and
calculated relative permittivity. The calculated relative permittivity is 4.24 for Test Case 2, which is a reasonable
approximation for oil impregnated paper. Phase velocity and relative permittivity were not calculated for Test Case
1. These values should be the same as Test Case 2. Reducing the conductor length to 90% through the no-load tap
setting should result in an increase of the periodic frequency by 111%. The observed periodic frequency is actually
about 107% greater than the periodic frequency at full tap. A possible explanation for the variance between the
expected value and the observed value is the stubs of the unused tap sections.

The low voltage windings are much shorter than the high voltage windings resulting in a much higher periodic
frequency. The low voltage winding tests (from a low side terminal to neutral) on a three phase grounded wye bank
would seemingly be a more simple circuit to analyze (one signal path). However, low voltage windings are
generally comprised of multiple conductors in parallel (for current capacity) tied together at termination points.
Signals will also travel along the other two low voltage phase windings. This allows multiple paths of signal travel.
Interactions with other elements of the transformer (HV windings and core) also add complexity to the FRA signal
traces.

The view of the transformer as a transmission system and cavity resonator explains many of the observations
associated with frequency response analysis. There are several applicable examples, a few of which are listed
below:

Changing a high side no load tap from a lower to a higher voltage increases the total conductor length.
This decreases the periodic frequency and the effect is that the test trace shifts to the left.
Removing oil from the transformer tank replaces the oil (r,oil = 2.2) with air (r,air = 1.0). The resulting
decrease in relative permittivity increases the phase velocity. This increases the periodic frequency and the
test trace shifts to the right.
Moisture in the insulation displaces oil (r,oil = 2.2) with water (r,water = 81). The relative permittivity
increases, decreasing the phase velocity. This decreases the periodic frequency and the test trace shifts to
the left.
Shorted or open turns change the signal path producing changes in the SFRA trace.
Since low voltage windings are shorter, the periodic frequency would be much higher. An analysis similar
to that of Figure 9 for low the voltage winding would result in fewer transitions.

One piece of the frequency response puzzle is presented here. Frequency response analysis requires further study to
better understand the test results. Items requiring better understanding include the wiggles in the magnitude trace as
highlighted in figure 9. The wiggles correlate with deviations of the phase angle trace. They demonstrate a polarity
associated with the direction of the phase angle shift. This is better observed by viewing the low side winding FRA
trace as shown in figure 15. Cursor lines are shown to highlight the correlation between phase angle and magnitude.
These small changes in magnitude and phase angle are most likely associated with waves traveling through the
cavity resonator defined by the windings and termination points. It appears viewing both phase angle and
magnitude together will provide better analysis of the FRA traces.

15
 SFRA X3-X0 2010-01-28 08:47:14
2.33kHz
755Hz 10.2kHz 45.3kHz
20 200

10
34.3kHz 100

0 0
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

-10 882Hz 6.85kHz -100

Magnitude (dB)

Angle (degrees)
-20 -200

-30 -300

-40 -400

95.0kHz
-50 -500
108kHz
140kHz
-60 -600
Frequency (Hz)

Magnitude Angle

Angle (degrees) and Magnitude (dB) vs. Frequency (log scale)

Test: Xcel-Energy_Maple-Grove_Kuhlman-Electric_257715_2010-01-28_08-47-14, X3-X0
FIGURE 15

16
REFERENCES

[1] Bocovich, Michael Swept Frequency Response Analysis, Realistic Expectations 2011 Doble
Engineering Company 78the Annual International Doble Client Conference.

[2] Instruction Manual, "Doble SFRA User Guide" Copyright, 2006, Doble Engineering Company.

[3] IEEE PC57.149TM/D8, November 2009 Draft Trial-Use Guide for the Application and Interpretation
of Frequency Response Analysis for Oil Immersed Transformers.

[4] Instruction Manual, "M5100 SFRA Instrument Users Guide" Copyright, 2001, Doble Engineering
Company.

[5] Lachman, Mark F, Fomichev, Vadim, Rashkovski, Vadim, and Shaikh, AbdulMajid Frequency
Response Analysis of Transformers and Influence of Magnetic Viscosity 2010 Doble Engineering
Company 77th Annual International Doble Client Conference.

[6] Reykherdt, Andrey A., Davydov, Valery Case Studies of Factors Influencing Frequency Response
analysis Measurements and Power Transformer Diagnostics IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine,
January/February 2011, Volume 27 Number 1.

[7] IEEE Std 100-1992 The New IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms Fifth
Edition.

[8] Balanis, Constantine A. Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics John Wiley & Sons, Copyright
1989.

[9] Johnk, Carl T.A. Engineering Electromagnetic Fields and Waves John Wiley & Sons, Copyright
1975.

[10] Yariv, Amnon, Yeh, Pochi Photonics Optical Electronics in Modern Communications Sixth
Edition, Oxford University Press, Copyright 2007.

BIOGRAPHY

Mike Bocovich is currently employed at Xcel Energy. Mike is a Principal Engineer in the Substation
Maintenance Engineering Department. He has also held positions at other utilities and served as an
officer in the US Navy. Mike earned his Bachelor of Science, Electrical Engineering from the University
of Colorado in 1982. He also earned his Masters of Engineering, Electrical Power Engineering from
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1987. He is currently a PhD student at the University of Minnesota.

17