Soil is one of the major natural resources, like air and water.

It is the topmost layer of the earth's

crust and is a mixture of fine powdered rocks, organic matter, liquids, myriad organisms and other
minerals. It acts as an interface between hydrosphere, lithosphere, earth's atmosphere and
biosphere. The proportion of the key ingredients determines the type of soil. But, factors such as
vegetation, climatic conditions, human activities for e.g. grazing, farming, gardening etc also
influence soil formation. In India, various types of soils are found and their formations are influenced
by certain factors such as altitude, climate disproportionate rainfall and many others. The type of soil
differs in different areas of the country. The major types of soils found in India are:

Laterite Soil: The laterite soil is found in those regions of the country which receive heavy
rainfall with alternate dry and wet period. In these climatic conditions, leaching of soil takes
place which is a process in which fertile portion of the soil gets washed away by heavy rains.
They are formed from the decomposition of rocks and contain iron oxide which gives them
red or pink colour. This type of soil is normally deficient in nitrogen and is poor in lime
content. This type of soil is found in several parts of the country mainly Western and Eastern
Ghats, Vindhyas, Malwa plateau and Satpuras. The states where this type of soil can be
found are West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Meghalaya, Assam, Odisha to name a few.

Mountain Soils: Mountain soils are formed due to the accumulation of organic matter which
is derived from the forest growth. This type of soil is rich in humus but has poor lime, potash
and phosphorus content. It is generally sandy and has gravels. It is mainly found in
Himalayan region of the country. Maize, barley, wheat and temperate fruits are grown in this
soil in the Himalayan region. Plantation of crops like tropical fruits, coffee, tea or spices in
states of south India like Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are undertaken in this type of
soil.

Black Soil: This type of soil is made up of volcanic rocks and lava. Black soil is also known
as 'regur' which is derived from a Telugu word 'reguda'. Black soil is also known as Black
Cotton Soil as cotton is an important crop which is grown in this type of soil. The soil content
is rich in calcium carbonate, potash, lime and magnesium carbonate but has poor
phosphorus content. It is mostly found in areas such as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra. It is also found in states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Red Soil: This type of soil is formed as a result of weathering of metamorphic and igneous
rocks. The red colour of the soil comes from the high percentage of iron content. The soil's
texture varies from being sandy to clayey, but it is mainly loamy. It is rich in potash content
but lacks phosphate, humus and nitrogen content. The red soil is found in regions such as
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha, some parts of Karnataka and southeast
Maharashtra.

Alluvial Soil: Alluvial soils are formed by the deposits of the sediments brought by rivers.
Most of the rivers originate from the Himalayas and bring along high amount of sediments
 with them. The soil is made up of particles like silt, sand and clay. It has adequate amount of
phosphoric acid, potash and lime. Alluvial soil is of two types - (i) old alluvium known as
bangar, and (ii) new alluvium called khaddar. It is the most important type of soil found in the
country as it covers about 40% of the total land. It is found in the areas of northern plains
beginning from Punjab to West Bengal and Assam. It is also found in deltas of different rivers
such as Krishna, Godavari, Kaveri and Mahanadi in peninsular India.

Desert Soil: The desert soil is found in regions with low rainfall. The sand in the desert areas
is partly original and partly blown from Indus Valley. The soil content has 90-95% of sand and
5-10% of clay. The phosphate content in the soil is high while the nitrogen content is low. The
water content in the soil is fulfilled through irrigation. This type of soil is found in arid and
semi-arid areas. Desert soil is found mostly in areas of Rajasthan, and also in Haryana and
Punjab.

Saline and Alkaline Soil: There are many mineral based and undecomposed contents
inside the earth. Due to weathering, they release certain minerals such as magnesium,
sodium, sulphurous acid and calcium salts. Some of the released salts get carried in solution
by rivers and mix in sub-soils of the plains making the soils saline and alkaline. This type of
soil can be found in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab and also in some parts of Gujarat.

Peat Soil: Accumulation of high amount of organic matters in the soil in humid regions
results in the formation of peaty soils. These types of soils constitute about 10 to 40% of the
organic matter and also a reasonable amount of soluble salts. Peaty soils are heavy, black in
colour and have high acidic content. They are low in phosphate and potash content. Peaty
and marshy soils are found in a few districts of Kerala. On the other hand, marshy soils are
found in coastal areas of some states such as Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Almora district of
Uttaranchal and Sunderbans of West Bengal.

Different Types of Climatic Regions

The climates of India are mainly divided into four different groups. The classification of these groups
is based on the Koppen climate classification system.

1. Tropical Wet (Humid): The tropical wet (humid) climate group in India is divided into two
sub parts- tropical monsoon climate or the tropical wet climate, and tropical wet and dry
climate or savannah climate. The Western Ghats, the Malabar Coast, southern Assam,
Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have the tropical monsoon climate. It
experiences moderate to high temperature with seasonal but heavy rainfall. The months from
May to November experience the most rainfall and the rain received during this period is
sufficient for vegetation throughout the year. Tropical wet and dry climate or the savannah
climate is most common in the country and prevails mainly in the inland peninsular region of
the country except for some portion of the Western Ghats. The summers are extremely hot
and the rainy season extends from the month of June to September.
 2. Tropical Dry: The tropical dry climate group is divided into three subdivisions-(a) tropical
semi-arid (steppe) climate, (b) sub-tropical arid (desert) climate and (c) sub-tropical semi-arid
(steppe) climate. Karnataka, central Maharashtra, some parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh experience the tropical semi-arid (steppe) climate. Rainfall is very unreliable in this
type of climate and the hot and dry summers are experienced from March to May. With
scanty and erratic rainfall and extreme summers, western Rajasthan witnesses the sub-
tropical arid (desert) climate. The areas of the tropical desert that runs from the regions of
Punjab and Haryana to Kathiawar witness the sub-tropical semi-arid (steppe) climate. The
maximum temperature in summers goes up to 40C and the rains are unreliable and
generally take place during summer monsoon season in this climate.

3. Sub-tropical Humid Climate: This climate is witnessed by most of the North and Northeast
India. Summers are very hot, while in winters, temperature can plunge to as low as 0C.
Rainfall mainly occurs in summers but snowfall or occasional rainfall in winters is also
witnessed in some areas. The hottest months are May and June and frost also occurs for
few months in winters.

4. Mountain Climate: The temperature falls by 0.6C for every 100 m rise in altitude in the
Himalayas and results in a number of climates from tropical to tundra. The trans-Himalayan
belt, which is the northern side of the western Himalayas, is cold, arid and windswept. There
is less rain in the leeward side of the mountains whereas heavy rainfall is received by the
well exposed slopes. Heaviest snowfall occurs between the months of December to
February.

Seasons of India
India generally witnesses four types of seasons. During these seasons, strong variations in
temperature takes place in the country. The different types of seasons experienced in India are as
follows:

1. Winter: Generally the months of January and February are considered as the start of winter
season in the country. However, in some parts of north-western India, the season begins
from December. Generally, the average temperature during this season is about 10-15C in
northwest regions. In southeast region of mainland India, the average temperature is about
20-25C. The western Himalayas, the extreme north-eastern parts and Kerala and Tamil
Nadu, experience rains during this season.

2. Summer/Pre-monsoon/Thunderstorm/Hot Weather: The country experiences this season

from March till June. In the interior peninsular regions, the mean daily temperature is
recorded at 30-35C. The maximum temperature in daytime in Central India crosses 40C in
many areas. In some regions, temperature is high during daytime while in the nights, low
 temperature is recorded. The coastal areas of the country have mild temperature during this
season due to the influence of land and sea breezes. Thunderstorms with rains and hail
influence the weather in the land areas of the country. These thunderstorms are seen in the
north-eastern and eastern parts of Bihar, Assam and West Bengal. In the plains of north-west
India, hot and dry winds, along with dust winds, are frequently experienced.

3. Rainy/South-west Monsoon (WS Monsoon): The months from July to September are the
most significant. About 75% of the total rainfall of the country is supplied by the monsoon
torrents during this season. The exact period of the SW monsoon in a region depends upon
the onset and withdrawal time of the season. For instance, it remains in west Rajasthan for
about 75 days while for 120 days in the south-western regions of the country. The SW
monsoon reaches in two branches: the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branch. The
Arabian Sea branch extends towards the low-pressure area over Thar Desert and is about
three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch. The northern hemispheric temperatures,
El Nino, snow cover, sea surface temperature and many other are some of the local and
global phenomenon which influences the monsoons in the country. The SW starts to weaken
by 1 September in Rajasthan and from 15 September in some north-western parts of the
country. The monsoons in India are very important for the economy of the country as it
affects the agriculture which is the mainstay of a huge workforce of the nation.

4. Autumn/Post Monsoon/Northeast Monsoon/Retreating SW Monsoon: This season

prevails in the country from the months of October to December. It is a transition season
which is related to the establishment of the north-easterly wind regime over the subcontinent
of the country. A large part of the country experiences cool, dry, and dense Central Asian air
masses. Some parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh receive about
35% of their total rainfall during this season. A decline in the mean temperature from 38C in
October to 28C in November takes place during this season. The characteristic features of
this season include decrease in humidity level and clear skies in most parts of the central
and northern India.

Factors Affecting India's Climate

There are certain factors which affect the climate of India:

1. Latitude: The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India and extends from
Mizoram in the east and Rann of Kutch in the west; and considerably affects the climate of
the country. To the south of the Tropic of Cancer lies the southern part of the country which
belongs to the tropical area and to its north lies the northern half of India which belongs to
the sub-tropical area. Therefore, India experiences both sub-tropical and tropical climates.

2. Altitude: In the north, India is bounded by mountains with an average height of 6,000 metres
and in the south, has a vast coastline with maximum elevation of about 30 metres. The
Himalayas act as a barrier against the cold winds from Central Asia. Therefore due to the
 altitude of these mountains, the Indian subcontinent experiences milder winters than Central
Asia.

3. Monsoon Winds: The 'monsoon winds' is the most dominating factor influencing the climate
of India. It is often called the monsoon climate. A reversal in the monsoon winds can bring a
change in the season of the country, for instance the extreme summer season suddenly
changing to the rainy or monsoon season. The entire country receives rainfall due to the
south-west summer monsoons from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.

4. Western Disturbances and Tropical Cyclones: Large parts of peninsular India get
influenced by the tropical cyclones which originate in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
Most of the cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the climatic conditions at
the time of the south-west monsoon season. The western disturbances originate over the
Mediterranean Sea and influence the weather conditions in the Western Himalayan region.

Climate Related Calamities

Climate related calamities are a great cause of loss to the life and property. Some of the natural
disasters that have been experienced in the country are as follows:

1. Landslides and Floods: Floods are the most common natural disaster in India and are
caused due to the inadequate capacity within the river banks to carry high flows which are
brought down from the upper catchment because of the heavy rains. Almost the entire
country is flood prone and the precipitation events like torrential rains and flash floods have
become common in central India in the last few decades. But, the regions located in the
Indo-Gangetic plains and northeast India are more prone to floods. Erratic, excess or
untimely monsoon rains can kill thousands of people and also harm the agriculture of the
country.

2. Droughts: Drought is a situation which arises due to the scarcity of water. In India,
agriculture depends on the rains or the monsoon season as a source of water. But, the
shortage or failure of water results in the below-average crop yields. Climatic factors such as
high wind, high temperature and low humidity also add to the severity of drought in India.
Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Odisha, some parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka are
some of the drought-prone areas in the country. India has witnessed many famines such as
Bengal famine of 1770, 1876-77, 1899 and 1943 which took lives of millions of people.

3. Tropical Cyclones: These are the most devastating natural disasters which result in
massive loss of life and property. In India, the lives of the coastal habitants are highly
 affected due to cyclones. The areas near the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean are the most
cyclone-prone regions of the country. Coastal regions of Odisha, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh are more exposed to cyclones. During the time of cyclone, heavy rains,
winds with high speed and storm surge are also experienced which also affect the lives of
the people as it becomes difficult for them to get relief and supplies during this phenomenon.
A super cyclone, Cyclone 05B that struck Odisha on 29 October 1999 is considered to be the
deadliest cyclone in the country in the past few decades. It was considered equivalent to
Category 5 hurricane.

4. Climatic regions in India

5.

The various climatic regions of India are given below:

Name of climatic region States or territories

Tropical Rainforest Assam and parts of the Sahyadri Mountain Range

Tropical Savannah Sahyadri Mountain Range and parts of Maharashtra

Tropical and subtropical steppe Parts of Punjab and Gujarat

Tropical Desert Most parts of Rajasthan

Moist subtropical with winter Parts of Punjab, Assam, and Rajasthan

Mountain climate Parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal

Drought Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Haryana

Tropical semi-arid steppe Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and other parts of South India
6.

7. Characteristics of rainfall in India

8.

Type of Rainfall Areas

Areas of very little rainfall Western Rajasthan , northern part of Kashmir, the Deccan Plateau and
(lower than 50 cm): Punjab.

Areas of low precipitation Eastern Rajasthan, Upper Ganga basin, Southern plains
(50-100 cm): of Karnataka, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.

Areas of comparatively Southern areas of Gujarat, north-eastern Peninsular region, east Tamil
heavy rainfall (100-200 Nadu, eastern Maharashtra, Western Ghats, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and
cm): the central Gangetic basin.

The western seashores, the Western Ghats, Hills of Meghalaya, and the
Areas of heavy rainfall
Sub-Himalayan range territories in North East. West Bengal, Assam,
(more than 200 cm):
Western Coast, and southern part of east Himalayas.
 9.

10. Where to visit in India during the various seasons

11.

Though the summer can be quite rough and difficult in majority of the areas in the
Where to visit in country, it's the ideal occasion to visit the hill stations and mountains in the country
India during the like Nainital and Manali. If you are a wildlife enthusiast, the summer is also the ideal
Summer: occasion to go to the national parks in India as the creatures become visible and
they look for water in the warmth.

Where to visit in It's hard to trip in India at the time of the rainy season since it causes disturbances
India during the in traffic. Nonetheless, the monsoon is the ideal occasion to see the famous yet
Monsoon: secluded Ladakh in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in northern India.

The winter season is the ideal occasion to visit the seashores in India. The pristine
and sandy beaches in Goa are the most popular tourist draws during this period.
Where to visit in
The southern parts of India witness more visitors than the northern parts of India
India during the
during this period. The beaches in Kerala are also good places to visit during this
Winter:
time. The months of December to February are excellent times to make a trip to
South India. You can also go to Rajasthan to view its deserts in the winter months.