Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Higher Education
Conference Proceedings
Eger, Eszterhzy Kroly College
(June 3-5, 2014)
Editorial board:
Dr. Judit Kdr
Dr. Beta Szp
Krisztina Nagy
Renta Zsmba
ISBN 978-615-5297-24-3
3
Contents/Tartalom
5
Petrsovits gnes: A nem idegen nyelv szakos hallgatk idegen nyelvi
kpzse az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln .................................. 115
Tth va: Hogyan tovbb?: A gazdasgi szaknyelvoktats s
nyelvvizsgztats gyakorlata az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln .. 120
Vinnain Vkony Mrta: Interkulturlis elemek az ltalnos iskolai
nyelvoktatsban ........................................................................ 128
rsek Attila: Megvltoztatja-e az Edu2.0 a tantsi-tanulsi
folyamatokat, szoksokat? ........................................................ 135
Spiczn Bukovszki Edit: Innovatv mdszerek a (nyelv)tants
hatkony tanulss alaktsra ................................................. 153
Jaskn Dr. Gcsi Mria: Hagyomnyok soksznsge, nemzeti
identits, drmapedaggia ........................................................ 169
Tth va Vincze Mria: Sikerek s kudarcok: Egy anyanyelvi
hallsrtsi vizsglat tanulsgai ................................................ 180
Csorba Lszl: Kontraszelekci s a hazai felsoktats ................... 204
About the Authors .............................................................................. 220
6
JUDIT KADAR
7
academic and student mobility, research collaboration and institutional
partnership development, within the broader global framework of
internationalization. Hans de Wits essay entitled Internationalization in
European higher education: European policies, institutional strategies
and EUA support (EUA membership consultation, 2013
http://www.eua.be/Libraries/Higher_Education/EUA_International_Survey
.sflb.ashx) provides a fundamental understanding of the term, its
relevance and its European context.
Nevertheless, similarly to other widely known paradigms in culture and
education, it can easily become a vague catchphrase that lacks the
comprehension of its meaning and relevance as an essential tool. For
instance those who elaborate various European projects at the
institutional level and represent one particular academic field, are not
necessarily familiar with the broader context of the mobility, partnership
building or research collaboration activity generated in/by that given
project. Moreover, if a university and its management and international
relations staff does not have a properly accentuated internationalization
strategy, then single initiatives at the individual or smaller unit level may
not fit a larger strategic line of development for the institution, they may
not work in synergy. Does the management understand its relevance?
Does it support it? Is there a creative and supportive academic
environment and proper communication between the academic units and
the international office? Are the units aware of the services provided by
the IRO/CIR and do they utilize those effectively? Do the project
managers think in terms of this synergy or just focus on carrying out their
particular tasks that are somehow related to internationalization? Do the
academics and administrators understand the relevance of their
contribution and do students, educators and researchers understand the
relevance and impact of their mobility activities? Are there clear
indicators to measure the positive changes and can the institution
develop steadily due to all the international operations practiced under its
umbrella? And finally, do we all understand that the quality work and
happy community life of any university greatly depends on how
successful internationalization works there?
In the past it was enough for a university to secure its status by
employing competent educators, supporting successful research,
maintaining well-equipped laboratories and well-stocked libraries, and
nurturing its sports clubs.. Of course, public or private funding has always
made a difference, but the international component (e.g. foreign student
and academic proportion, active relations with partners) has played a
limited role in the overall success of any given institution. International
relations could simply follow the funding source tactics and random
8
academic visits that occasionally resulted in fruitful collaborations in one
or more fields. Nowadays, though, accomplished researchers, great
educators, effective and goal-oriented management, strategic planning,
powerful services and infrastructure, an extensive institutional network
(domestic and global), unique programs, a helpful municipal environment
and many more factors have to exist in a creative synergy that is able to
face the financial challenges, the diversified needs of an emerging new
student population and the national and international competition posed
by other third-level institutions.
These challenges demand a set of skills previously unknown in higher
education, skills that mostly come from the field of business. Project-
oriented thinking at all levels seems to be a prerequisite of successful
work in mobility, grant and funding applications, academic networking,
partnership development, just to mention a few. Besides, high level
foreign (mostly English) language and intercultural skills are also
necessary to communicate in the international arena. As for the
institution itself, more complex, advanced, rapid and flexible
administrative services are needed, along with an astute management
team that is familiar with the strengths and weaknesses (SWOT) of their
university and can plan and develop following clear strategic directions
and priorities with a clear focus. Most need to possess at least some PR,
marketing and even branding skills, or should hire personnel able to
operate in these areas. If the staff and management knows how to
provide market sensitive education and research (e.g. joint degrees,
clusters), they surely can better meet the new challenges in HE. In
addition, no university can operate successfully in seclusion: on the one
hand a network of international partner institutions can enhance a
dynamic student and academic life and promote collaboration on
research projects. and on the other, the national and international
organizations promoting higher education can actively support the
individuals and units with financial resources as well as know-how
required for good practices and regulations. In the Central European
context, enterprising individuals possessing up-to-the-minute knowledge
of European Union regulations, available funding sources and methods
and networks of national organizations, as well as having the ability to
consolidate the information they gather from all these areas, are an
essential element to successfully meeting the challenges and achieving
excellency in the university rankings.
As for the latter, let us take a brief look at what factors the Global U-
Ranking of the 2013 EUA Report measures (Global University Rankings
and Their Impact: Report II. EUA Report on Rankings, Brussels:
European University Association, 2013) in order to test our perceptions of
9
the performance of our university and the areas requiring improvement.
According to this report, universities need to develop a growing
awareness and relevance of the international components in general. It is
a straightforward task to establish the proportion of international students
and staff, and the number of papers and research projects involving
international cooperation. However, the intensity, efficiency and
outcomes of these collaborations can be evaluated in various ways, and
the same applies to the international teaching and research reputation of
a university, we can only measure such features with a combination of
objective data and more subjective perceptions. Paradoxically, U-MAP
and Mixed Ranking emphasizes the relevance of qualitative and
quantitative data assessment, strategic planning and development. How
can an institution and its management resolve the contradictions, provide
an appropriate assessment of its potentials and formulate a clear
strategy for its future development? And finally, how can we
communicate it to the global public?
Well, we may all share concerns about the complexity of
internationalization. Increasing numbers of reports, conferences and
workshops attempt to aid those working in the fast-expanding and
multifaceted situation in HE, nonetheless I am convinced that sensitive
implementation tailored to the given university and dedicated facilitators
are absolutely essential in the current climate.
Let us take an example all of us are familiar with to a certain extent:
the notion of mobility. When any institution claims to have intensive
mobility, it seems almost too vague and subjective a category to apply.
Jzsef Temesi posed the question at a Hungarian Rectors Conference
workshop (Gdll, May 2014) and explored the problem of measuring
factors in internationalization, and mobility in particular. What exactly
does it mean, a three-day conference trip, a three months stipendium, or
a three year degree program or postdoctoral research for inbound or
outbound students or a faculty? What is the target? 20 or any %, of what,
and increase of what? What to measure and are numbers really
comparable (e.g. knowledge gain and employability)? Another presenter
at the same workshop, Michael Gabel, (EUA) continued with a shortlist of
other related problems, namely social bias, co-financing issues, the gap
between policy and practice, the constant challenge of recruiting, the
frequent lack of resources (including financial and human), the problem
of grading and credit transfer, the ability of the academic staff and many
10
more. These difficulties claim for the clarification of notions we apply, the
exchange of good practices and obviously effective solutions.
Although the challenges and the complexities of internationalization
demand great effort and time from us, there are new areas in which
interesting and innovative solutions are surfacing. There are new
collaborative work formats (e.g. cluster, joint grant, dual degree
programs) and there are new education formats and technologies, too,
for instance E-learning, MOOCs and intercultural training that all require
the aforementioned new skills and approaches, but which also offer non-
traditional roads to success in higher education. New forums (e.g. fairs,
grant schemes and related conferences like ACA, EUA events) provide
us with information and knowledge transfer opportunities, and last but not
least, HE is increasingly borrowing from the world of business, since
marketing, branding, data and risk analysis, management training,
competition, entrepreneurial attitudes and applying business
performances have become an integral part of our day-to-day work.
Eszterhzy College is dedicated to promoting quality education,
cutting-edge research, mutually beneficial collaborations and services for
the entire university community. The management and the Center for
International Relations seek effective ways to promote
internationalization and the exchange of ideas and good practices. This
goal has driven the selection of topics for the 2014 conference on good
practices in internationalization, and the contents of the proceedings
follows on the topics we believe relevant in the current Hungarian and
Central European context of higher education. Fruitful practices in
academic networking have been shared and discussed in the hope that
individual academics and doctoral students may utilize them. For those
visiting other countries, marketing our universities and educational
services abroad is always a challenge, thus we also facilitated a dialogue
concerning old and new methods and approaches. The various academic
and administrative units all need to know how to properly facilitate
international partners and students in Hungary as well as abroad, for
instance at embassies and cultural centers. What sources and tools to
apply and how to incorporate intercultural knowledge at the same time?
How to handle administrative challenges and identify the best practices in
international project management and efficient, high quality mobility
services? What are the grant schemes and other funding sources
11
available for individuals and institutions and how to apply them
successfully? How to enhance learning performance in foreign language
teaching and exams, and how can coaching/ mentoring help academics
in/for the global arena? How can intercultural education function best and
how can E-learning be incorporated into learning across borders?
Furthermore, how can degree and non-degree programs work between
partners, what is their most effective marketing through cultural
diplomacy? I am sure that there isn`t a university today not grappling with
these questions and I am pleased to see how much we could learn from
one another at the conference and look forward to the International Week
and Dr. de Wits special workshop on internationalization in October,
2014. As for the June conference, sharing the outcomes of the
dynamicroundtable discussions as well as the wonderful papers
presented in the workshops in this book is a wonderful opportunity for us
to provide the knowledge accrued to not only the conference participants
but to all our international partners and those working in international
relations globally. We hope it will assist you in advancing your campus
with quality internationalization strategies and to be(come) content
partners of Eszterhzy College and successful in all areas of your own
work.
***
12
RENTA ZSMBA
13
destination and incoming students are also prepared for cultural
differences and challenges they may come across in Hungary. One of
the most popular programs for foreign students is excursions to places of
interest in Hungary .
Another roundtable saw an attempt to outline the current issues
related to degree programs offered for international students, joint
master and double degrees and the challenges characterizing their
accreditation. Speakers at this session broached three related areas:
Dr. Ilona Pajtk Tari, Vice Rector for Education at EKC, Erzsbet Kal-
Szcs, noted specialist program administrator at EKC and Mrton Beke,
Deputy Head at the Ministry of Human Resources initiated a discussion
on accreditation rules and risks, which was followed up by a conversation
on some challenges related to the rules and regulations governing the
acceptance of credit points internationally, as well as the growth of
double degree programs.
Erzsbet Kal-Szcs stressed the five conditions for the joint
degree programs which must be considered in the course of
accreditation. If two international partner universities wish to launch a
joint degree program, (1) they both have to be state recognized, (2) the
certificates issued by these universities must be legally recognised
degrees of higher education and must be accepted by the universities in
the countries involved, and (3) the joint program on offer must be an
accredited program in both institutions, (in Hungary and in the partner
instituions country). Furthermore, (4) the given Hungarian institution has
to declare that 75% of the training is in line with what is included in the
contract and students are expected to achieve at least 30 credits at the
specific Hungarian institution. Finally, (5) the Senate of the Hungarian
Higher Education Institution (HEI) must comply with the conditions which
are regulated by law.
Mrton Beke shared his views on the combination of Erasmus
scholarships with joint master degrees. There is a new European
program for international collaboration and education supported by the
EU Commission from which 350 projects and 25000 students and staff
are expected to be funded over a period of 7 years. The program
Erasmus Plus Master Degrees is, in fact, not new, since Erasmus
Mundus Master courses were a noted brand worldwide between 2004
and 2013. The future aims of the initiative include the acceleration of the
internationalization of higher education institutions attracting students
from all over the world, better employability of students through more
advanced professional skills and the provision of knowledge matched to
the expectectations of the labour market.
14
Undoubtedly, there are challenges for those who wish to create joint
degree programs, namely the bureaucratic process of accreditation, the
occasional lack of institutional commitment and strategy, and the low
level of language skills among the faculty and administrative staff.
However, the institution can greatly improve the general level of
language skills and internationalization strategies and thus foster
collaboration-based degree programs. Marketing Hungarian
universities and educational services abroad and facilitating
international partners and students in/for Hungary: challenges and
good practices is the title of the panel discussion where Prof. Carmel
Borg (Malta), Prof. Attila Borbly (Chairman of the International
Committee of the Hungarian Rectors Conference), Fanni Kitty Balog
(Hungarian Rectors Conference) and Dr. dm Novotny (EKC School of
Economics), have addressed a topic that is growing in significance in
Hungarian higher education. Dr. Novotny, a faculty member of marketing
at the Institute of Economic Science talked about the competitiveness of
Hungarian universities abroad and illustrated with data why Hungary is
not represented among the top 400 universities on the World University
Rankings published on the website of the Times Higher Education.
However, on the list of BRICS and Emerging economies, also published
by THE, three Hungarian universities are included: the University of
Debrecen, the University of Szeged and Semmelweis University in
Budapest. These universities offer high quality programs in the medical
field as well as in international programs for foreign students. Fanni Kitty
Balog is a co-ordinator and representative of the International Committee
of the Hungarian Rectors Conference, a representative body of all the
Hungarian HEI, which acts as an umbrella organisation for all these
institutions and promotes internationalization of Hungarian universities
and colleges. An example of their work is the successful Brazilian
program Science without Borders. As mentioned earlier, there is no lack
of international students at Hungarian medical schools, it is rather other
fields and courses, though offered in English, where they are poorly
represented. As for theScience without Borders program, Hungary is
currently playing host to 1500 Brazilian students pursuing courses in
English at eighteen Hungarian universities and colleges. Brazil is running
the program in 42 countries and Hungary ranks tenth among participating
nations, and is the seventh most popular in Europe.
To maintain and extend the regard in which Hungary and her HE
institutions are held, it is essential to adapt to the needs and interests of
the students and offer courses with a practical approach. Kitty Fanni
Balog stated that Hungarian universities consider themselves flexible in
providing courses corresponding to specific needs. Furthermore, to get
15
the program up and running, excellent cooperation between the
international co-ordinators of each university is essential Hungarian
universities appear to have met this challenge. New challenges,
however, are constantly arising, Attila Borbly pointed out that the
marketing activity aimed at promoting Hungarian institutions on different
continents, increasingly in Asia, North and South America, has thrown up
some very basic questions, such as the geographical location of the
country or the capital city. He also added that it is not only Hungary that
is less familiar but the whole Central and Eastern European region. Yet,
Hungary is competitive, since its universities provide high quality
education for a relatively low tuition fee and living costs as compared to
other European countries.
In the roundtable entitled Administrative Challenges and
Successful Practices in Internationalisation, Karen Gardner
(University of New Mexico), the administrative representative of the
American partner institution outlined some aspects of the
internationalization at UNM, an institution of 27,000 students, that has
agreements in place with over 200 universities, including Eszterhzy
Kroly College.The partnership has several advantages from financial
benefits (affordable tuition for everyone: 29,000 $/year) to those of an
academic nature (offering a wide variety of research collaboration and
publication opportunities). To make a partnership work especially in the
initial phase, personal exchange is essential. In the present co-operation
this is exactly how it all started: from the initiative of a visiting professor
and her host department, with a few administrative assistant sat the host
institution, the collaboration plan has emerged. Nevertheless, planning
ahead is also important, as these projects need much time, moreover,
the individuals in charge have to be flexible and willing to negotiate.
Sometimes people focus on complex issues when beginning an
exchange, although it is the simple things, such as answering e-mails
and maintaining regular communication between the partners that are
unavoidable, pointed out Karen Gardner.
This cooperation has been exemplary since both sides have shown a
willingness to find common fields of interest which seem to be
advantageous for their institutions. To mention some: an exchange of
faculties, students, publication opportunities and participation in Fulbright
programs. Regarding the exchange of Fulbright Scholars, some
departments can help financially, and others can help in kind. However,
in the United States, HEI seem to have a limited international interest and
legislators are more concerned with lower levels of education.
Furthermore, the majority of the universities is financed by the state and
there is no working relationship between local politicians and state-
16
funded universities. Considering the administrative challenges, one might
start with the difficulties in making bilateral exchange agreements.
Financial problems almost always arise as all the money is directed to a
common tuition pool instead of the faculties who do not see the financial
benefit of the exchange program and turn down the initiatives.
Consequently, it is rather the departments that tend to develop and run
their own institutional relationships.
Further challenges may involve intercultural misunderstandings. A
dedicated visiting management members may contribute to specific
internationalization initiatives, in that sense the current faculty exchange,
including the President of EKC and chief executives of UNM, may
enhance a valuable collaboration and make significant steps towards
establishing a stable partnership in future exchange programs.
Lack of information might also be a difficulty in entering into a bilateral
agreement, since between the universities of the USA and those of
Europe there are no such organizations as Erasmus Mundus or V4 which
could facilitate cooperation between the institutions. Yet, this does not
mean that American universities cannot receive Erasmus funding.
Although American universities cannot have direct access to Erasmus
funding, Hungarian universities are able to finance a specific project on
condition that there are at least two European institutions collaborating.
The key to this cooperation is the presence of a dedicated person who
sees to the circulation of information among the institutions.
Some more challenges may also overshadow the success of a stable
exchange program. American students do not necessarily choose
Europe for an academic year abroad Asian universities are among the
most popular, though students risk a higher level of culture shock or if
they do, it is mostly Great Britain, Ireland and France, partly because of
their being able to use their mother tongue and partly because they are
more familiar with these countries than the rest of Europe. Hungary is
largely unknown in the USA, so more marketing, more collaboration
among the Hungarian institutions to make the country and its universities
more established are worth considering.
***
17
HANS DE WIT
INTERNATIONALISATION OF HIGHER
EDUCATION: NEW MEANINGS, RATIONALES
AND APPROACHES1
Introduction
This paper intends to give an overview of the why, how and what of
internationalisation in higher education. It analyses the evolution of
internationalisation of higher education over the past three decades: from
a rather static and fragmented notion of international education to a
broad, innovative process of internationalisation, in the context of a
global knowledge society. Meanings, rationales, strategies and
approaches are constantly changing as is also the global landscape.
Internationalisation is not a static phenomenon but a constantly evolving
process. There is not one model fitting all, but opportunities for those who
decide with clear rationales, strategies and approaches to move forward
in internationalising their higher education.
Internationalisation over the years has moved from a reactive to a pro-
active strategic issue, from added value to mainstream, although more in
intention and discourse than in practice. It also has seen its focus, scope
and content evolve substantially. Increasing competition in higher
education, the commercialisation and the increased cross-border delivery
of higher education, have challenged the value traditionally attached to
cooperation: exchanges and partnerships. At the same time, the
internationalisation of the curriculum and the teaching and learning
process (also referred to as Internationalisation at Home) has become
as relevant as the traditional focus on mobility (both degree mobility and
mobility as part of the home degree).
1
This paper is a shortened and updated version of De Wit, H. (2013a).
Internationalization of higher education, an introduction on the why, how and what. Pp.
13-46. In H. de Wit (Ed.). (2013), An Introduction to Higher Education
Internationalisation. Universit Cattolica University Press Vita e Pensiero, Centre for
Higher Education Internationalisation (CHEI), UCSC, Milan.
18
It would be too easy, however, to assume that everything has
changed over the past ten years with regard to the internationalisation of
higher education, and that this change is primarily from a more
cooperative model to a more competitive model. There are different
accents and approaches. Internationalisation strategies are filtered and
contextualised by the specific internal context of the university, by the
type of university, and how it is embedded nationally. Internationalisation
strategies are shaped at the programme level by the different relationship
these programmes have to the market and society. An
internationalisation strategy can be substantially different for a teacher
training programme than for a school of dentistry or a business school.
And internationalisation strategies may be different by level: PhD, master
and bachelor.
19
European Association for International Education (EAIE) in Europe, and
several others in the world. It also is reflected in the name of the
academic journal of the field of international educators, the Journal of
Studies in International Education, which started in 1997.
It is not clear when the transition took place from international
education to internationalisation of (higher) education. The use of
internationalisation in relation to higher education already can be noticed
in publications in the 1970s. But it is only in the 1990s that the term
internationalisation really takes over from international education as
describing the different ways the international dimensions in higher
education are taking shape. This shift is a reflection of the increasing
importance of these international dimensions in higher education and of
the related transfer from a marginal set of programs and activities to a
more comprehensive process. In Europe, this shift was very much
stimulated by the research programmes and mobility scheme ERASMUS
of the European Commission.
More than in numbers of mobile students, the impact of the
programme has been on the internationalisation and the reform of higher
education. ERASMUS has paved the way for the reform of European
higher education under the Bologna Process, has been a pilot for its
study point scheme ECTS, and was an initiator for the opening up to
countries in Central and Eastern Europe to EU-membership, as it is for
current aspiring candidate members. The programme stimulated both
national governments and institutions of higher education to develop
European and international strategies. The new ERASMUS+ programme
reflects this global approach to ERASMUS and the ambition of the
Commission to extend the scope and targets of the programme: an
additional 5 million students studying abroad between 2014 and 2020.
20
used are either curriculum related: international studies, global studies,
multicultural education, intercultural education, peace education, etc., or
mobility related: study abroad, education abroad, academic mobility, etc.
Over the past ten years one can notice a whole new group of terms
emerging which were not actively present before in the debate about
internationalisation of higher education. These are much more related to
the cross-border delivery of education and are a consequence of the
impact of globalisation of society on higher education: borderless
education, education across borders, global education, offshore
education and international trade of educational services.
In 2002, I stated that as the international dimension of higher
education gains more attention and recognition, people tend to use it in
the way that best suits their purpose (De Wit, 2002, 14). This is even
more the case now in view of this further proliferation of activities and
terms. Internationalization is changing the world of higher education, and
globalization is changing the world of internationalization, remarks
Knight (2008, 1). The debate about globalisation and internationalisation
and the recent, rapid evolution of cross-border activities in higher
education have strengthened the tendency to explain and define
internationalisation of higher education in connection to a specific
rationale or purpose.
Scott (2005, 14) observes that both internationalisation and
globalisation are complex phenomena with many strands, and concludes
that the distinction between internationalisation and globalisation,
although suggestive, cannot be regarded as categorical. They overlap,
and are intertwined, in all kinds of ways. Altbach, Reisberg and Rumbley
(2009, 7) claim:
Globalization, a key reality in the 21st century, has already
profoundly influenced higher education.(...) We define
globalization as the reality shaped by an increasingly integrated
world economy, new information and communications
technology, the emergence of an international knowledge
network, the role of the English language, and other forces
beyond the control of academic institutions(...).
Internationalization is defined as the variety of policies and
programs that universities and governments implement to
respond to globalization.
Brandenburg and De Wit (2011, 15) comment that internationalisation
is often too easily regarded as good and globalisation as bad:
21
Internationalization is claimed to be the last stand for
humanistic ideas against the world of pure economic benefits
allegedly represented by the term globalization. Alas, this
constructed antagonism between internationalization and
globalization ignores the fact that activities that are more related
to the concept of globalization (higher education as a tradable
commodity) are increasingly executed under the flag of
internationalization.
In the Bologna Declaration of 1999 and the Lisbon Strategy of 2000
the two dimensions of internationalisation meet: cooperation and
competition. On the one hand, both processes emphasise that there
should be more cooperation resulting in a European area for higher
education and research: A Europe of Knowledge. On the other hand,
there is strong emphasis on the argument that this cooperation is
required in order to cope with the competition from the United States,
Japan and, increasingly, China and other emerging economies. Also the
Communication, European Higher Education in the World, in which the
European Commission (2013) presents its internationalisation strategy,
reflects these two dimensions in the three pillars: mobility,
internationalisation at home and cooperation and partnership.
As new realities and challenges of the current environment, Knight
mentions globalisation and the emergence of the knowledge economy,
regionalisation, information and communication technologies, new
providers, alternate funding sources, borderless issues, lifelong learning,
and the growth in the numbers and diversity of actors. Therefore,
Knights definition (Knight, 2008, 21) acknowledges both levels and the
need to address the relationship and integrity between them: the
process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension
into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education. She
(ibid, 22-24) also states that you can see now basically two components
evolving in the internationalisation of higher education. One is
internationalisation at home activities that help students to develop
international understanding and intercultural skills. So it is much more
curriculum-oriented: preparing your students to be active in a much more
globalised world. Activities under this at home dimension are: curriculum
and programmes, teaching and learning processes, extra-curricular
activities, liaison with local cultural/ethnic groups, and research and
scholarly activities. And the second movement is that of
internationalisation abroad, including all forms of education across
borders: mobility of students and faculty, and mobility of projects,
programs and providers. These components have not to be seen as
mutual exclusive but are intertwined in the policies and programmes.
22
When we talk about internationalisation, it is important to distinguish
the question of why we are internationalising higher education, from what
we mean by internationalisation. Many documents, policy papers and
books refer to internationalisation, but do not define the why. And in
much literature meanings and rationales are confused, in the sense that
often a rationale for internationalisation is presented as a definition of
internationalisation.
Literature (De Wit, 2002, 83-102) identifies four broad categories of
rationales for internationalisation: political rationales, economic
rationales, social and cultural rationales and academic rationales. These
rationales are not mutually exclusive, may be different in importance by
country and region, and can change in dominance over time. In the
present time, the economic rationales are considered to be more
dominant than the other three, and in connection to these, academic
rationales such as strategic alliances, status and profile are also
becoming more dominant. Knight (2008, 25) speaks of emerging
rationales at the national level such as human resource development,
strategic alliances, income generation/commercial trade, nation building,
and social/cultural development and mutual understanding; and at the
institutional level: international branding and profile, quality
enhancement/international standards, income generation, student and
staff development, strategic alliances and knowledge production.
Rationales are different over time and by country/region, they are not
mutually exclusive, and they lead to different approaches and policies.
Currently, changes are taking place at a rapid pace in different parts of
the world and rationales become more and more interconnected. Still, the
question why is in most strategic documents, both at the regional,
national and institutional level in generally only superficially and
marginally answered. But how can one define clear objectives and goals,
and how can one define and assess the intercultural and international
learning outcomes, without first having described the specific
(inter)national, institutional and-or programmatic context and, based on
that, the relevance of the internationalisation strategy? If we do not
constantly ask ourselves why, instead of assuming that it is not a
necessary question because internationalisation is positive in itself,
internationalisation will be at an end (De Wit, 2014).
23
mindset with respect to the values and rationales for internationalisation?
Is internationalisation as we know it coming to an end?
Over the past 40 years internationalisation of higher education has
taken several forms and accents. In the nineteen seventies and early
eighties, internationalisation in many countries was primarily focused on
the development cooperation and aid. In the second half of the nineteen
eighties, internationalisation took a different direction. In most of
continental Europe, thanks to the development of scholarship
programmes and mobility schemes, in particular the ERASMUS
programme, the emphasis focused from aid to exchange of students and
teachers as well as curriculum development. In countries like the United
Kingdom and Australia, on the contrary, the emphasis shifted from aid to
trade. Instead of scholarships, universities were forced by their
governments to charge full cost fees to international students using as
argument: why should our taxpayers have to pay for the education of
these foreign students. And against all expectations, it has been
surprising to see that this did not result in a decrease of international
students but in a substantial increase, following the principle what you
have to pay much for must be of good value, making the United
Kingdom the number 2 and Australia the number 5 country in receiving
international students who want to pursue a full degree abroad, behind
the United States and close to Germany and France.
In the nineteen nineties, influenced among others by the Asian
economic crisis as the large majority of their international students
come from these countries Australia and the United Kingdom took the
lead in a new direction of internationalisation, referred to as transnational
education, cross-border delivery of education or offshore education. The
underlying assumption: if they do not come to us, why do we not go to
them. Their universities developed branch campuses and franchise
operations in countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, South Africa
and so on. A shift in movement from students to the movement of
programs and universities.
Together with the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom
are the leading nations in international higher education by their inflow of
international students and their offshore activities. This shift in
internationalisation in the nineteen nineties and further evolved in the
past decade, is referred to as a shift in paradigm from cooperation to
competition, a more commercial approach to international higher
education.
In continental Europe, this more commercial approach was originally
watched with rather negative eyes. Free or low tuition fees higher
education was and still is more common there, and that applied until
24
recently also to students from outside the European Union. We see
though in the past few years also in continental Europe (Denmark,
Sweden, the Netherlands in particular) a move to full cost fees for
international students from outside of the EU, and there is an increasing
pressure on national tuition fees.
Recently though, we also notice a reaction on the strong commercial
focus in international education. The higher education sector has
understood that too much of a commercial approach will jeopardize the
quality of education, the reputation of the institutions, and by that the
future inflow of national and international students. This implies: more
selection on international students, accreditation and quality control of
their offshore operations, transfer of revenues to better facilitate, council
and guide international students, and more emphasis on the
internationalisation of their curriculum and on study abroad of the own
students.
Last but not least, we can also see a shift in geographical sense. The
traditional divide between North and South and East and West of the
past century is no longer to be taken for granted. The increasing
importance of Asia, the developments in the Middle East, Latin America
and Africa change also the higher education landscape and by that its
international dimension. They bring in new values, new approaches and
new relationships.
In this context it is not surprising that we see a call for a change of
thinking about internationalisation, a move to mainstreaming it within the
overall quality of education, a move to a more comprehensive approach
and less revenue based. Several indications of this call are at the same
time emerging. The essay with the title The end of internationalisation
by Brandenburg and de Wit (2011) might have functioned as a wakeup
call, but other initiatives developed at the same time. In particular worth
mentioning was the initiative of the International Association of
Universities (IAU) to start a discussion about the need to re-examine the
concept of internationalisation and define a call for action based on it
(IAU, 2012a and 2012b, www.iau-aiu.net). The group addressed three
questions: Is the concept and the definition of internationalisation keeping
up with developments in higher education? Is there a shared
understanding of the concept? Has internationalisation lost sight of its
central purposes? A call for action has been formulated by IAU based on
their work. (IAU, 2012b, www.iau-aiu.net)
25
Why rethinking the concept of internationalisation?
26
which should be more at the core of internationalisation, as expressed by
movements such as Internationalization at Home.
In the sixth place, internationalisation is too much input/output
focused, a quantitative approach on numbers instead of an outcome
based approach. There has also been in the discourse too little attention
on norms, values, ethics of internationalisation practice. The approach
has been too pragmatically oriented to reaching targets without a debate
on the potential risks and ethical consequences. The recent debates on
the use of agents in the US, the problems with diploma fraud and lack of
quality assurance on cross-border delivery, illustrate the need for more
attention to the ethics and values of internationalisation.
A last point that influences the need for rethinking of
internationalisation is the increased awareness that the notion of
internationalisation is not only related to the relation between nations but
even more to the relation between cultures and between the global and
local.
These eight points are rationales for rethinking internationalisation.
The overarching reason is that we consider internationalisation of higher
education too much as a goal in itself instead of as a means to an end.
Internationalisation is not more and less than a way to enhance the
quality of education and research. That objective is too much forgotten in
the strive for quantitative goals. The rethinking exercise initiated by IAU,
more than an attempt to redefine the still young concept of
internationalisation, was a call for action to bring the core values and
objectives of internationalisation back to the forefront.
27
and in the higher education arena. They are all realities and their impact
cannot be ignored. It is manifested in the constructed antagonism
between internationalization and globalization (Brandenburg and de Wit,
2011, p. 16). Brandenburg and de Wit (2011, p. 16) phrase the
developments in internationalisation of higher education as follows:
Gradually, the why and what have been taken over by the how and
instruments of internationalization have become the main objective: more
exchange, more degree mobility, and more recruitment.
For internationalisation of higher education, it is important to go back
to the basis and look carefully at the why, how and what of
internationalisation in the current global knowledge economy. Knight
(2011b, p. 14) writes about Five Myths about internationalization. These
myths are according to her:
28
past twenty years there has been a tendency in higher education to teach
in English as an alternative for teaching in ones mother tongue. Although
there are sufficient reasons why it can be important to teach in English,
there are several unintended negative effects, which need to be paid
attention to. Increasingly, education offered in the English language is
regarded as the equivalent of internationalisation, which results in a
decreasing focus on other foreign languages; in an insufficient focus on
the quality of the English spoken by students and teachers for whom
English is not their native language; and thus leading to a decline in the
quality of education.
29
denying that the combination of local and international students in the
lecture-room can make a significant contribution to internationalisation,
also in this case, having international students is not sufficient in itself.
Unfortunately, countless examples can be given of programmes that are
oriented exclusively towards international students or where international
students are being added as an isolated group.
30
and other sections of the population in the country he visits, and
therefore exclude himself from their culture.
31
these misconceptions are still fairly common. And to also understand that
there are even more myths and misconceptions than Knight and de Wit
have described. In 2014, de Wit for instance added two misconceptions
to the nine he formulated in 2011: You can define the what, how and
outcome of internationalisation strategies without first having answered
the why?', and local and global are two different things (De Wit, 2014).
32
matter what shape the internationalisation process takes at a given
institution, student learning must remain a central core. It adds that this
seems not to be the case in many institutions. In other words, higher
education institutions should not only talk about the importance of
internationalisation of the curriculum, but place it at the centre of their
curriculum reforms and learning outcomes.
These findings coincide with the results from the third and fourth
Global Survey by the International Association of Universities (IAU) in
2010 (Egron Polak and Hudson, 2010) and 2014 (Egron Polak and
Hudson, 2014). Also in those surveys, one can note a strong difference
between what institutions say about the importance of internationalisation
and its priority in practice in particular where it concerns the curriculum
not only in the US but also in other regions (Beelen and de Wit, 2014).
So, this discrepancy is clearly not a purely American problem, but an
issue that applies also to Europe and other parts of the world. We may be
positive about the increasing attention being paid to curriculum and learning
outcomes instead of the quantitative focus on study abroad and recruitment
of international students that is manifested in these studies. But there is still
a lot to do to make the shift a reality. Funding is not the main obstacle to
internationalising the curriculum and learning outcomes. The IAU surveys
indicate that faculty resistance and an inflexible curriculum are probably
more important. So leadership can make a difference, but the impetus for
change has to move down to the programme level to deans, department
heads, faculty and students for change to be realised. At a time when
internationalisation has become more bureaucratic and focused on
quantitative targets, this requires a substantive change of mentality and
approach.
Another interesting finding of the ACE report relates to the differences
in progress between doctoral universities and other higher education
institutions in the US: Broadly speaking, the doctoral sector does better
than all others on many of the internationalisation indicators in the
Mapping Survey. While associate institutions have made progress in
some areas, their overall levels of internationalisation are still below
those of institutions in other sectors. The report correctly notes that
approximately 40% of the student body in the US attends associate
institutions, and calls for new innovative approaches to
internationalisation since the classical focus on study abroad is not the
most useful for students in this sector. Nevertheless, we do not yet see
many signs of innovation in that sector. And that applies also tot the
sector of universities of applied sciences in Europe.
33
Changing the internationalisation agendas: looking at the
future
34
Notions of importing and exporting countries are being turned upside
down as students choose study destinations in countries once seen as
merely sending students to the West to study. Global mobility flows are
increasingly complex, then, offering new opportunities for those able and
willing to access them.
Voices from countries with more recent international engagement
should be heard as offering new perspectives and dimensions to the
existing landscape of international education.
In essence, internationalisation efforts in higher education need to be
focused on moving away from input and output to more of a process and
outcome approach to internationalisation, ensuring that students and
faculty are prepared and competent for an increasingly global and
interconnected society.
In this process of globalisation of internationalisation to be effective,
ethical, responsible and sustainable, the following priorities are according
to Jones and de Wit (2012) essential:
35
which the new economies of Asia, Latin America, the Middle East and
also Africa are becoming increasingly stronger actors. Internationalisation
is not a static phenomenon but a constantly evolving process.
Stakeholders: international organisations, national governments, regions,
institutions of higher education, faculties and students, have to
understand and react to this process and define their niche in it. There is
not one model fitting all, but opportunities for those who decide with clear
rationales and approaches to move forward in internationalising their
higher education. In this process, the move from a quantitative and
instrumental approach to internationalisation towards a more qualitative
and outcomes and impact approach is the key attention point for the
future.
References
36
---. (2012). Internationalisation in higher education Rhetoric and
Reality. University World News. Issue 231, 22 July 2012.
www.universityworldnews.com.
---. (2013a). Internationalization of higher education, an introduction on
the why, how and what. In Hans de Wit (Ed.). (2013), An
Introduction to Higher Education Internationalisation. Universit
Cattolica University Press Vita e Pensiero, Centre for Higher
Education Internationalisation (CHEI), UCSC, Milan. pp. 13-46.
---. (2013b). The different faces and phases of internationalization of
higher education. In A. Maldonado and R. Bassett (Eds.), At the
Forefront of International Higher Education, a Festschrift in Honour
of Philip Altbach. Springer, Dordrecht.
---. (2013c). Rethinking the concept of internationalisation. In Going
Global: Identifying Trends and Drivers of International Education,
Emerald Group Publishing, London. pp. 213-218.
---. (2014) Misconceptions about (the end of) internatinonalisation. In
University World News, 18 July 2014, Issue No. 0329
De Wit, H. and Beelen, J. (2014). Reading between the Lines Global
Internationalisation Survey. University World News, 2 May 2014
Issue No:0318
De Wit, H. and Jooste, N. (2014). Can international education be truly
equal? University World News, 23 February 2014 Issue No:0308
Egron-Polak, E. and Hudson, R. (2010). Internationalization of Higher
Education: Global trends, regional perspectives (IAU 3rd Global
Survey report). Paris: IAU.
---. (2010). Internationalization of higher education: Global trends,
regional perspectives (IAU 3rd Global Survey Report ed.). Paris:
IAU.
---. (2014). Internationalization of higher education: Growing
expectations, essential values (IAU 4rd Global Survey Report ed.).
Paris: IAU.
European Commission (2013). European higher education in the world.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,
The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and
The Committee of the Regions. Brussels, 11.7.2013
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LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2013:0499:FIN:en:PDF
Hudzik, J. (2011) Comprehensive Internationalization. Washington
D.C.: NAFSA www.nafsa.org/cizn.
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Internationalization. In IAU Horizons, Vol. 17, no. 3 + Vol. 18 no. 1,
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February/March 2012. Paris, International Association of
Universities.
International Association of Universities. (2012b). Affirming Academic
Values in Internationalization of Higher Education: A Call for
Action. www.iau-aiu.net. Paris, International Association of
Universities.
Jones, E., and de Wit, H. (2012). Globalization of internationalization:
Thematic and regional reflections on a traditional concept.
AUDEM: The International Journal of Higher Education and
Democracy, 3. Volume 3, 2012. pp. 35-54.
Knight, J. (2008). Higher Education in Turmoil. The Changing World of
Internationalization. Rotterdam, the Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
---. (2011a). Is internationalization having an identity crisis? IMHE Info
(p. 1). Paris: OECD/IMHE.
---. (2011b). Five Myths about Internationalization. In International
Higher Education, number 64: Summer 2011, p. 14-15. Boston,
Boston College Center for International Higher Education.
Maringe, F. en Foskett, N. (2010). Globalization and Internationalization
in Higher Education. Theoretical, Strategic and Management
Perspectives. Continuum International Publishing Group, London.
Scott, P. (2005). The Global Dimension: Internationalising Higher
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Amsterdam: European Association for International Education and
the European Higher Education Society (EAIR). pp. 95-106.
Teichler, U. (2004). The Changing Debate on Internationalization of
Higher Education. In Higher Education, 48: 5-26.
Van Vught, F., Van der Wende, M. and Westerheijden, D.F. (2002).
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and Mutual Observations. A Festschrift in Honor of Ulrich Teichler,
ed. J. Enders and O. Fulton. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
***
38
RKA TTH-DOLENSZKY
INTERNATIONALISATION OF ESZTERHZY
KROLY COLLEGE AND THE ROLE OF
MOBILITY AND RELATED SERVICES IN THIS
PROCESS
When discussing the internationalization of higher education,
international mobility programs are obviously an integral part of the issue.
Students, lecturers and researchers have always travelled abroad and on
occasion support for the international mobility of educational/scientific
purposes is put high on the agenda of governments and international
organizations. Even so, sometimes the operation of this field is merely
regarded as a matter of course in the life of universities and colleges, the
intensity of which bears little relationship to the available financial
resources. Thus activities related to mobility might figure largely in the
financial plans of the institution but they are a less important element in
its internationalization strategies. Of course, identifying and obtaining
appropriate financial sources for the international strategy and so for the
mobility activities of an institution is of key importance but if we examine
the internationalization of higher education in its complexity at the
national, regional or the institutional level we will come to realize how
powerful a tool mobility can become to enhance development in this
process.
Small institutions in Hungary outside the capital city often have limited
possibilities to devop and maintain an extensive partner network of high
quality compared to Hungary`s large universities or, indeed, even to
smaller ones if they are located in Budapest. Despite the obstacles,
Eszterhzy Kroly College (EKC) has, over the past fifteen years, given it
a go and succeeded in establishing an efficient, effective and constantly
expanding partner network which now supports the work and growth of
assorted activities at EKC:curriculum development, research projects and
improvements in teaching methods. This paper is an attempt to illuminate
the path to increased internationalization that EKC took between 1998
39
and 2014, specifically from the perspective of mobility activities and
related services.
Professor Jane Knight defined six phases of internationalization:
awareness, commitment, planning, operationalize, review, and
reinforcement (Knight 26-28). These phases are connected and
movement between the phases may occur in both ways. I use this set of
phases in this paper as a guideline to describe the development of
internationalization at EKC with particular emphasis on the role mobility
played in its evolution. I did not take into account mobility activities
to/from Hungarian speaking regions of neighboring countries as the
background of relationships with these regions is significantly different
from that of areas and countries where other languages are spoken.
Period 1998-2002
By entering the Socrates/Erasmus Programme in 1998 (later
LLP/Erasmus and Erasmus+), the College ensured a solid base for
financing and implementing mobility activities of the institution.
Realizing the importance of the Erasmus Programme, the old bilateral
relations of the College (e.g. with the University of Erfurt) have been
revised and renewed and some new partnerships, mainly in the field of
teacher training, have been established. During the EU pre-accession
period, European relationships were given priority in Hungary, but only a
few students and teachers had the opportunity to participate in the
programme and go abroad and no significant incoming mobility took
place. The structure and support policy of the Erasmus Programme
served the continuous development of the partner networks and mobility
activity of the participating institutions but the lack of programs and
services offered to any potential incoming students put paid to any
growth in the volume of mobility in EKC`s program. No related services
were available, the institution did not have any initiatives in place to
prepare outgoing teachers or students, there was a lack of a well-
planned marketing strategy including the complete absence of
multilingual brochures attracting incoming students and staff.
The transatlantic relations of the College were remarkable but these
were based on personal contacts. Due to the lack of conscious strategic
planning, these partnerships were not particularly cost effective but rather
useful for only a small group of academics. This resulted in the loss of
these connections when both structural and personnel changes took
place in 2002. Documents of the International Relations Office of the time
show that no strategy was set up either for the utilization of mobility
results or for the development of the international activities of the college.
Management, some teachers and students did travel abroad for
40
conferences, and study trips, and did have professional links with
institutions, teachers and researchers abroad but without an articulate
focus and a system supporting mobility and the share and utilization of
results benefits from it appeared only at the personal level; the use of
financial resources was far from effective. As for the rationales for
internationalization (De Wit, 2002), political rationales for
internationalization dominated the period. Internationalization was not
high on the agenda, the attitude of the management tended to react to
trends but definitely no proactive planning took place.
Period 2002-2013
With the new management, changes occured in both the institutions
international life and its intentions. Although the College still did not draw
up an international strategy, the management had a definite idea as to
the focus and objectives of internationalization. Greater emphasis was
put on establishing new international partnerships and through them
providing more opportunities for both students and teachers of the
College.
New regulations were introduced, which saw the replacement and re-
organization of various rules governing various areas such as finance,
exams, and tuition: the Senate approved regulations on the rules of and
support for teaching and non-teaching staff travelling abroad (2003),
Erasmus regulations (2007) and the regulation of support for students
international mobility (2007). With these new regulations, mobility
activities became the flagship of internationalization at the college.
The management also worked hard to get EKC recognized as a
university, an ambitious goal; it established several internationally
recognized research groups, improved human resources and
implemented a remarkable development of the infrastructure. All these
together generated a widening of courses available in foreign languages
and further financial opportunities for teachers and researchers to enter
into the international arena.
The regulations serving also as a substitute for a phased
internationalization strategy together with the supportive political and
financial environment indicated enough development to delay the need
for a more articulated internationalization strategy. As the numbers rose
steadily both within and without the Erasmus program, there seemed to
be no need for a review of the system.
The institution made the best out of this system: it established a
partner network of over 80 international partner institutions, student
mobility grew from 4-5 incoming and outgoing students/year to 60-70
students/year in several different short-term and partial degree programs,
41
significant financial resources were available for teaching and non-
teaching staff to benefit from international conferences and professional
summits and the institution managed to organize several successful
international conferences each year, thus making international
publications and so scientific development easier than before.
Some basic services related to international mobility were set up:
housing assistance, visa and administrative assistance for incomings,
administrative support for outgoings, etc. all undertaken by the Centre
for International Relations which, had by now now, a manager and two
coordinators, supported by a colleague from the Registrars Office and
the local organization of the Erasmus Student Network. As all the
statistics demonstrated ongoing development, it is hard to identify exactly
when this system lost its potential to generate further growth but by the
end of the period it had begun to stagnate. As the system was largely
inflexible and there was no proper strategy in place to handle changes in
the environment of internationalization, unfavorable demographic trends
and the decrease of financial resources caused significant difficulties.
By the end of this period the College had made it onto the
international scene, the statistics relating to its mobility operations and
the expenses it generated belied its modest size and location. At this
point, the realization that the potential of mobility as an effective tool to
generate incomes and re-boost internationalization by improving quality
and effectiveness was of primary importance. The management realized
this and within the framework of a complex EU-financed project, a plan
was set up for the development of students and teachers foreign
language skills, curriculum development of full degree programs in
foreign languages, and for the development of human resources and
services related to international mobility. This project was continued by
the next management.
2013-today
The incoming management inherited a solid basis for further
development but to attain the goals they had to set the focus and begin a
more conscious planning of internationalization. Mobility strategies and
the development of related services took on great significance in these
plans. Experience collected over the previous years in
internationalization and analysis of weaknesses resulted in the
organizational restructuring of the Centre for International Relations, the
most important task of which was the elaboration of an
internationalization strategy. The institution has all the rationales defined
by De Wit (2002): political, economic, academic and social cultural
42
rationales create a well-balanced attitude needed for planning a
successful internationalization strategy.
The assessment of current trends, opportunities and institutional
potentials enabled the creation of a planning schedule followed by the
implementation of the strategy. The new organizational structure
simplified the preparation work required in each significant field:
international relations of the institution, curriculum development
possibilities, mobility programs and related services, and foreign
language services. The new strategy links the different fields through
services which are to support their development. Foreign language skills
of students and teachers need to be developed in order to improveboth
quality and quantity in mobility, to this end a new mentoring program has
been launched which helps academics to prepare for their conference
participation or guest teaching. By improving the self-confidence of
teachers in the international environment the institution will be able to
launch more courses and degree programs in foreign languages.
Mentoring programs for incoming and outgoing students assist in their
preparation for cultural integration in their host institution.
By having this cultural and language training for students we can
minimize the number of unsuccessful mobility periods, and those
successful ones can be of more benefit to both the mobile student and
the home institution. The change in management also saw both the
geographic and the academic focus of internationalization in the pre-
existing partnership network being revised. Economic rationales call for
the opening of new horizons. The fine-tuning of courses offered to meet
the demands of the Asian education market is a relatively new element of
the institutional strategy. Focussing on new geographical regions
required a widening of the range of easily accessible mobility services for
incomings. All services related to incoming mobility are now coordinated
by the Mobility Office, which means that incomings get all assistance and
information on housing, application, study management and
administrative issues in one office. A transparent support system can be
the deciding factor in selecting an institution for prospective students,
academics and guests.
The pre-existing partner network was revised to explore the possible
fields of higher level cooperation: the development of joint and double
degrees, bilateral academic exchange programs and implementation of
common research projects. In all these activities high quality mobility plays
a key role and the utilization of mobility output is the catalyzer of the
initiatives.
Creating an international environment at EKC that is an integral part of
the academic life is to imply further financial resources, academic
43
recognition and success for the College. When each aforementioned field
supports the success of the other the system becomes stable and flexible
enabling it to appropriately meet the challenges of the ever-changing
international environment. The abilities of the system of mobility supports
and services set up at EKC will have to demonstrate their efficiency in
the upcoming years, but for now, in the phase of the first review and
reinforcement, it seems to be an effective system worth working on.
References
***
44
KRISZTINA GODSAVE
45
arguments to levels not previously required. It is this conversational
aspect and the ability to communicate ideas in a lucid form, away from
the script, that the LCCI Oral Examinations aim to measure.
A further change in the commercial landscape is the universal
adoption of English as the Language of Business. An international
career, or even employment in a multinational company, cannot be
contemplated without an appropriate level of English.
Taking these factors into account, and bearing in mind the dynamic
nature of language and the communication tools of business, LCCI is at
the forefront of developing and constantly updating testing systems and
materials which meet the needs of learners, teachers and employers
alike. A further step on this path is the aquisition of LCCI by Pearson
Learning, which now provides access to a wealth of cutting-edge blended
learning materials.
The Pearson slogan Always Learning is indicative of an open-
minded approach to product development where assessment needs are
indentified and then met. LCCI is an enthusiastic part of this process,
providing relevant materials and delivering a robust and credible service.
***
46
ERIKA GYNGYSI-WIERSUM
Abstract
Introduction
47
1. Algebra
Students prefer solving interesting problems or puzzles while
studying. It is easier to learn mathematics if problems are taken from real
life and are illustrated with engaging pictures. If students gain satisfaction
and have fun while learning mathematics they will grow to like this
difficult subject.
Example 1.1. B) How to find out the number of your house and your
age?
1) Write down the number of your house without showing
it.
2) Double it,
3) add 5 to it,
4) multiply the result by 50,
5) add your age to it,
6) add the number of days in a non-leap year (365),
7) subtract 615.
The last two digits of the the number you arrive at represent your age,
the first digit(s) are the number of your house! The highlighted number 15
was the number of my house and 40 my age in Example 1.1. If you carry
out the instructions correctly you obtain: 1540. Try it with your house
number and age.
48
Example 1.2. B) Romeo and Juliet walk to to the same park but
Romeo does so every 18th day and Juliet every 30th day. If they they
meet on January 1, in how many days will they meet again?
2. Thinking methods
Logic puzzles can improve students logical thinking, problem solving
strategies and creativity. Moreover if we bring mathematics problems
closer to reality then it will not become an abstract science and students
will be more encouraged to learn mathematics.
If we want to be better prepared to solve unusual problems out in the
world then we need to develop our creativity. In puzzles, features of
creativity are revealed as several potential solutions need to be
considered before the solution is discovered. Puzzles are also useful in
that they are suitable to eliminate effects that may obstruct thinking.
Example 2.1. B) There is a tree and there are 100 golden apples on it.
Every night a dragon sneaks to the tree and eats two apples. Is there a
day when there are exactly 5 apples on the tree? Assuming that no new
apples grow on the tree.
Since every night the number of apples decreases by 2 therefore the
remaining number is always an even number. Hence there is not a day
when there are exactly 5 apples on the tree.
49
Example 2.2. A) Calculate.
This problem is not close to reality therefore it is considered to be
abstract. How can we adapt it to be more engaging?
3. Probability
Example 3.1. A) What do you know about independent events?
Example 3.1. B) If you toss a coin nine times and it falls tails nine
times which event is more likely?
X: it will fall tails again ten times Y: it will fall heads ten times.
If you think that the right answer is Y then you are wrong. The
probability of both events X and Y is the same, 50%, as they are
independent events and whenever a coin is tossed it falls heads or tails
without either of them being more likely to happen.
4. Geometry
Geometry originated as a practical science concerned with surveying,
measurements, areas, and volumes. Games and puzzles can be applied
with the goal of raising students' interest in Euclidean geometry.
Example 4.2. B) Draw a circle with radius 5 cm. Draw a second circle
with radius 3 cm just touching the most North-East part of the first circle.
Draw two small triangles, 4 cm apart, resting on top of the second circle.
Inside the second circle, arranged so that they are symmetrical about a
vertical line through the centre, draw these four things: a small triangle at
the centre two small circles 3 cm part, above the triangle the bottom half
of a circle, below the triangle.
50
WHAT'S MISSING?
Summary
References
***
51
FLORENCE FONTAINE CECILIA REGO
KLMN ZOLTN VCZY
52
new management protocols and biocontrol approaches. This COST
Action gathers leading multidisciplinary academic researchers and
institutes within Europe to propose new recommendations for the
management of GTD and establish Europe as a world leader in GTD
research to safeguard vineyards. This knowledge will be promoted in an
effort to increase knowledge and awareness of the problem by
disseminating information to end-users and authorities in the viticulture
sector, and to the general public.
Presently, experts from nearly 50 institutions and companies in 20
European (AT, BG, CH, CZ, DE, GR, ES, FR, HR, HU, IL, IT, MT, NL,
PL, PT, RO, SE, SI, UK) and neighbouring (Algeria) countries have
already responded to join this Action that covers the period from 2013 to
2017.
This COST Action is divided into four Working Groups (WG) which are
WG1 - Pathogen characterization, detection and epidemiology; WG2 -
Microbial ecology; WG 3 - Host-pathogen and fungus-fungus competitive
interactions; and WG4 - Disease management.
A detailed presentation of each working group by their respective
leader will be produced, outlining what we know and what we do not
know, with the aim of developing the prospects for a future European
project.
53
involved, infection and disease development) to understand the
pathogenicity/virulence mechanisms.
This European network will improve the understanding of GTD by
increasing disease data collection and developing a set of diagnostic
protocols for identification/detection of GTD.
Ensuring standard test conditions will also be crucial to determine the
virulence of individual GTD pathogens. We will also focus on
characterization of disease cycle according to climatic conditions,
identification of the sources of inocula and the route of penetration into
the plant, in order to optimize the disease management.
54
such as fungi and bacteria, can be either positive for the two types of
microorganisms or negative or, even, neutral. Determining the
relationships between the most common species colonizing the woods
would thus be helpful in determining the future pathogenic status of
grapevines.
WG 3 - Host-pathogen and fungus-fungus competitive
interactions / Leaders: Eliane Abou-Mansour, CH and Eckdard
Thines, DK.
Esca disease is attributed to a group of systematically diverse fungi
that are considered to be latent pathogens, several studies present a
comparison between the mycota of healthy and diseased plants from the
same vineyard, in order to determine which fungi become invasive as
foliar symptoms of esca appear. Esca pathogens colonize woody plants
and cause the degradation of the xylem and dieback of the host plants.
Despite the serious damage caused by the disease, the reason for
expressing strong leaf symptoms in host plants colonized by wood
destroying fungi is unknown and is still an important question in plant
physiology and phytopathology. Pathogenesis factors implicate several
molecular pathogen signatures which have been identified at biochemical
level such as enzymes and phytotoxins. Esca fungal wood pathogens
produce lignin, pectin, and cellulose degrading enzymes and release
lignin monomers. Lignin monomers act as signalling molecules in
micromolar concentrations. The perception system for these signals
remains unknow. Several toxic compounds, phytotoxins, including toxic
polysaccharides and polypeptides have been isolated from the main
fungi implicated in esca disease, but, a part of eutypine from E. lata,
toxins receptors of other phytotoxins have not yet been identified. In
response to pathogen attack grapevine develop chemical barriers by
increase polyphenols and phytoalexins in wood and leaves, structural
barriers by the formation of tyloses to stop the progression of mycelia
and a burst of oxidative reactive oxygen species which directly act as
antibiotic or as secondary stress signals leading to the induction of
various defence-related genes expression. But all these stereotypic
defense responses are not enough to stop the progression of the fungi. It
is well known that fungi have a role in symptoms development but the
question of other microbiota remains, no information is available on the
interaction between other non-pathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses and
the stimuli of phytotoxins production is still unknown. Since the repulsion
of a microbial attack by plants requires the coordinated action of
hundreds of genes, a comparative genomics will contributes to the
identification of the differences in defense strategies between tolerant
55
and sensitive plants. Identification of a molecular marker for early
diagnostic of the disease enables screening tolerant cultivars.
56
management. The main conclusion was that Grapevine Trunk Diseases
threaten viticulture and wine production in Europe. The Cost Action FA
1303 is making possible the organization of a net of European
researchers, but this is not enough to achieve the goal of a sustainable
viticulture. In this sense, it is very urgent to establish a European
Research Programme to develop sustainable strategies to control
Grapevine Trunk Diseases under the frame of the H2020 - Societal
Challenge n2 - "Food security, sustainable agriculture and forestry,
marine, maritime and inland water research and the bioeconomy.
COST must optimise all its procedures, to achieve the best quality
performance including assessment of proposals, evaluation and
monitoring of COST Actions, reducing the time from application to start of
the activities, and focusing still more on their results and impact. COST
strategy promotes integration of the best researchers in Europe,
maximising social and territorial inclusiveness and linking them within
COST countries and beyond. Specific actions for early stage researchers
and supporting skills development for innovation and competitiveness are
provided for. Individuals are fundamental to applying the strategy and
meeting the challenges. COST - researchers in COST Actions; Domain
Committee members, COST Office personnel, and any member of the
COST structure - will respect the established common European values
and ethical behaviours through the COST Code of Conduct, which allows
an adaptable and consistent application of its procedures. The strategies
of Better Cooperation together and strongly connected to
Internationalisation are one of the main goals of this mission: COST
uses research potential from all COST countries building on strengths
while facilitating access to complementary specific knowledge and
capacities. Within COST countries COST seeds opportunities to
establish long-lasting networks, in particular for early career researchers
and newly established research groups, allowing them to strengthen
effectively their capacity to be globally competitive. The
intergovernmental organisation of COST supports coordinated and
mutually consistent approaches among COST countries to respond to
major societal challenges.
COST Action is supported by the EU RTD Framework programme and
ESF provides the COST Office through an EC contract.
57
***
58
JOSEF KEEK
Abstract
Introduction
59
participation of citizen scientists (Earthwatch Institute, Citizen Science
Canada, Invasive Species Survey etc., Poudrier 2012). Silvertown (2009)
defines a citizen scientist as a volunteer who collects and/or processes
data as part of a scientific enquiry.
Since Earthwatch Institute was founded in 1971, the organisation has
recruited over 65,000 volunteers worldwide in support of 2,800 field
research projects (Earthwatch Institute, 2002). The aim of this paper is to
analyse the role of citizen scientists in the international project Mountain
Waters of the Czech Republic, over a 22-year period (1991-2012).
60
the strategy of a reasonable multi-resource management of headwaters
in the Jizera Mts. (Northern Bohemia, area of 350 km2), Keek &
Hoick (2010).
Long-term integrated monitoring (multidisciplinary ecological research
of reservoirs and streams, and processes in their catchments) is a
fundamental principle to better understanding the structure and function
of fragile mountain ecosystems as well as environmental impacts of the
air pollution (Keek & Hoick, 2006). In the period of 1991-2012, 512
volunteers world-wide (Table 1), supported by the Earthwatch Institute,
participated in 72 two-week field expeditions in the Jizera Mts. Their
activities included an integrated monitoring of the acid atmospheric
deposition in headwater catchments; detailed studies of forest hydrology
and biogeochemistry in two experimental basins (clear-cut of mature
spruce stands and reforestation); investigations of three drinking water
reservoirs related to the watershed and lake management; stabilisation of
soil erosion after the clear-cut with the spontaneous succession of
herbaceous vegetation, and the revival of traditional forestry practices.
61
Table 1: Participation of volunteers according to their country.
62
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
63
Keek, J. and Hoick, Z. (2010). Recovery of headwater catchments
and lakes affected by the acid atmospheric deposition. In
Integrated watershed management. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 200-
207.
Poudrier, C. (2012). Environmental education and catchment citizenship
in mountain regions. In: Keek, J., Haigh, M., Hofer, T & Kubin, E.
(eds) (2012) Management of Mountain Watersheds, Springer,
Dordrecht, pp. 31-37.
Kim, S., Robson, Ch, Zimmerman, T., Pierce, J. and Haber, E.M. (2011).
Creek watch: pairing usefulness and usability for successful citizen
science. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human
Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, New York, pp. 2125-2134.
Silvertown, J. (2009). A new dawn for citizen science. Trends in ecology
& evolution, 24 (9): 467-471.
American Council on Education. (2012). Mapping Internationalization on
U.S. Campuses. Center for Internationalization and Global
Engagement, ACE: Washington D.C.
***
64
ZSUZSANNA HANK LSZL KRPTI
Abstract
Introduction
65
Minority Studies has been studying the role of school and the importance
of school performance in the social integration process of Roma coping
with social disadvantages. Education plays a crucial role in the social
integration of this group. Success at school is a multi-dimensional
variable, where the influencing factors can be both external and internal.
Knowing the conditions of efficient teaching and discovering reasons for
success or failure at school allows teachers to devise and adopt methods
and schemes aimed at tackling the current poor success rate of Roma
students. Our examination of the factors influencing school performance
is based on four pillars The first component is the students biological and
psychological characteristics, including health status, mental stamina,
intellectual capacity, personality orientation, self-regulation, emotional
nature and motivation, The second factor is the teacher itself with his or
her personality, qualifications and respective social status, in addition to
professional commitment and attitude to children. In schools with a high
enrolment of Roma students it is imperative that teachers maintain a
good working relationship both with the students and their parents. The
educator due to his or her position and profession acts as a mediator
between the culture and value system of the majority and minority, The
third element crucial to academic achievement is the pedagogical
characteristics, which includes the quality of the education system, the
intertwining of theory and practice, the degree of student activity, and the
schools system of requirements. The fourth and final factor is the social
milieu with the family and its structure, its emotional atmosphere,
financial and cultural background, along with relationships inside class, or
between teacher and student. Moreover, peer interactions outside family
and school are also significant. In our present study we will examine
these criteria in detail.
Problem of Research
In our study we attempt to answer the following questions:
From a developmental and personality psychology point of view,
can there be any feature found in disadvantaged Roma students
that differs from the average biological-psychological
characteristics?
As far as educational psychology is concerned what challenges
do teachers meet when facing disadvantaged Roma families and
students, and what are the teachers attitudes toward them?
Do pedagogical programs offered by schools meet the demands
of disadvantaged Roma students from a pedagogical-
psychological point of view?
66
In terms of social psychology, how great a difference can be seen
between the average students and the disadvantaged Roma
students socialisation in the family?
The aim of this study is, firstly, to examine Hungarian publications and
references related to this topic. We chose Hungarian researchers works
for we believe that the issue should be addressed on a local level
thoroughly and efficiently. We wish to explore the Hungarian historical
traditions, approaches and stereotypes that have lead to the formation of
current opinions and beliefs. Following this, our second goal is to offer
suggestions and action plans for further discussion.
67
sleeping, playing, etc. thus the child has little to no frustration tolerance,
which is considered a key feature necessary for starting school.
Gyrgyi Bindhoffer (2012) makes it clear that in Roma societies
children have more space for moving around freely and they generally
enjoy a greater level of freedom. Consequently, adapting to the restrictive
rules of a school without any frustration tolerance is next to impossible for
them.
Ern Kllai and Lszl Kovcs (2009) found that the relatives and the
extensive family also play an important role in the socialisation of Roma
children. Thus Roma students are fully supported by their community
when confronting all kinds of problems, while facing total exclusion in
case of any difference from the rest of the communitys norms. Such
value clashes between home and school can cause an irreconcilable
conflict for Roma students.
Zsuzsa Hank (2012) states that Roma students lack a protracted
adolescence period, as they quickly find themselves treated as adults by
the family; this explains why marriage occurs at an early age. Someone
who is a child at school is an adult with all the rights this entails at home.
Repetitive absenteeism or dropping out of school entirely can also be a
source of tension between the teacher and the Roma family.
Zsolt Mogyorsi (2012) observed that within a Roma community and
family the process of socialisation is completely different and as such the
teacher needs to be prepared when handling certain situations.
Ilona Lisk (2001) reports that in the first half of the 20th century a
school representing the values of the middle classes was considered an
institution of authority in the eyes of Roma parents who were living on the
edge of society. Male teachers were held in high esteem by the Roma
community. However, today teachers are largely female and the
profession has suffered a great decline in reputation and prestige.
Consequently, among the Roma, the teachers role and profession
appears to be undervalued. Furthermore, the increase in hours required
of students to stay in school leads to greater pedagogical and
behavioural problems requiring from teachers a greater effort to handle
them. Moreover, the traditional authority-based perspective in education
has been replaced by a more democratic approach treating students and
parents as partners, a development leaving Roma parents bewildered
and confused. Members of the Roma community, far more sensitive than
the average, often find themselves in difficulty when trying to express
their feelings and opinions. This is rarely recognised and acknowledged
by teachers, which can drive a wedge between the two groups and make
further communication and acceptance arduous.
68
The authors put a great emphasis on the fact that a successful
teacher-family relationship requires the Roma family to wholeheartedly
accept the teacher. In addition, members of the Roma community also
form a layered group hierarchy just like those of non-Roma ethnicity, thus
the relationship between school and Roma parents also requires
differentiation.
Discussion
69
particular needs of Roma students must be considered when designing
the curricula.
As far as social-psychology is concerned, a tremendous distinction
can be observed in the socialisation of disadvantaged Roma families life.
Family socialisation has a pronounced effect and influence on the future
life of students, while socialisation at school seems to be of little
importance and professional socialisation is relegated to the background.
The family structure with its unique emotional environment, financial and
cultural foundation displays diversity. Many authors give an in-depth
description of the communicational confrontations between student-
student and teacher-student at school. The impact of peer interaction
both within the family and in the extracurricular domain appears
insignificant.
Conclusions
70
communication skills will aid the participants in preparing for the start of
the school year, to accept professional work within school along with
developing a career-oriented frame of mind. An additional objective is to
prepare students to meet the requirements of the life-long learning
process. This could go a long way toward the social integration of the
Roma, while maintaining group identity and independence.
References
71
Nagy, M.(2002). Cigny tanulk az iskolban. A tanrok beszlgetnek.
(Roma students in schools. Teacher conversations) Magyar
Pedaggia, 2002. 3. sz. 301-331. Budapest
Szabn Krmn, J.(2000). Csaldi s iskolai szocializci eltr
vonsai a roma gyerekek letben. (Differing features of family and
school socialization in case of Roma children) Vdn 2000/4.sz.
27-38 Budapest
***
72
PRIMA DONA HAPSARI
INTERNALIZATION STRATEGIES OF
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS OFFICE IN
PROMOTING THE CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE
IN ART EDUCATION
Abstract
73
Introduction
Over the past few decades, Indonesia has been attempting to realize
its potential, a very important aspect of this has been the identification of
education as a way to develop the Indonesian character .
We understand education to be one of the most important and
influential aspects a country must consider. The Indonesian government
is attempting to enhance the education system with a staged
improvement of the curriculum and the education system as a whole.
Indonesia has been developing the education system utilizing
strategies that will achieve competitiveness, collaboration, and creativity.
These three issues in higher education are expected to fulfill the needs
for the integrated curriculum of 2013 which, it is hoped, will produce
Indonesians who are productive, creative, innovative and effective, this
will be achieved by equipping students with the relevant skills and
knowledge required. It is not a straightforward task for the Indonesian
government to raise awareness of their dream of producing world class
universities. However, it is understood that the Ministry of Education and
Culture is strongly supporting universities by highlighting strategies that
will get them recognized as reputable universities.
To strengthen the strategic issues to achieve this goal, the Ministry of
Education and Culture of the Indonesian Republic works hard to support
each university, three programs have been flagged up as crucial to
achieving the raising of standards in Indonesian Universities: curriculum
development, strategic planning and the increased competence of
academic staff. It is these that are discussed in the current paper.
74
need to be met: international reputation for its research, international
reputation for its teaching, the institution has a number of research stars
and world leaders in their fields, it is recognized not only by other world
class universities but also outside the world of higher education,
internationally well-known programs and research, it attracts the best
students from around the world, has diversified sources of income, has a
first class management team with strategic vision and implementation
plans, generates innovative ideas and produces basic and applied
research in abundance, produces mould breaking research output
recognized by peers, produces graduates who end up in positions of
influence and/ or power, its graduates occupy important positions in
society, contributes significantly to society and humanity, continuous
benchmarks with the world's top universities and departments and has
the confidence to set its own research agenda.
ISI Yogyakarta as an art-institute attempting to negotiate with the
conditions and requirements of being noted and reputable. Although
being a world-class institute is far from being realised, it is hopefully not
beyond the expectations in the future. Therefore, ISI Yogyakarta has
been trying to accommodate and respond to the challenges.
The issue of improving the quality of university standards is a good
way to meet the criteria to be a world class university. Salmi and Liu
(2011:17) propose that besides having some aspects in optimizing better
quality standards of education, a university is considered to have
excellent competence which is able to:
75
environment for academic staff development to translate the institutional
vision into concrete targets and programs.
The Indonesian government through the Ministry of Education and
Culture is eager to answer the basic needs of better education for all
citizens. Many concepts and programs have been introduced and
socialized to enhance and support better understanding on how
important education is. Improving educational outcomes is not as easy as
implementing a one-size-fits-all exercise for the Indonesians people.
Therefore, the Ministry of Education gives many opportunities to
Indonesians to obtain a better education by providing a nine-year free
education for students. In the future, the government is expecting the
highest standard of education through the educational programs, there
will also be other possibilities for all Indonesian people to get free
education from Elementary School to University.
Academic challenges also have a positive effect on this issue. Each
university is strongly supported in managing the strategic plan and
programs in order to get the points that go towards achieving the goal of
becoming a world-class university; this includes providing the students
with scholarships, good facilities, open-access technology, as well as
supporting the academic staff in developing competency and knowledge.
There are also academic challenges that need to be addressed to meet
the criteria, i.e. tools of learning, academic environment, ever more
programs, concerns over budget, web-based information and
communication, preparedness of faculty members, facilities meeting
international standards, proactive action on identifying the potency of
networking and primary services (Sailah, 2014).
76
ISI Yogyakarta is located in a strategic-cultural city, Yogyakarta, and
tries to be a miniature art center. It allows scholars, academics, and art
experts to be involved in supporting art education. Collaborative
programs initiated with overseas partners have been successfully
developed. The Unit of International Affairs is one of the supporting
elements in organizing and managing the collaborative and partnership
programs with them. Exhibitions, music concerts, art workshops, joint-
seminars and master classes are common activities to develop and
strengthen cooperation between all.
Being an international and reputable university is an honour as well as
an immense achievement, and it is what ISI Yogyakarta expects for itself
in the future. It is not a simple task to arrive at that destination, ISI
Yogyakarta needs to develop some strategies in order to achieve the
dream. In 2011, ISI Yogyakarta was involved in creating the strategic
plans to accommodate the needs for cooperation with overseas
counterparts and parties with similar goals and objectives to becoming
noted universities on a global scale. Therefore, the Unit of International
Affairs was created in response to the need for ISI Yogyakarta to become
a reputable art institution, and to strengthen its internal and external
capacities in art education. Below are the initiative programs put in place
by the Unit of International Programs, ISI Yogyakarta to engage with the
remit of becoming an internationally reputable art-institute:
1. Collaboration and Partnership
ISI Yogyakarta has actively joined with international forums and
consortiums addressing collaborative research programs,
collaborative art-workshops, master classes, joint-curricula, student
and staff exchange program, and collaborative art performances. It is
hoped these activities enhance our competitiveness among the art-
institutes in self-development and institution management. Intellectual
and scientific development might also become other concerns related
to the partnership programs developed by ISI Yogyakarta and
overseas partners.
ISI Yogyakarta belongs to the US-Indonesia Partnership Program
initiated by both the Indonesian and US governments which has six
Indonesian universities and six US universities as members. Under
the umbrella of USIPP, ISI Yogyakarta has a great opportunity to
develop and introduce capacity and competence into their art-
education. Eco-Art has been acknowledged and comprehensively
discussed among the members of USIPP. This issue influences and
affects the roles of art-education at ISI Yogyakarta, particularly on
Eco-Art research.
77
Meanwhile, ISI Yogyakarta has also been active in the Urban
Research Plaza forum which was first initiated by Osaka City
University Japan, Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia, and ISI
Yogyakarta. Research has been carried out by these three partners to
fulfill the needs of undertaking research into urban arts and society,
and of responding to issues in art-education.
2. Quality Assurance
Quality assessment is concerned with outcomes and how good
they are. In terms of research, assessments may affect eligibility for
funding of doctoral students or participation in particular programs
(Postiglione and Jung, 2013:251). ISI Yogyakarta has graduated good
scholars and alumni who are actively working as agents of ISI
Yogyakarta. They encourage and inspire students of ISI Yogyakarta,
either local or international students, in developing positive outlooks
and understanding what needs to be done to become great artists,
performers, and academics. Through various exchange programs and
workshops, students and academic staff are expected to acquire
better skills and competence regarding their major.
The Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education
and Culture Republic of Indonesia, is responsible for developing any
efforts and funding in engaging the quality standard and condition that
ISI Yogyakarta has. Therefore, ISI Yogyakarta and the Indonesian
government should work together to bring about improvements in
academic facilities and in the working environment.
3. Marketing
ISI Yogyakarta is proud of playing host to international students
over the years. They, the students, are interested in joining us and
learning more about arts and culture. They come to Indonesia
knowing that Indonesia has got fantastic art and culture to learn about.
This is one of the marketing targets of ISI Yogyakarta and has the
potential to attract more overseas students and raise the profile of ISI
Yogyakarta and Indonesia worldwide.
Therefore, the institution has plans in place to promote itself at the
national and international level which includes taking part in a culture
exchange program instigated by the Ministry of Education and
Culture.
78
Strategies to Strengthen the Existence of the Unit of
International Affairs in Providing Better Support in Art
ducation
79
2. UUI serves as a center of information and data that is referred to
the Directorate of Higher Education, the Ministry of Education
and Culture regarding to:
2.1. Overseas activities of ISI Yogyakarta academic staffs and
students.
2.2. Activities of Memorandum of Understanding and Memorandum
of Agreement by ISI Yogyakarta and international institutions.
2.3. Activities regarding to the Agreement of Joint Degree/Double
Degree with overseas partners.
2.4. Activities regarding to the institutional accreditation/national
quality assurance.
3. UIA serves as a center of information and data that is referred to
the General Secretary of the Ministry of Education and Culture
through BPKLN (Bureau of Planning and International
Cooperation) relating to:
- UIA activities in data management, initiating activities related to
international relations, converting academic activities into
college credit points.
The criteria for UIA being successful and to bringing about the
necessary standard of art education for ISI Yogyakarta would mainly
focus onthe following:
1. Having equal occurrence and balanced relationships which are
based on equality and mutual benefit;
2. Creating sustainable long-term relationships;
3. Supporting International Accreditation;
4. Producing equal joint-degree programs
5. Able to represent the art-Indonesian universities on an
international level.
6. All the activities of both the process and outcomes are well-
documented, detailed and comprehensive so as to be reported
to the Rector and ISI Yogyakarta chairmen.
80
The Unit of International Affairs ISI Yogyakarta has been
supported by the institution to get these facilities up to the
standard expected.
However, support facilities aside, ISI Yogyakarta is proudly
developing aspects that will make it stand out from other art
institutes and thus be attractive to international students. ISI
Yogyakarta has strong departments and study programs which
have already been held in high esteem for some time due to the
competitive skills they offer and reputable alumni. It is not too far
from the truth to state that ISI Yogyakarta has captured the
attention and curiosity of the international market already.
Facilities are provided to accommodate the needs of being
recognized and of developing competence and quality. There
have already been art studios, auditoriums, work-laboratories,
galleries, halls, self-access work stations, and other art tools
installed.
1.2. Available means of publicity and promotion that have
international competitiveness. This can be through a website,
video profiles and props, and multimedia displays to
demonstrate the typical advantages of the Indonesian art-
institute.
2. Infrastructure
The International Affairs Unit staff should be given the opportunity
to develop and explore their competence by being provided with
more training programs to support the equivalent of international
relations and sustainable competitive readiness. All staff of the
International Affairs Unit have already taken part in workshops
on management and international affairs in which they gained
more understanding and knowledge of how to manage the
International Affairs Office and of being an agent for the building
of International relationships.
Conclusion
81
The Indonesian government has actively influenced the global
appreciation of Indonesian universities as reputable and word-class
institutes. The Ministry of Education and Culture is strongly supporting
universities to become world class universities by pointing out the
strategies required to be recognized and reputable universities as the
first priority of development.
ISI Yogyakarta has many opportunities to develop and establish the
potential and strength to enhance its standing internationlly. Many
collaborative and partnership programs are being actively initiated to
strengthen and promote ISI Yogyakarta in becoming a recognized and
reputable global art institute. Therefore, programs and funding which are
the routes to becoming a world-class institute should reflect the situation
and position ISI Yogyakarta in order to maintain the high standard of art
education at the institution.
References
***
82
JUDIT KELEMEN
Abstract:
83
traditions and to strengthen our national identity. These two things are
not mutually exclusive but we have to find the necessary balance.
There are two strategies for intercultural education: the first is the
cognitive side searching for that which is similar and that which is not
(NO better or worse, NO hierarchy) , the second is the affective side
passive /active reception.
A natural way to maintain the balance is through music education.
Why music? It is integrative, it is a universal language, it can help you to
connect with others and help you with self-expression and self-identity.
When speaking about music education in Hungarian schools, we must
mention Zoltn Kodly (1882-1967). He was a world-famous composer, a
collector of folksongs, a folk-music researcher, a linguist and his long-
term pedagogical system of teaching music (the so-called Kodly-
method) has become a staple in many music lessons throughout the
world. It is not a comprehensive method but a set of principles for lifelong
music education concentrating on childhood development (to describe
his concept in detail would require a separate paper).
Lets take a brief look at the main points of his approach to music
education:.
84
traditions and folk dances (short forms, pentatonic style and
simple language).
Beside Hungarian folk songs, children should also be exposed to
the music of other peoples too.
Only "good-quality" composed music is good enough to serve as
teaching material at elementary level childrens songs by great
Hungarian composers, later on works of major composers of
different music eras.
Singing in a choir (for either adults or children) can give
individuals the experience of taking part in something of artistic
value.
Kodlys dream was audience education by acquiring the basic
music skills and knowledge necessary for practising music at an
amateur level, young people also learn how to appreciate it
sensitively: music education for everyone from infants to adults.
85
children. In the first years of primary school these techniques can be
adapted but there are other possibilities as well. Children are able to
wear traditional costumes taken from their culture; they themselves are
able to sing some of those childrens songs or to demonstrate some of
those simple dance moves. Classmates can also be taught some songs
of that culture Kodalys former students (later famous composers, e.g.
Lajos Brdos and Erzsbet Sznyi) published bicinia of this type already
in the sixties: a music piece recalling the atmosphere of a Spanish
bullfight, some music pieces based on ancient Greek melodic
fragmentations or an arrangement of a characteristic Turkish tune.
Beside national and ethnic minorities, in certain parts of our country
we have to take the issue of migration into consideration. Unfortunately
there are more and more children from socially disadvantaged
backgrounds excluded from their classmates communities.
In response to these social challenges Lord Yehudi Menuhin (1916-
1999) the renowned violinist launched an international project Music in
Europe (MUS-E) in 1993 as part of a UNESCO project entitled World
Decade for Cultural Development with the subtitle of Source of Music,
Balance and Tolerance. Lord Menuhin wrote: I mean especially those
schools where problems of racial intolerance and other prejudices hold
sway, at the expense of the normal development of the childs emotions,
intellect and energy.The situation varies from country to country but
each has schools, usually in the most deprived neighbourhoods, which
suffer from the prejudices adults inflict on their children.1 This art
education project concentrates on helping children to begin the long
road to personal fulfilment through the arts music, dance, singing,
drama and visual arts. The project promotes social integration and
aims to reduce levels of violence, racism and social exclusion amongst
the young.2
This MUS-E project consists of two pillars: the Kodaly-system plus a
finished experiment (Music at School) in Switzerland involving 50
schools. (Kismartony, 2011:53) The teaching method of this project was
a kind of completed Kodaly-system emphasizing the unit of body, mind
and soul based on music, singing, dancing, drama, exercise and visual
arts. Instead of teachers, professional artists worked with the children in
these special artistic workshops introducing new ways of thinking and
creating, to stimulate childrens harmonious development3 and teachers
1
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/texts-by-menuhin/about-mus-e.html 2014-
03-16
2
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16
3
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16
86
were present to keep discipline if necessary. As a possible resource for
handling everyday conflicts Lord Menuhin emphasized the development
of imagination and fantasy instead of musical skills so the main task of
these artists was to let childrens fantasy run free instead of helping them
become professionals.
Lord Menuhin suggested this method be used mostly with primary
school children coming from challenging environments. The programme
served a social purpose utilizing the power of arts.
As in the Kodly Method singing together is very important as is
playing with rhythms or using musical instruments. Creating and playing
simple instruments by children is also part of these music lessons. This
programme features musical richness and variety: folk music, artistic and
church music etc. everything that is of value and can be of interest to
children can become a part of these music lessons.
The IYMF (International Yehudi Menuhin Foundation) now
coordinates MUS-E in 11 countries with 1,026 artists working with
59,189 children in 623 primary schools.4 After initial caution, Hungary
joined this project in 1994.
As all participating countries have to adapt these basic principles to
the local conditions, Hungary is in a special situation. Since music
education is an obligatory part of our school system, Hungary does not
suit the requirement of the central principle of this concept that a
participating school does not provide music education.
The first subject of this experiment was a class with children of 7-8
from socially disadvantaged backgrounds in Budapest. Each of these
lessons was given by the artists (first a composer, a school music
teacher, a folk dancer/choreographer, later on joining an actor and a
martial artist) one hour a week without feedback or marks. This first
phase was successful as observed through control classes and a
psychological impact study.
Besides fulfilling the compulsory curriculum not only in music but
other subjects as well pupils can attain a higher level than those in
general education even when the artists changed the curriculum to
accomodate childrens spontaneous interests and knowledge.
Musical elements taught in music lessons were strengthened in
lessons of movement culture, folk dance and creating music it was
much easier to assimilate new teaching material, scheduled to be taught
at a later date so that they could absorb this deeper.
4
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16
87
Martial arts develop self-discipline, persistence, concentration and
acceptance in children by encouraging them to adapt to the rules and
others.
As Lord Menuhin put spontaneity and using the senses at the centre
of his project, learning a new song by ear was much more important than
reading and writing music. Recorded music was prohibited in the
session, all music was performed live. Due to curriculum requirements in
Hungary, we had to modify the project a little as teaching elements of
music is required, also live music was not always available. Live music
dance houses were organised with childrens groups playing Hungarian,
Romanian and German music. Artistic productions of other children
made a deep impression on the children in the experiment. Professional
folk singers were invited to sing Gipsy, Slovakian and Hungarian
folksongs, and children listened to extracts of Four Slovakian Songs by
Bla Bartk.
Different musical instruments were demonstrated by young artists in
concerts and the childrens task was to recognise these instruments only
by ear later on.
According to Kodlys and Menuhins basic principles beside the
`musical mother tongue` children also had to get to know the music of
other peoples: they were taught Gipsy, Slovakian, French and other
national songs from the collection of European Childrens Songs (edited
by Katalin Forrai).
Thanks to the cooperation of foreign guests interested in this project,
children were exposed to Dutch, Japanese, English, Swiss, Belgian,
Argentinean and American songs too.
Japanese guests made a deep impression on the children. They
became acquainted with Japanese music, costumes and plays and, with
the assistance of their teacher they made origami figures and went to a
museum.
During dancing lessons, the singing and playing songs of Hungarian
folk traditions with folk costumes became a focus, also children were
exposed to the power of dancing for community cohesion, as well as the
importance of the family and mother-children relationship. Not only
Hungarian but Irish, Spanish, Russian and American dances were taught
too with the help of video recordings.
Musicmaking workshops developed musical memory, concentration,
music improvisation, rhythmic skills and small orchestras were formed.
The project helped with ethnic conflicts, too. As children encountered
problem in the course of the lessons, they were able to discuss them with
the artists and come up with solutions together. With effective
communication it was possible to deal with concrete and important
88
themes that the children were interested in. Artists could assist children
with their own methods, for example with role motivation or association
games, drawing etc.
A follow-up study on the impact of this project on children was
undertaken by Dr. Magda Kalmr on behalf of the Hungarian Music
Council. She assessed three classes from the first and fourth year: a
MUS-E class, a class specialising in music and a general class. At the
end of the fourth year the higher levels of originality and creativity of the
MUS-E class were clearly observable against control classes
(Kismartony, 2011:53).
There was another study produced in 2011 researching this first
period of the MUS-E project from the viewpoint of the adults participating
(Kismartony, 2011:51-71). The author herself took part in this project,
and so positive was her experience that her attitude to music education
changed.
Although it is not possible here to describe the study in its entirety,
some of the more important findings are listed below:
89
There was a Gipsy boy whose musician parents wanted him to
become a musician too. He was very good at maths, visual arts
and the Hungarian language and after this project teachers
persuaded the parents to change their minds. Today this boy
studies law and politics at university.
During dance lessons children learned some basic moves and
later tried to improvise on them. They liked it very much and were
more creative than the average. This creativity partly came from
their musicality, and partly was a result of other artistic
workshops.
After the first four years the programme had to be moved to other
schools and other towns for different reasons. There were some schools
where circumstances were too good or other places where the school
was reorganised. Unfortunately there have been no follow-up studies or
other documents available from that time. However, we can be sure of
the power of art education and its positive impact on the personality,
creativity and other skills of children, even if they live live within a
different culture.
References:
90
Tudomnyos Kzlemnyei XXXIII. NEKZENENEVELS 2011
(ed. Dbrssy Jnos) ISSN 1587-4249 ISSN 2063-0794, 51-71. p.
Kodly, Zoltn. Visszatekints sszegyjttt rsok, beszdek,
nyilatkozatok. I-II. (szerk. Bnis Ferenc) Zenemkiad, Budapest,
1982.
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/ 2014-02-16
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/texts-by-menuhin/about-mus-e.html
2014-03-16
***
91
ANDREA SCHMIDT
92
Acceptance of foreign students has benefits noticable at several levels.
At the institutional level it can balance the growing costs of the
maintenance of the universities and substitute decreasing governmental
support. On the other hand, on the societal level it can serve as an
important financial commodity. According to calculations, international
students contributed approximately 19 billion USD to the US economy,
while in the UK it contributed an extra 14 billion USD to the economy in
2012. (Pozsgai et al, 2011)
Accepting international students can be a good solution for
demographic decline as it can ensure teachers and lecturers have
employment. Foreign students can also bring new perspectives to the
classroom experience in two ways; home students can get new impulses
working in mixed group of students coming from various countries, while
outgoing students can familiarize themselves with the different cultures
and behaviour of the international students. Armed with this experience
students can help their future employability on the international labour
market.
It is always a great challenge to establish a new programme
conducted in a foreign language, targeted at international students while
working in close cooperation with colleagues from different parts of the
world, or at least the European continent. On top of this, problems can
also arise with the different rules and legislation concerning higher
education in different states, be they EU members or not. It is also
difficult at times to locate common reference points using the European
Unions recommendation for several detailed issues. Working on our
international joint MA programme, we came to realise that even the
principles of opening international programmes with international
participants, or at least establishing a consortium in order to begin the
work, could cause misunderstanding due to inconsistencies between EU
recommendations, the text of the constitution, the theoretical and legal
basis and the proposed programme.
Anoother obstacle is the lack of a European Union common
educational policy, thus leaving matters of education to member states.
(March, 2012) Learning about history and culture as well as studying
geography and social subjects is seen as a powerful instrument in
constructuring identity on a national, and sometimes also on a regional
level as Zdzisaw Mach, the head of the European Institute of the
Jagiellonian University from Cracow, Poland, writes. In his work he also
states that nation states are reluctant to delegate any of their
competences in the field of education to European istitutions.
Theoretically it is a remarkable aim to create a common European
educational space without which the fundamental European value of the
93
freedom of movement and free choice of place of residence will be an
empty slogan.
What are those tools that are essential to facilitate the fulfillment of
these aims?
First of all, the young (and not so young) must have their
educational achievements recognised in order to be employable
throughout Europe.
We have to develop curricula which can be understood in all EU
countries and which meets the standards, and respects the
cultures of, individual states. .
94
opportunity to pursue their studies in a dynamically developing,
convertible European higher educational system. The traditional college
and university level training programmes were replaced by a three-tier
system consisting of a basic training programme (BA, BSc), a masters
level programme (MA, MSc), and doctoral level (PhD, DLA) programme.
Due to the credit system, first introduced in Hungary in Pcs, an
increasing number of Hungarian students participate in international
study programmes as an integral part of their education, and likewise, an
increasing number of international students and researchers come to the
University of Pcs to study and conduct research every year.1
The total number of students studying at Pcs reached 27,000 in
2011, of which approximately 1,764 student came from countries other
than Hungary. If we calculate the proportion of foreign students from the
total student population we can see that 6.5% of the students of the
University of Pcs came from different parts of the world in 2011. The
dispersion of students is not distributed equally among the different
faculties, and there are countries that are disproportionately represented.
The largest international student groups usually come from Germany,
Norway, Iran, Serbia and South Korea. The most popular faculties are
the Medical School with 50% of foreign students (1,425 from 2,912) and
the Faculty of Humanities with 169 foreign students. The University of
Pcs has several international programmes most of which are conducted
in English
1
http://english.pte.hu/menu/25
95
Source: http://english.pte.hu/index.php?p=contents&cid=840
Source: http://english.pte.hu/index.php?p=contents&cid=840
96
While the Medical Faculty is in quite a strong position in international
programmes, there is a lack of programmes conducted in foreign
languages at the other 9 faculties. There are three different programmes
conducted in English at the Faculty of Business and Economics at the
three levels; a BSc programme in Business Administration which is a
combined programme with Middlesex University offering degrees
awarded by both participating universities. There is an MSc programme
in Applied Management with guest lecturers from all over the world. Apart
from these programmes students can study at doctoral level, too. There
are several students from Hungary and from abroad who complete the
doctoral programme in English and obtain their qualification.
Apart from these two faculties, the Faculty of Humanities also offers
programmes conducted in foreign languages. However, most of these
programmes are organised in German and the target group is teachers
belonging to the German ethnic minority. The Faculty of Humanities is
underrepresented in joint and dual BA and MA programmes.
Students can also study in English at the Department of Political
Studies, since September, 2013 the International Relations MA
programme has also been taught in English. However it is evident that
the Faculty of Humanities is under-represented in the field of Joint MA
Programes in comparison with other foregin universities in the Visegrad
region. Thats the reason why the proposed cooperation with the
Jagiellonian University from Krakw (Poland), the Masaryk University
from Brno (Czech Republic) and Matej Bel University from Banska
Bystrica (Slovakia) to open a common joint MA programme focusing on
the Visegrad perspective is much anticipated. Year after year most
students coming into the faculty of Social Sciences are eager to
participate in the courses the Department offers in English. The
International Relations programme at BA and MA levels also requires
good language skills from the arriving students. From the statistical data
on incoming Hungarian students it is also clear that from the whole
faculty the IR programme is by far the most popular with the greatest
intake of international students.2
The University of Pcs has ten different faculties. One of them, the
Faculty of Adult Education and Human Resources Development also
prepared a common international programme. However, this dual MA
programme will be conducted in German as the partner university is from
2
From February, 2014 the program conducted in English had only two participants from
two different states, as is illustrated in the statistical data and from the applications from
September, 2014 we will have approximately 20-24 students participating in the
programme making it by far the most popular programme for foreign students at the
Faculty of Humanities.
97
Germany (Hochschule Zittau/Grlitz). Within the framework of this dual
MA programme students can study Kultur und Management in German
in Germany and Cultural Mediation in English and German in Pcs.
As is apparent from the examples abovef the University of Pcs is still
very much in the early stages of preparing its dual and joint programmes,
however it is strongly supported and financed by the European Union.
Working together with the partner universities in the preparation process
of our International Relations programme we had a wide range of
experiences. Firstly of all we quickly realised that joint programmes and
double degree programmes had become popular in the Czech Republic,
Slovakia and Poland, while in Hungary they had scarcely made a ripple.
This did not prove too much of a handicap as we swiftly obtained the
necessary skills through practice. The fact that we could have all our
queries responded to quickly and directly was of great assistance.
Discussing the details of the programme, it soon became evident to us,
the Hungarian partner, that the legal basis was also similar but there
were differences, too. If we wanted to interpret the words of the Act, the
Hungarian State with the acceptance of the Bologna System and the
European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) the Hungarian universities
became open to the contribution with foreign universities and to accept
foreign students. However theory and the practice were quite different.
Nevertheless, the increasing number of common (joint or dual)
programmes would require the revision of the whole accreditation
system. Currently it is relatively easy to establish common international
programmes yet as the government gradually withdraws from financing
higher education the universities need to find new sources of funding.
There are several projects for the establishing of common international
programmes based on the conviction of the necessity of new
experiences, practices initiated and financed by the European Union.
These projects can incorporate the addition of new core curriculums, new
regions and students can learn of these programmes; cooperation within
the potential partner universities can result a new field of education.
There are some misunderstandings with the accreditation process. It is
true that there are attempts to handle the question of accreditation, but
the various layers of decision making are proving an obstacle. There are
too many actors in the process with limited willingness to compromise
their positions. It is also problematic, that the question of accreditation
includes the involvement of international teams. A practice already
followed in medical faculties and clinics all over Europe, but at Hungarian
universities the principles of quality assurance is at a very initial stage.
There are several fears and doubts voiced mostly by members of the
98
Hungarian Accreditation Committee. We also had to confront most of
them. These are the following:
1. There can be differences in the length of the academic year at
the different instituions making it difficult to ensure that terms
follow one another at the participating universities We found this
to be one of the most difficult questions. Our students have to
spend the four terms in four different countries at four different
universities.
2. There can be differences in the process of examination and
evaluation. Sometimes a single essay can be enough to obtain
the final degree, while some universities require a final (state)
exam. It was also a great challenge to adapt the four different
types of evaluation, how to equate the numbers and letters. Apart
from this, the three other universities dont give any kind of
evaluation on the diploma bar passed or failed
3. It is also important to ascertain whether students are required to
pay tuition fees at the partner universities for further terms during
their studies. This was the easisest problem to solve, as
programmes conducted in a foreign language at universities can
request a tuition fee.
4. Sometimes the language skills are not good enough to
participate in programmes conducted in foreign languages.
According to the European Statistical data 75 % of the Hungarian
population between the ages of 24 and 64 doesnt speak any
foreign language. However, in order to get a degree it is
mandatory to have at least one exam on one foreign language at
intermediate level, so these numbers will improve in years to
come. In our experience, if somebody wants to study IR it is
evident that he or she needs to be comfortable communicating in
several languages. Looking through the applications to our
programme, prospective students are applying with two or three
language exams at B2 level or above.
5. Hungary could lose its best students as once their studies finish
and they obtain their joint degrees they will not be willing to
return. It is a much more complex question that is strongly
connected with the questions of the financial policy of the
Hungarian higher education system and whether students are
optimistic about their future careers.
It would be also essential to harmonize the work of the Hungarian
Accreditation Committee with the work of the European Consortium for
Accreditation (ECA). ECA was founded in 2003. Its aims are as follows:
1. mutual recognition of accreditation decisions.
99
2. mutual learning and disseminating best practices in accreditation;
3. providing transparent information on quality and supporting
internationalisation of institutions and students3
Despite these fears, the former president of the Hungarian
Accreditation Committee believed it essential for Hungarian universities
to begin working with foreign-based partner universities in order to create
joint programmes in all fields of studies. Of course, the initial steps can
be difficult and risky. Sometimes a university cannot afford to finance
preparatory meetings of potential partners. Fortunately, there are
resources now to facilitate such initial contacts. In our case we, as the
members of the Visegrad region chose the most obvious solution and
applied to the International Visegrad Fund. Our programme was awarded
the VUSG Joint Degree Programmes Grant in June 2013, the first grant
of its kind.4 Thanks to this financial assistance we are even able to award
the most promising applications with scholarships.
In conclusion, we can remark that the willingness and initiative to
create joint programmes is evident among members of institutes of
higher education, nevertheless there are various ways in which to
instigate such cooperation. Hungary as a EU member state signed up to
the Bologna system and opened up Hungarian universities to
international students, but it is going to take time to popularise the joint
programmes. With the VNDREAM project5 the University of Pcs has
taken a great leap forward towards the development and deepening of
this new type of contribution.
References:
Birtwistle, Tim (2012). Europe 2020 and the Eastern Partnership: focus
on education, training, youth and employment. In: The Eatern
Partneship and the Europe 2020 Strategy, visions of leading
policymakers and academics, European Commission, Directore-
General for Education and Cultire, Louxemburg, 2012 pp. 133-145.
Gl, Zoltn (2007). Regional dimension of investment in research the
case of Southern Transdanubian knowledge base. In: Milford,
Susan Tarrsy, Istvn eds. European Higher Education in a
Changing World a View from the Danube Region, 4th DRC
(Danube Rectors Conference) Summer School on Regional Co-
operation). Publikon Books, Pcs- Vienna 2007 pp. 23-37.
3
http://www.ecaconsortium.net/main/about-eca
4
For more details: http://visegradstudies.eu/the-consortium/
5
Visegrad Network of Research Education and Mobility www.vndreamproject.eu
100
Gl, Zoltn (2010). The role of research universities in regional
innovation: The case of Southern Transdanubia. In: Longworth,
Norman Osborne, Michael eds.: Perspectives on Learning Cities
and Regions Policy, practice and participation, NIACE, Leicester,
2010, pp. 84 105.
Mach, Zdzisaw (2012). Towards a common education area in the
Visegrad region. (New modalities of co-operation within
international relations and European studies programmes),
Wydawnictwo Promo, Cracow, 2012, pp. 9-11.
Gyngyi Pozsgai Attila Kajos Tmea Nmeth: University of Pcs,
Pcs: The role of creating a multicultural university environment in
the era of crisis,
http://www.uneecc.org/htmls/v_uneecc_general_assembly_and_co
nference_presentations.html
http://english.pte.hu/index.php?p=contents&cid=840
http://english.pte.hu/menu/25
http://www.ecaconsortium.net/main/about-eca
***
101
PETRSOVITS GNES
Abstract
102
academics self-esteem and confidence and increase their
motivation to further improve themselves.
It is also possible to combine foreign language training
with intercultural training when required.
103
a jelentkezktl, hogy a regisztrcis lapon pontosan jelljk meg, milyen
esemnyre kszlnek, milyen hatridvel, s milyen segtsget krnek a
kitztt cl megvalstshoz. A szolgltats csak abban az esetben
trtsmentes, ha a kitztt cl (elads, kurzustarts stb.) megvalsul.
Lehetsg van az alkalmak (3-5) szmnak emelsre is, kedvez dja-
zs ellenben.
A trning tartalmi elemei a rsztvev szksgleteinek fggvnyben
vltozak lehetnek. Gyakran szksg van pldul a prezentcik nyelv-
hasznlatnak megismersre az adott nyelven. Ilyenkor ttekintjk azt a
szkszletet, azokat a kifejezseket s egsz mondatokat, amelyek se-
gtsgvel bevezethetjk, a hallgatsg szmra kvethetbben struktu-
rlhatjuk, illetve lezrhatjuk eladsunkat, vagy amelyekkel kiemelhetnk
bizonyos, klnsen fontosnak tartott informcikat. Szksg esetn
kitrnk a tblzatok, grafikonok, diagramok szbeli interpretlsnak
kellkeire, megbeszljk, hogyan tmrthet legjobban az adott nyelven
az elads tartalma a dikon, vagy ppen fordtva; gyakoroljuk a dik
tartalmnak sszefgg szvegknt val eladst. Segtsget nyjtunk
a kiejtsi nehzsgek thidalsban, gyakoroljuk a prezentci elad-
st, mg egy gynevezett fprba lehetsgt is felknljuk, amikor
dikokbl vagy kollgkbl szervezett szkebb kznsg eltt eladhat-
jk prezentcijukat, hiszen mindenki tisztban van vele, hogy cskken a
lmpalz, ha mr nem elszr tartunk meg egy eladst.
Ms mdokon is prblunk hozzjrulni a mentlis felkszlshez.
Igyeksznk lecsendesteni az eladsra kszlben megbv bels kriti-
kus hangjt, ha az tlzottan ers, mert az izgalomnak betudhat tlzott
nkritika vagy nbizalomhiny nha kpes hossz hetek munkjt romba
dnteni. Tudatostjuk, hogy a cl nem a tkletessg elrse, hanem a
fejlds, a megalapozott nbizalom megszerzse a nyelvi eszkzk be-
gyakorlsn keresztl. A kitztt cl elrse, a pozitv lmnyekkel val
gazdagods pedig motivcit jelent az egyn tovbbi fejldshez, nfej-
lesztshez.
A program ksrleti szakaszban van, de remljk, hogy hathats se-
gtsget tudunk nyjtani kollginknak tudomnyos tevkenysgk sz-
lestshez s a sikeres tudomnyos plyafutsukhoz nlklzhetetlen
egyni fejldshez. A kapott visszajelzsek pozitvak, a program fbb
ernyei kztt emltik a rugalmassgot, az egyni szksgleteknek meg-
felelen szemlyre szabott tartalmakat, valamint a mentorok tmogat,
megerst hozzllst.
Pillanatnyilag a figyelem a kls segtsg s gyakorlsi lehetsg nl-
kl nehezen fejleszthet szbeli kszsgekre sszpontosul, de hosszabb
tv terveinkben szerepel az is, hogy idegen nyelv publikcikhoz is
fordulhassanak hozznk segtsgrt. A kvetkez tanvtl, igny szerint,
104
a nyelvi trning interkulturlis trninggel is kiegszlhet az EKF NKK
Mobilits Irodja bevonsval.
***
105
TTH VA
Abstract
Bevezets
106
nmet, orosz nyelvbl volt rdeklds a coaching-mentoring program
irnt. E tanulmny az orosz nyelvi programrl kvn tjkoztatst adni.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln foly nyelvi coaching-mentoring prog-
ram bemutatsa eltt azonban fontosnak s szksgesnek tartjuk, hogy
ltalnossgban is szljunk magrl a coaching mfajrl, az idegen
nyelvi/ nyelvi coaching sajtossgairl, mivel manapsg nagyon npsze-
r ez az j lehetsg, de keveset tudunk rla.
107
A coaching fogalma a Nemzetkzi Coach Szvetsg (ICF) szerint:
A professzionlis coaching olyan szakmai kapcsolat, amely abban se-
gti az gyfelet, hogy kiemelked eredmnyeket rjen el akr a magn-
letben, akr a munkjban, vagy abban a szervezetben, ahol dolgozik.
A coaching folyamat sorn az gyfl elmlyti tudst, nveli teljestm-
nyt, s mindezek eredmnyeknt javul az letminsge. Minden tall-
kozskor az gyfl vlasztja meg a beszlgets fkuszt, mg a coach
figyelmesen hallgatja, megfigyelseit visszajelzi, s legfkppen krd-
seket tesz fel. Ez az interakci egyrszt segti az gyfelet abban, hogy
vilgosabban lsson, msrszt akcira/ tevkenysgre serkenti. A
coaching folyamata a fkusz s a vlasztsi lehetsgek bvtsvel
felgyorstja az gyfl fejldst. A coaching arra koncentrl, hogy vil-
goss vljon hol tart most az gyfl, s mit akar tenni annak rdekben,
hogy eljusson oda, ahov el szeretne rni. A coaching folyamat eredm-
nye az gyfl eredmnye, azaz szndknak, vlasztsnak s akcii-
nak/ tevkenysgeinek a kvetkezmnye, amelyet a coach, mint a fo-
lyamat szakrtje tmogatott. [2]
Magyarorszgon 2000 tjn kezdett megjelenni a kifejezs a tancs-
adi, trneri krben. A coaching olyan tancsad tevkenysg
/tancsadsi folyamat/, amely sajtos eszkzeivel az egyn nll fela-
datmegoldst segti el, tmogatja akr az rintett szemly (rintet-
tek) ismereteinek kiegsztsvel is s elvezeti az egynt az optimlis
dntshez, clja megvalstshoz (Por, 2007)[3]. A tancsadssal
(coach-tevkenysggel) foglalkoz kzlemnyek kettvlasztjk a kvl-
rl jv s bellrl megvalsul tevkenysget. A cg bels llomny-
bl "rkez" coach-ot mentornak, az ltala elltott tevkenysget pedig
mentoring-nak nevezik. A mentoring bels vllalati tancsad tevkeny-
sg (bels coaching), amit a mentor (bels coach) valst meg. A
coaching-nak tbb fajtjt is ismerjk gymint: business coaching /zleti/,
life coaching /magnleti/, health coaching /egszsg/, stb. s ma mr
haznkban elterjedt a nyelvi /idegen nyelvi/ coaching is, ami egy jabb
hungarikum.
108
ds nem tartozik annyira a karriert befolysol tnyezk kz, mint pl-
dul Magyarorszgon. Nagyon sok dolgoz s munkt keres ember
kzd olyan gondokkal a plyjn, amelyeket nyelvtudsbeli hinyoss-
gai, gtlsai okoznak. Ezeket a szksgleteket ismerte fel munkja so-
rn, business coachknt Kiss Ildik, a Language Coach Academy alap-
tja, s ltrehozta iskoljt, ahol a coaching szakma s a nyelvi szakrti
tuds, tapasztalat trstsval dolgozta ki a nyelvi coaching mdszerta-
nt. A mdszertan kidolgozsban gyakorl nyelvtanrok is rszt vesz-
nek, akik mr coachknt, nyelvi coachknt is dolgoznak. A nyelvi
coaching mdszertannak alapjait kt olyan sikeresen mkd coaching
modell adja, amely gazdag tapasztalati s szakirodalmi httrrel rendel-
kezik: ezek az gynevezett GROW modell, valamint a megolds fkusz
coaching modell. A kvetkez elem a pozitv pszicholgia, vgl pedig a
nyelvi coach szakrtelme.[5]
109
A nyelvi coaching sorn egyre nagyobb szerepet kap a coachee
egyni ignyeire sszevlogatott szakanyag, (mint a hagyom-
nyos nyelvknyv). A nyelvi coach mint nyelvi szakrt ehhez ke-
res illeszked gyakorlatokat, illetve ajnl egyb hasznos cikkeket,
honlapokat s tanulsi technikkat.
A nyelvi coach olyan szakkpzett, egy-egy szaknyelvi terletet jl
ismer, tapasztalt nyelvtanr, aki rdekldik a nyelvi fejleszts j,
tt megoldsai irnt. Kulcsfontossg a msok ignyeire r-
hangoldni tuds s a j kommunikcis kszsg. A nyelvi coach
arra trekszik, hogy mindig megoldskzpont s
nbizalomnvel mdon kezelje a felmerl problmkat. [6]
110
Az orosz nyelvi coaching-mentoring program bemutatsa:
111
A coaching alkalmak a ksrletezsre is lehetsget adtak, ahol a
hibs lpsek vagy elakadsok kivl lehetsget nyjtottak az
nismeretre, a bels erforrsok felfedezsre, azaz a kollgk
fejldsre.
A szmos coaching folyamatmodell kzl mi a GROW modell alapjn
dolgoztunk.
A GROW modellt is Sir John Whitmore dolgozta ki. Az angol GROW
sz jelentse nvekeds, halads, fejlds.
GROW-modell
Goals a cl meghatrozsa
Reality a jelenlegi helyzet feltrsa
Options a lehetsgek szmbavtele
Wrapup, What (will you do) Mit fog/fognak tenni?
Goals a cl meghatrozsa
a kollgk meghatroztk a coach segtsgvel az ltaluk v-
gyott jvkpet, kijelltk az irnyt, a megvalstand clt.
112
ts-helyesrs alapvet tudnivalit. A szksges nyelvtani ismereteket is
szmba vettk s megbeszltk, hogy milyen mdszerrel lehet aktivizlni
a korbbi nyelvtudst. A tmk kzl a bemutatkozsra, a munkahelyre
s a szaktantrgyakra vonatkoz szkincs feleleventse, fejlesztse volt
az elrend cl. Ezen kvl a szbeli kommunikcihoz szksges nyelvi
funkcik rendszerezshez s az orszgismereti tudnivalk aktualizl-
shoz szksges nyelvi eszkzk elsajttsnak lehetsges mdszerei-
vel foglalkoztunk. Vgezetl pedig az idegen nyelv eladshoz szks-
ges tartalmi s formai elemek kerltek megbeszlsre.
A kollgk rtkelse alapjn elmondhat, hogy egy sikeres
coaching-mentoring programot zrhattunk, ahol mind a kt fl,- a
coaching folyamatban rszvev kollgk s jmagam is, aki coach-knt
mkdtem kzre- sok, hasznosthat, j tapasztalattal gazdagodott. Jl
es rzssel nyugtzhattuk azt is, hogy elrtk a kollgk a kitztt clt.
Felhasznlt irodalom:
113
5. http://www.ohe.hu/hrmagazin/cikkek/2in1-azaz-coach-es-nyelvtanar-
egyben
6. http://coachszemle.hu/iranyok-88/99-a-nyelvi-coaching-mint-a-nyelvi-
fejlesztes-uj-modja
7. http://coachszemle.hu/iranyok-88/99-a-nyelvi-coaching-mint-a-nyelvi-
fejlesztes-uj-modja
8. http://nyelvi-coaching.hu/nyelvi-coaching-bemutatkozs/
9. http://www.coachkor.eu/coaching.html
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GROW_model [2]
***
114
PETRSOVITS GNES
Abstract
115
gyar dikok szmra. Hossz-hossz veken t (nha 11-12 ven t is)
vesznek rszt nyelvrkon iskolai keretek kztt, m az eredmny mesz-
sze nem kielgt.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskolra felvtelt nyert hallgatk tbbsge ta-
nulmnyaik megkezdsekor nem rendelkezik a diploma megszerzsnek
feltteleknt elrt ltalnos s/vagy szakmai nyelvvizsgval, s tuds-
szintje meg sem kzelti a minimumknt elrt B2 szintet, ezrt nagy
szksg van arra, hogy a hallgatk segtsget kapjanak idegen nyelvi
kszsgeik fejlesztshez. Klnsen igaz ez azon szakok esetben,
melyek egynl tbb nyelvvizsgt rnak el kimeneti kvetelmnyknt.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskola, tudatban annak, hogy milyen komoly
anyagi ldozatokat kvetel az iskolai kereteken kvli nyelvtanuls, 4
flven t tmogatja hallgatit trtsmentesen ltogathat, heti 4 rs
idegen nyelvi kurzusokkal. A knlatban egyrszt ltalnos nyelvi kurzu-
sok szerepelnek 6 klnbz szinten, 5 klnbz nyelvbl (angol, n-
met, francia, orosz s knai), msrszt szaknyelvi kurzusok (zleti, turiz-
mus, informatika) angol, nmet s orosz nyelvbl. A hallgatknak lehet-
sgk van arra is, hogy helyben nyelvvizsgt tegyenek, hiszen az intz-
mny a BGF, az ECL, az Origo s a Goethe nyelvvizsgk akkreditlt
vizsgahelye.
A szksges nyelvvizsgval mr rendelkez hallgatk sem esnek el a
tovbbi, ingyenes nyelvtanulsi lehetsgtl, a nyelvtanri kapacitsok
fggvnyben szmukra is hirdetnk kurzusokat, melyeket a 4 felvehet
flv keretei kztt ltogathatnak.
Sajnos az az orszgosan jellemz jelensg, hogy a hallgatk jelen-
tsnek mondhat rsze az elrt nyelvvizsga bizonytvny hinyban
nem veheti t diplomjt a felsfok tanulmnyai vgeztvel, a mi intz-
mnynkben is tapasztalhat. Ezrt megvizsgltuk, milyen szervezeti,
oktatsszervezsi s mdszertani innovcik segtsgvel lehetne az
idegen nyelvtantst/tanulst hatkonyabb tenni intzmnynkben.
A vltoztatsok egyik els lpseknt 2013 nyarn ltrehoztuk az
Idegen Nyelvi Kommunikcis Intzetet, amely lehetv tette az emberi
erforrsok hatkonyabb kihasznlst azltal, hogy a korbban a k-
lnbz karokon szttagoltan mkd nyelvtanri kapacitsokat ssze-
vontuk. Egysgestettk nyelvenknt s szintenknt a tananyagot, a k-
vetelmnyeket s a teljestmnymrs mdszereit. Ennek eredmnye-
knt a kurzusokon rsztvev hallgatk pontosabb visszajelzst kapnak
haladsukrl.
A hallgatkat szintfelmr eredmnyk alapjn soroljuk be a tuds-
szintjknek megfelel ltalnos nyelvi kurzusokba, s a flv sorn elrt
eredmnyeik tlaga el kell, hogy rje a 60%-ot ahhoz, hogy tovbb lp-
hessenek a kvetkez szint kurzusra. Sajnos, a kurzust nem teljestk
116
arnya magas, 30% krli, fggetlenl az adott kurzus nehzsgi szintj-
tl. Taln meglep, hogy a nem teljestk szinte mindegyike kurzuselha-
gy, vagyis a flv kzben valami okbl kimarad a kurzusrl. A kurzust
vgigcsinlk szinte 100%-ban megfelel szinten teljesteni tudjk a kur-
zuszr rsbeli s szbeli szintfelmrt. Egy plyzat keretn bell a
nyelvtanulsi sikertelensg lehetsges okairl nemrgiben felmrs k-
szlt a hallgatk krben. A kapott adatok feldolgozsa s elemzse
folyamatban van, a konklzik tovbbi tmutatst jelentenek majd sz-
munkra, arra vonatkozan, mit is tehetnk a nyelvtants/tanuls hat-
konysgnak tovbbi javtsa rdekben.
A szksges nyelvvizsgval nem rendelkezk szmra kritriumkve-
telmny a nyelvi kurzusok ltogatsa, amennyiben a hallgat nem teljes-
ti a 4 flvet, nem bocsthat zrvizsgra. A megfelel eredmny el-
rsnek egyik nlklzhetetlen felttele a megfelel tanuli motivltsg,
melyet bizonyos mrtkig nvelhet a kvetelmnyek formjban jelent-
kez kls nyoms, de ez nmagban ritkn elegend. Ezt tmasztja al
az fent emltett a tny is, hogy sok hallgat nem teljesti a diploma meg-
szerzshez elrt nyelvi kvetelmnyeket, st a kritriumkvetelmny-
knt megszabott 4 flvet sem. Ezrt a kvetelmnyek mellett fontos,
hogy legyenek egyb motivl tnyezk is.
Amita Magyarorszg az Eurpai Uni tagja lett, llampolgrai sz-
mra knnyebb vlt az utazs, a klfldi munkavllals vagy tanuls is.
Globalizlt vilgunkban az informci-ramls hihetetlenl felgyorsult, az
informatika forradalmastotta az informcihoz val hozzfrs lehets-
geit. m ezen pozitv vltozsok elnyeit igazn csak az tudja lvezni,
aki rendelkezik az ehhez szksges nyelvtudssal. Ezen tnyezk soka-
kat motivlnak arra, hogy fejlesszk meglv nyelvtudsukat, ennek el-
lenre a nyelvrkon szmtalanszor talljuk szembe magunkat azzal,
hogy a dikok nem rtik, mirt kell nekik idegen nyelvet tanulniuk? A
nyelvtanuls idignyes s rendkvl fraszt foglalatossg, klnsen
azok szmra, akik nincsenek tudatban a nyelvtuds jelentsgnek.
Abban, hogy a nyelvtanuls szksgessge mg egyltaln krds le-
het, valsznleg szerepet jtszik az is, hogy Magyarorszg npessge
meglehetsen homogn, a multikulturlis krnyezet nem naponta meglt
lmny s tapasztalat a felnvekv nemzedkek szmra. Az is tny,
hogy a fiskolai hallgatknak j rsze csaldi vagy anyagi okok miatt
mg soha nem jrt az orszghatron kvl, soha semmilyen mdon nem
kerlt kapcsolatba klfldiekkel, s soha nem kerlt olyan helyzetbe,
amikor a vals letben szksgt rezhette volna annak, hogy kpes
legyen idegen nyelven kommuniklni. Teht a nyelvtants mellett az is
feladatunk, hogy tudatostsuk a hallgatkban, mirt rtk az idegen nyel-
vek ismerete, s meg kell prblnunk minl tbb olyan helyzetet terem-
117
teni, amelyben a nyelvtanulk felismerhetik, hogy nem az iskolnak ta-
nulnak, hanem azrt, hogy birtokukba vehessenek egy olyan eszkzt,
amely segti boldogulsukat plyjuk s magnletk sorn egyarnt.
Alkalmat kell teremtennk, hogy ezt az eszkzt hasznlatba is vegyk,
vagyis vals helyzetekben a gyakorlatba is tltethessk megszerzett
elmleti tudsukat.
Ebben jelents szerepe lehet a klnbz, klfldi tanulsi lehets-
get biztost programoknak, mint pldul az Erasmus program, amelybl
a hallgatk szmos mdon profitlhatnak. A programban val rszvtel
kivl lehetsg a nyelvtuds fejlesztsre, a nemzetkzi krnyezetben
trtn tapasztalatszerzsre. Ezrt fontos, hogy segtsnk a hallgatknak
eljutni a dntsig, hogy belevgjanak egy ilyen vllalkozsba. Segte-
nnk kell, hogy elhiggyk, rdemes energit fektetni a nyelvtudsuk gya-
raptsba, mert akkor meg tudnak felelni a kihvsnak, amit egy klfld-
n tlttt szemeszter jelent, s nem csak tl tudjk lni, de lvezni is fog-
jk azt. A hallgatk nbizalmnak tpllst szolglhatja az is, ha minl
tbb alkalmat teremtnk arra, hogy itthon is megtapasztalhassk a nem-
zetkzi kzeget, vagyis tallkozzanak az itt tartzkod klfldi hallgatk-
kal. Ezrt vendgl hvunk a nyelvrkra klfldi dikokat, meghallgatjuk
magyar dikok klfldi egyetemeken szerzett lmnyeit, rendszeresen
elmegynk hallgatinkkal egytt azokra az interkulturlis rendezvnyek-
re, ahol szemlyes lmnyeket szerezhetnek, kapcsolatokat teremthet-
nek nem magyar anyanyelv dikokkal. gy arrl is tbbet megtudhatnak,
milyen egy Erasmus hallgat lete, de mindenekeltt vals helyzetekben
hasznlhatjk nyelvtudsukat. Fel tudjk mrni, milyen szint nyelvtuds-
ra van szksgk a programban val rszvtelre, s l pldt ltnak,
hallanak arra, hogyan boldogulnak msok, hogyan kzdik le esetleges
kommunikcis nehzsgeiket. nbizalmat merthetnek ebbl, beleks-
tolhatnak a nemzetkzi lgkrbe, s tapasztalataink szerint nyitottabbak-
k vlnak. Ezek a programok egyre nagyobb npszersgnek rvende-
nek, ebben az vben mr j, tgasabb helysznt kellett tallni pldul a
Global Cooking Night szmra a nagy rdekldsre val tekintettel.
A szemlyes lmnyek s tapasztalatok jelentsgt tmasztja al az
a megfigyels is, hogy j nhny, a kollgiumban, a nemzetkzi dikok
kzvetlen kzelsgben lak hallgatnk hozzllsa a nyelvtanulshoz
jelentsen megvltozott, aktvabban s nagyobb rmmel foglalkozik
tudsa fejlesztsvel.
Btortjuk hallgatinkat arra is, hogy minl tbben vegyenek rszt a
fiskola ltal szp szmmal knlt idegen nyelv kurzusokon, ahol szin-
tn a gyakorlatban ersthetik meg nyelvi kszsgeiket a nemzetkzi
dikokkal val egyttmkds sorn. A fenti pldk azt bizonytjk, hogy
118
szmos olyan tanrn kvli lehetsg is a hallgatk rendelkezsre ll,
amelyek nem felttlenl kvetelnek meg anyagi ldozatokat.
Megllapthatjuk teht, hogy a felsoktatsban s azon bell az in-
tzmnynkben zajl nemzetkziestsi folyamatok a szemlyes l-
mnyszerzs lehetsgn keresztl motivl ervel brhatnak, magtl
rtetd, elkerlhetetlen, termszetes, letszer kzeget teremtenek a
nyelvgyakorls szmra, gy segthetnek lednteni olyan pszicholgiai
gtakat, amelyek gyakran bntan hatnak a dikok idegen nyelv kom-
munikcijra.
***
119
TTH VA
Abstract
120
1. Bevezets
121
Idegen nyelvi kvetelmny: az alapfokozat megszerzshez legalbb
egy idegen nyelvbl llamilag elismert kzpfok (B2) komplex tpus
Gazdasgi/Kzgazdasgi szaknyelvi, vagy llamilag elismert felsfok
(C1) komplex tpus ltalnos nyelvvizsga, vagy ezekkel egyenrtk
rettsgi bizonytvny vagy oklevl szksges. (GZM-EE BA alapszak
tanegysglista 2013)
Idegen nyelvi kvetelmny: az alapfokozat megszerzshez legalbb
kett (klnbz) idegen nyelvbl llamilag elismert kzpfok (B2)
komplex tpus Gazdasgi/Kzgazdasgi/Idegenforgalmi szaknyelvi
nyelvvizsga amelyek kzl az egyik llamilag elismert felsfok (C1)
komplex tpus ltalnos nyelvvizsgval kivlthat, vagy ezekkel egye-
nrtk rettsgi bizonytvny vagy oklevl szksges. (TV BA alapszak
tanegysglista 2013)
Az eltelt idszakban az idegen nyelvi kvetelmnyekben nem trtnt
vltozs, de a kpzs keretei tbbszr is vltoztak. Az albbi sszefoglal
tblzatban mutatjuk be a kpzsi keretek legfontosabb jellemzit s a
vltozsokat.
122
Gazdasgismeret s gazdlkodsi szak /hagyomnyos kpzs 1998-2006
Bevezets az zleti 2. flv heti 4 3 SZV
GZM szaknyelvbe ra
EE zleti szaknyelv I. 3. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
zleti szaknyelv II. 4. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
Idegen nyelven tartott 5. flv heti 2 3 SZV
eladsok ra
zleti kommunikci 5. flv heti 2 2 SZV
idegen ny. ra
123
zleti szaknyelv III. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
zleti szaknyelv IV. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 3.v 5. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv I. ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 4.v. 6.flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv II. ra
124
nakkor a tantrgy sttusza javult, hiszen ktelezv vlt azon hallgatk
szmra, akik mg nem rendelkeznek az elrt nyelvvizsgval.
A Turizmus vendglts BA szakon kt nyelvvizsga az elrs. Mind-
kt nyelvvizsga megszerzshez akartunk segtsget adni hallgatink-
nak, ezrt 2011-ben be tudtuk vezetni az idegenforgalmi szaknyelvet kt
flvig angol s nmet nyelvbl. Az orosz nyelv irnti fokozd rdekl-
dst figyelembe vve 2013-ban az idegenforgalmi szaknyelvek kre b-
vlt 2 flv orosz idegenforgalmi szaknyelvvel. 2014 szeptembertl az
orosz nyelv sajtossgait szem eltt tartva valamint a tretlen hallgati
rdekldst, tovbbi kt flvet tudunk biztostani az orosz idegenfor-
galmi szaknyelv tanulsra.
A gazdasgi szaknyelv oktatsval kapcsolatban nagyon fontos ki-
emelni, hogy kreditet s gyakorlati jegyet kapnak a hallgatk, valamint a
trgy teljestsvel egyben az elirt szabadon vlaszthat trgyakat is
teljestheti a hallgat.
A fenti kpzsi keretek a nappali tagozatos kpzsre vonatkoznak.
Egerben a levelez tagozatos hallgatknak is oktatunk gazdasgi szak-
nyelvet. Ez a maga nemben egyedlll, hiszen vagy egyltaln nem
oktatnak szaknyelvet, vagy ahol van, ott tvoktats keretben oldjk meg
a levelez tagozatos hallgatk nyelvoktatst.
Szlni kell mg az oktatott nyelvekrl s a szemlyi felttelekrl is, hi-
szen ezek a krdsek is szerves rszt kpezik a minsgi oktatsnak.
A jelenleg oktatott gazdasgi szaknyelvek az zleti angol/nmet, illetve
az idegenforgalmi angol/ nmet/ orosz.
Mg ma is aktulis az a krds, hogy ki tantsa tulajdonkppen a gaz-
dasgi szaknyelvet? Nyelvtanr, aki kevsb jratos a szakmai terleten,
vagy gazdasgi szakember, aki nem rendelkezik tanri kvalitsokkal.
Ezen a tren szerencss helyzetben vagyunk, hiszen minden gazdasgi
szaknyelvet tant oktatnk a nyelvtanri blcssz diploma mellett ren-
delkezik gazdasgi msoddiplomval/szakkpestssel is, s akkreditlt
gazdasgi nyelvvizsgztatk is egyben. Hrom oktatnk PhD fokozattal
is rendelkezik. A Szakmai Idegen Nyelvi Csoportban t flls kollga
vgzi a gazdasgi (zleti/idegenforgalmi) szaknyelv oktatst, s a vizs-
gztatst komplexen, magas szinten mind a nappali, mind a levelez
tagozaton, a BA szakokon s az FOSZ kpzseken egyarnt.
Oktat munknkhoz hozztartozik a vizsgztats is. Az Eszterhzy
Kroly Fiskola Szakmai Idegen Nyelvi Csoportja a Budapesti Gazdasgi
Fiskola Nyelvvizsga s Tovbbkpz Kzpont Akkreditlt Gazdasgi
Nyelvvizsgahelye 2000 mjusa ta. 2000 mjustl 2014 szeptemberig
kzel 6000 vizsgzja volt az egri Akkreditlt Gazdasgi vizsgahelynek.
12 f akkreditlt vizsgztatnk van, angol, nmet, zleti s idegenforgal-
mi szaknyelvet vizsgztatunk alap-, kzp s felsfokon, vente hrom
125
alkalommal. A szakmai nyelvvizsgk eredmnyessgt folyamatosan
nyomon kvetjk, s ennek alapjn elmondhatjuk, hogy az Eszterhzy
Kroly Fiskola nappali tagozatos hallgatinl 65-75%-os az eredm-
nyessg a gazdasgi nyelvvizsgn, amely j eredmnynek szmt.
Vgezetl leend munkavllali/hallgati vlemnyeket mutatunk be a
szaknyelv-tanuls s oktats krdsrl. Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskola
Gazdasg- s Trsadalomtudomnyi Karnak jelenleg zleti szaknyelvet
tanul I. illetve II. vfolyamos Gazdlkods s Menedzsment-, Emberi
Erforrsok s Turizmus Vendglts BA szakos hallgatinak vlem-
nybl lljon itt nhny vlasz arra a krdsre, hogy Kell- e szaknyelvet
oktatni a felsoktatsban? A feltett krdsre a hallgatk 2013 szeptem-
berben vlaszoltak egy rsbeli szksgletelemz krdv kitltsekor.
A vlaszokhoz indoklst is krtnk.
126
vizsga a kvetelmny a diplomhoz. Ugyanakkor hallgatink, mint leend
munkavllalk azt is vilgosan ltjk, hogy mind a hazai, mind a klfldi
munkaerpiacon a szakmai idegennyelv-tuds alapvet elvrs.
3. sszegzs
Felhasznlt irodalom:
***
127
VINNAIN VKONY MRTA
Abstract
Bevezet
128
ciknak a kialaktsra s fejlesztsre, melyek hozzsegtenek a per-
manens dntshozatal eredmnyessghez (Byram, 1997).
129
sok kszsg s belltds, amely dnt jelentsg lehet a ksbbi
letszakaszban, itt fejldik ki s dominnsan befolysolja a ksbbi let-
szakaszokat.
A nyelvtants s a nyelvtanuls az interkulturlis kompetencia fej-
lesztsnek egyik legfontosabb kulcseszkze. Nem knny viszont a
nyelvtanrok helyzete, az ltalnos iskolai tantervek s tanmenetek tl-
zsfoltak, eleget kell tennik a szakma ltal megszabott kimeneti kve-
telmnyeknek. A tlterhelt s ugyanakkor lelkiismeretes tanrok krben
ltalnos agglyknt merl fel a tants sorn az attl val flelem, hogy
nem rendelkeznek elegend ismerettel egy-egy orszg szoksairl, kul-
trjrl. Az interkulturlis oktats a fenti megllaptsok tkrben teht
jogosan nevezhet idignyes tevkenysgnek, mely lnyegesen tbb
id- s energia rfordtst ignyel a gyakorl pedaggusoktl. Az inter-
kulturlis tanuls tlnyom rsze termszetes ton trtnik, egy rejtett
tanterven keresztl, a gyermek mikro- s makro krnyezetben, a szo-
cilis szfrban. Elengedhetetlen azonban, hogy az ltalnos iskolai s
ezzel egy idben a tanrkpzs formlis tanterveibe is bepljenek
ezek a korunkban alapvet fontossgnak szmt elemek.
130
nevel a tanulkat az j trsuk fogadsra? Az elfogads s tolerancia
kulcsszavak ebben a folyamatban, de a gyermekekkel val foglalkozs
sorn nem ezeknek a fogalmaknak az rtelmezse, megismertetse a
cl, sokkal inkbb az, hogy j megkzeltsi mddal szemlljnk kzsen
eddig evidenciknak szmt dolgokat.
j, ms kultrbl rkez tanul esetben egyik els lps lehet a
gyermek nevnek helyes ejtse. Jles rzs, ha az ismeretlentl val
flelembe legalbb egy biztos pont vegyl. Gyakoroljuk s gyakoroltas-
suk elre mind a keresztnv mind a csaldnv helyes ejtst sajt tanu-
linkkal, az internet vilgban nem nehz hozzjutni a szksges infor-
mcihoz. Kedves gesztus rkezskor megkrdezni a becenevt, szlk
nevt s egytt ismtelgetni. Semmisgnek tnik, de feszltsgold sze-
repe risi lehet. t kell gondolnunk azt is, hogy van-e olyan specilis
tudnival a gyermek kultrjval kapcsolatban, amirl elzetesen beszl-
jnk a tanulkkal. Feladatokat adhatunk ki, hogy akr szli segtsggel
gyjtsenek informcit az adott orszg teleivel, tkezsi- s ltzkdsi
szoksaival, viselkedsmintival kapcsolatban. A pedaggus is kszljn
fel az j feladatra, lltson ssze szemlltet anyagot. Hasznos s nem
lehetetlen feladat, ha nhny, a mindennapi letben hasznlt kifejezst,
szfordulatot megtanulunk az jonnan rkez gyermek anyanyelvn. Egy
huszont fs osztlyt alapul vve ez huszont szt illetve kifejezst je-
lent, ez a mennyisg jelents informci kzlsre alkalmas. A gyerme-
kek rmmel vllalnak ilyen jelleg feladatokat, egyet-egyet minden tanu-
l kpes megjegyezni, j mknak fogjk fel. A biztonsg kedvrt egy
kis papr cetlin hordhatjk magukkal az els idben a kapott szavakat,
kifejezseket. A lista szavai lehetnek pldul: dvzlsi formk, igen,
nem, krem, ksznm, dicsr szavak, gyere, j tvgyat, ne tedd, te is
csinld, stb. Fontos krdsknt merlhet fel a valls, a mindennapi val-
lsgyakorlat is, van-e ennek valamilyen hatsa az osztlyra, a viselke-
dsre? A felsorolst mg hosszan lehetne folytatni, ez a nhny plda
annak szemlltetsre szolglt, hogyan is szvi t mindennapjainkat az
interkulturalits, milyen apr lpseken t vezet az t mr gyermekkor-
ban egyms megismershez, elfogadshoz, egy j, addig ismeretlen
vilg tolerlshoz.
Nyelvknyvek s interkulturalits
131
s forrsokat is hasznlva tantjk a gyermekeket. A j tanknyv nagyon
fontos, kiemelten fontos az ltalnos iskolai tanulk esetben. Jeremy
Harmer (2001) tallan rja le a gyermeki tanuls jellemzit, valamint
gyakorlati tancsokat is ad, hogyan, milyen mdszerekkel tegyk hat-
konny a nyelvi rkat klnbz kultrj tanulk esetben. A gyerme-
kek a nyelvtanuls kezdetn egyltaln nem, vagy csak nagyon kis mr-
tkben rendelkeznek informcival a clnyelvi orszg szoksaival, kult-
rjval kapcsolatban, ppen ezrt nincs prekoncepcijuk. Ezrt is na-
gyon fontos a nyelvknyvekben tallhat olvasmnyanyag, mely nagy
mrtben hozzjrul a nyelvtanuls irnti pozitv attitd kialaktshoz s
a clnyelvi kultra irnti rdeklds felkeltshez. Meggyzdsem sze-
rint egszsges kompromisszumot kell ktnnk a nyelvtants sorn,
vallom, hogy a j knyv nlklzhetetlen, klnsen a kezd tanrok
esetben szolglhat brmikor kznl lev mankknt. A j knyv nma-
gban azonban kevs, tanri kreativits nlkl mit sem r, ljnk ht
btran sajt tartalkainkkal forrsainkkal, aknzzuk ki az interkulturlis
oktats lehetsgeit, hiszen a nyelvi rk lehetne a legalkalmasabb kz-
vett kzegei.
rdekes krds annak a vizsglata, hogy milyen tmakrk, olvas-
mnyanyagok szerepelnek a tanknyvekben, milyen kultrt is kzvet-
tenek. Ezen tanulmnynak nem clja a kultra fogalmnak kifejtst,
hiszen knyvtrnyi irodalom foglalkozik vele. A nyelvtanrok szempont-
jbl elgedjnk meg azzal a szktett rtelmezssel, hogy a kultra ma-
gban foglalja egy bizonyos npcsoport mindennapi lett, szoksait,
viselkedst, hitt, nyelvt s mvszett. Milyen kultrt tkrznek az
ltalnos iskolai angol nyelvknyvek? Mit is kell a gyerekeknek meg-
emszteni? A legtbb angol nyelvknyvben a kvetkez tmakrk je-
lentik a kulturlis ismereteket: nnepek, hres emberek, vrosok, turiszti-
kai ltvnyossgok, telek, tkezsi szoksok, a trtnelem egy-egy
szelete. Az autentikus anyagokat a mesk, versek, dalok, mondkk s
egy-egy brosra reprezentljk. Sok angol knyvben tallhat mr gy-
nevezett kulturlis sarok, nhny oldal a knyv vgn, mely ltalban az
angol s/vagy az amerikai kultra npszer, gyermekek rdekldst
figyelembe vev szeleteibl kzl ismereteket. Minden esetben a peda-
ggus joga s felelssge, hogy mennyi s milyen jelleg ismeretet kzl
a szigoran vett nyelvtants mellett, a kvetkez krdseket csupn
gondolatbresztnek sznom az ltalnos iskolai angol nyelvet oktat
tanrok szmra.
Kultra semleges-e a lingua francaknt megjelen angol? (Baker,
2009; House, 2002; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Meierkord, 2002)?
Mikor kezddjn az ltalnos iskolai nyelvoktatsban a kulturlis
ismeretek tantsa?
132
Mely orszg kultrjt, a kultra mely szeleteit ismertessk meg a
gyerekekkel?
Ragaszkodjunke a clorszg kultrjhoz vagy tgtsuk-e a krt
az angolul beszl orszgok (pl. USA, Ausztrlia) kulturlis isme-
reteivel?
Milyen szinten milyen kulturlis ismereteket tantsunk?
Milyen rott, auditv, vizulis illetve audiovizulis tananyagok a
legalkalmasabbak a kultra tadsra?
Milyen tanrai tevkenysgek s mdszerek a legalkalmasab-
bak?
Felhasznlt irodalom
133
House, J. (2002). Developing pragmatic competence in English as a
lingua franca. In K. Knapp & C. Meierkord (Eds.), Lingua franca
communication (pp. 245- 267). Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: implications for international
communication and English language teaching. Cambridge: Camb-
ridge University Press.
Kramsch, C. (2009). The multilingual subject. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Meierkord, C. (2002). 'Language stripped bare' or 'linguistic masala'?
Culture in lingua franca communication. In K. Knapp & C.
Meierkord (Eds.), Lingua franca communication (pp. 109-134).
Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang.
Risager, K. (2007). Language and culture pedagogy. From a National to
a Transnational Paradigm. Clevedon Multilingual Matters.
***
134
RSEK ATTILA
MEGVLTOZTATJA-E AZ EDU2.0 A
TANTSI-TANULSI FOLYAMATOKAT,
SZOKSOKAT?
Abstract
1
Bthory Zoltn (1997): Tanulk, iskolkklnbsgek. Tanknyvkiad, Budapest.
2
Nagy Jzsef (2000): A XXI. szzad s nevels. Osiris Kiad, Budapest.
3
Komenczi Bertalan (2009): Elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetek. Gondolat Kiad, Buda-
pest.
135
opportunities of the analysis of resources shared in an e-
learning environment and critical thinking.
The importance of the research, besides highlighting the
possibilities of the usage of the device, is that it demonstrates
the efficient development of the educational and content
objectives with 21st century skills related to the subject of
history but its subject-independent elements can be utilized
by other teachers also.
Bevezets
136
A tantsi-tanulsi folyamat kzben ennek konkrt fejlesztse klnbz
eszkzkkel s mdszerekkel trtnik. E tanulmny keretei kztt csu-
pn elmleti megkzeltsre van lehetsg. Egyik eszkz az Edu 2.0
alkalmazs hasznlata a tantsi-tanulsi folyamat kzben (rszleteseb-
ben ksbb fejtem ki). A vltozs, amit ekzben elrnk, a tanulk sze-
mlyisgnek fejldsben (ismeret, kpessg stb.) mutatkozik meg.
4
1. bra. A tants-tanuls rendszerszemllet modellje.
4
Bthory Zoltn (1997): Tanulk, iskolkklnbsgek. Tanknyvkiad, Budapest. 19. o.
137
5
2. bra. Egzisztencilis kompetencik
5
Nagy Jzsef (2000): A XXI. szzad s nevels. Osiris Kiad, Budapest. 35. o.
6
Komenczi Bertalan (2009): Elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetek. Gondolat Kiad, Buda-
pest.
7
Bang Jen (2011): Rendszerelmlet s pedaggia Niklas Luhmannl. Kutats kzben,
2011. 1. sz. pp. 110-116.
http://epa.oszk.hu/01500/01551/00055/pdf/educatio_EPA01551_2011-01-
Kutkozben2.pdf (2014. jnius 4.)
138
niklni.8 E szemlletnek is vgs soron a szemlyisg fejlesztse a f
clja a kommunikci fejlesztse ltal. A tmhoz kapcsoldan az
elektronikus kommunikcinak van jelentsge.
8
Holtz, Karl Ludwig (2008) Einfhrung in die Pdagogik. Heidelberg, Carl Auer Verlag.
Idzi: U.a. 4. 110. o.
9
Lynch, Julianne: What can we learn from McLuhan? Electronic communication technol-
ogies and the future of schooling. https://deakin.academia.edu/JulianneLynch (2014.
mjus 5.)
139
lenni a vilgban. Azt lltotta, hogy az j kommunikcis technolgik
jfajta szlelst s ltezst hoznak ltre. rvelse azon alapult, hogy a
kommunikci megrtst a testnk kiterjesztsnek tekintette: gy a
szmtgpek az emberi test kiterjesztsei, meghosszabbtsai. Fokoz-
hat az egyttmkdsnk s szlelsnk a vilggal a technolgik
hasznlatval.
Lynch megllaptsa szerint McLuhan s msok meglttk az eddigi
legjelentsebb vltozst az emberi trsadalomban, ahogy az egy szbe-
li/akusztikus trbl egy rstud/vizulisba megy t. Az elektronikus
kommunikcit a cselekvs egyik formjnak tekintik, amely azonnali
reakcit s rszvtelt kvetel. A tuds egy globlis hlzatban van trol-
va, azonnal hozzfrhet a fldrajzi helyzet figyelembevtele nlkl. Ezt
tudomsul kell vennnk ma mr a tantsi-tanulsi folyamat tervezse-
kor. Az Edu 2.0 erre lehetsget ad.
McLuhan megalkotta a globlis falu fogalmt, elrevettette, hogy az
iskola szerkezete, amely tkrzi az j globlis logikt, tartalmazza a k-
vetkezket (s az Edu 2.0 virtulis tantermben ezek megvalsulnak):
az integrcit,
a tanuls a problmk felvetse s a megoldsa kr szervezdik
s projekt alap kutatsi feladatokat tartalmaz,
rugalmasan szervezhetek a tanulk s az id,
a tantermeket (az elektronikus tantermeket rtem alatta) a tanuli
tevkenysgekre s klcsnhatsokhoz tervezik,
a klnbsgek a munka s a jtk, s az iskoln kvli, illetve be-
lli lt kztt sszemosdnak.
140
3. Fogalmak tisztzsa
10
Z. Karvalics Lszl (szerk.) (2009): Web 2.0 az oktatsban. INFONIA Alaptvny, Bu-
dapest. p. 19.
http://www.infonia.hu/webketto_az_oktatasban.pdf (2014. mjus 7.)
11
A felsorols sszelltshoz felhasznlt elektronikus krdv: A web 2.0-s eszkzk
alkalmazsa (a kutats vezetje dr. Nmesztovszki Zsolt)
12
http://matchsz.inf.elte.hu/TT/VUE/ (2014. mjus 5.)
141
retrendszer segtsgvel szervezik meg. A keretrendszerekben helyezik
el a tananyagot, itt trtnik a kommunikci a diktrsak s a tutor (onli-
ne oktatst segt tanr) kztt, itt trtnik a konzultci, a szmonkrs
is klnbz mdszerek segtsgvel (tesztek, kooperatv, kollaboratv
tanulst elsegt kommunikcis felletek felhasznlsval), illetve a
tanulsi folyamat menedzselse.13
13
Flp Hajnalka (2014) Hol tart ma az online oktats Magyarorszgon? Modern Iskola,
2014. 2. szm http://moderniskola.hu/cikk/hol-tart-ma-online-oktatas-magyarorszagon
(2014. mjus 25.)
14
Krpt Jzsef (2014): EDU2.0 tananyagtartalom szervez rendszer alkalmazsa a
kzpiskolban. http://goo.gl/n3AjWi (2014. mjus 24.)
142
1. kp. Belps utni tjkoztats az Edu 2.0 elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben
15
Lengyeln Molnr Tnde (2013): Online mrs-rtkels. EKF, Eger. p 8.
143
A tanr ltal ksztett online tesztek eredmnyeit a tanr a feladat be-
fejezsvel megkapja a belltstl fggen, pontszmban, szzalkban
vagy osztlyzatban. A rendszer gyjti a hallgatk eredmnyeit, s a nap-
lbl megnzhetk, ellenrizhetk. Az elksztett tesztek a hozzfrsre
jogosult tanrok ltal a klnbz csoportokban felhasznlhatk. A teszt
szerkesztse sorn bellthat a kezds s befejezs idpontja, csak
egyszer vagy tbbszr is kitlthet. A krdsek nehzsg szerint slyoz-
hatk.
A YouTube videomegoszt oldalon Simon Gbor tmutatst ad a k-
vetkez tmkban (a felhasznlt irodalom listjban megadtam az elr-
hetsget): Edu 2.0 regisztrci, tankrk ltrehozsa, tanulk hozz-
adsa; Edu 2.0 adminisztrci; Edu 2.0 foglalkozsok ltrehozsa; Edu
2.0 feladatlap kszts.
144
2. kp. Az adminisztrtor mensora
145
szer tadsra, lehetsget kapnak elemzsre, rendszerezsre, gya-
korlsra. A tanulk ltal elksztett s megjelentett informcik hitele-
sekk, szemlletesekk vlnak szmukra, bvlnek ismereteik, kpes-
sgeik. Fejleszthet szocilis kompetencijuk, az rzelmi intelligencijuk,
a kommunikcijuk, a szvegalkotsuk az Edu 2.0 hasznlatval. Az
eszkzhasznlati tevkenysg mellett az igazi elny a nevelsi s tar-
talmi clok mlytsnek lehetsge.
16
Intel Teach Program Essentials Tanfolyam Alapvet 21. szzadi kszsgek anyaga
alapjn
Forrs: Partnership for 21st Century Skills (www.21stcenturyskills.org). A felhasznls
engedlyezve.
146
Informcis, mdia- s technolgiai kszsgek (informcis
mveltsg, mdiamveltsg, informcis s kommunikcis
technolgiai mveltsg).
letvezetsi s karrierkszsgek (rugalmassg s alkalmaz-
kodkpessg, kezdemnyezkszsg s nirnyts, trsas
s multikulturlis kszsgek, teljestmny s elszmoltatha-
tsg, vezeti kszsgek s felelssgvllals).
147
Kpessg, amely a problma megrtsre koncentrl, s a t-
nyek elemzse s hipotzisek fellltsa utn megoldhat a prob-
lma.
Alapelv Krds
Megragadni egy llts jelentst. rtelmes?
Eldnteni, hogy van-e ktrtelmsg az Vilgos?
okoskodsban.
Eldnteni, hogy ellentmond-e egymsnak kt llts. Kvetkezetes?
Eldnteni, hogy szksgszeren kvetkezik-e a Logikus?
kvetkeztets?
Eldnteni, hogy egy llts elgg meghatrozott-e. Konkrt?
17
Kdrn Flp Judit (1979): Az rtkelsi taxonmia-ltalnos pedaggiai perspekt-
vbl. Pedaggiai Szemle, 21. 4. sz. p. 315.
148
Alapelv Krds
Eldnteni, hogy az llts alkalmaz-e valamilyen Kvet-e szablyt?
elvet.
Eldnteni, hogy egy megfigyels megbzhat-e. Pontos?
Eldnteni, hogy az induktv kvetkeztets Igazolhat?
bizonythat-e.
Eldnteni, hogy meghatrozott-e a problma. Lnyegbevg?
Eldnteni, hogy vannak-e benne feltevsek. Adottnak vesz
valamit?
Eldnteni, hogy a definci megfelel-e. Jl meghatrozott?
Eldnteni, hogy vajon az llts megllja a helyt. Igaz?
18
Kdrn Flp Judit (1979): Az rtkelsi taxonmia-ltalnos pedaggiai perspekt-
vbl. Pedaggiai Szemle, 21. 4. sz. p. 314.
149
Legbens kpessgek: interpretci, analzis, rtkels, kvet-
keztets, nszablyozs, magyarzat.
Gondolkodsi jegyek: nyltsg, alapossg, rettsg, magabiztos-
sg, szisztematikussg, igazsgkeress.
A legbens kognitv kpessgek ismrveit Paul (1995; idzi Molnr,
2002) trta fel: rtelmezs (kategorizls, mondatok dekdolsa, jelents
tisztzsa); elemzs (tletek alapos feltrkpezse, argumentumok
/rvek, bizonytkok/ azonostsa s elemzse); rtkels (clok megha-
trozsa, argumentumok /rvek, bizonytkok/ becslse); kvetkeztets
(bizonytkok elemz megkrdjelezse, lehetsges kvetkeztetsek,
alternatvk, kvetkeztets levonsa); magyarzat (eredmnyek megl-
laptsa, az eljrsok indoklsa, az argumentumok /rvek, bizonytkok/
bemutatsa); nszablyozs (alapos nvizsglat, nkorrekci).
Ennis (Norris s Ennis, 1989; idzi Molnr, 2002) j defincija megal-
kotsakor fellltott egy kognitv kpessgeket tartalmaz taxonmiai
rendszert a kritikai gondolkodssal kapcsolatban: (1) rvek vizsglata,
(2) forrsok valdisgnak vizsglata, (3) kvetkeztetsek megtlse,
(4) defincik tisztzsa, (5) hipotzisek azonostsa, (6) helyes cselek-
vs (dnts) meghozatala.
A trtnelem tmakrben alkalmazhat kritikai gondolkods taxon-
mijt sszelltottam korbbi kutatsi eredmnyemre tmaszkodva: (1)
rvels, (2) rvel szvegbl lnyegkiemels, (3) kvetkeztets forrs
(szveges, kpi stb.) alapjn, (4) forrsok (szveges, kpi stb.) kritikai
elemzse, (5) fogalom azonostsa (kpi informci, szveg alapjn), (6)
bra, szveg, tblzat, grafikon rtelmezse, (7) okok, clok feltrsa.
Az elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben megosztott forrsok elemzs-
nek s a kritikai gondolkods sszefggsnek lehetsges empirikus
vizsglati lehetsgei fontos kutatsi tmt jelentenek. A trtnelem tan-
trgyban a trtnelmi kritikai gondolkods kpessgnek a fejlettsge
rendkvl fontos, s e kpessg alkalmazsnak nagy szerepe van a sike-
res teljestsben.
Clom sajt kszts, elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben alkalmaz-
hat mreszkzk (adatlap, trtnelmi ismeret s trtnelmi kritikai k-
pessg) ltrehozsa, amelyek lehetv teszik a mrst s az sszeha-
sonlt vizsglatokat az sszelltott taxonmia alapjn. A feltrt ered-
mnyeket a tantsi gyakorlatban hasznostani szeretnm. A fenti clbl
kiindulva a kutats egyik hipotzise az elektronikus tanulsi krnyezet-
ben vizsglt trtnelmi kritikai gondolkodssal kapcsolatban: Az elektro-
nikus tanulsi krnyezet pozitvan befolysolja az elvrt tanuli teljest-
mnyeket.
Ennek bizonytsa vagy cfolsa tovbbi kutatsokat ignyel. Fel-
hasznlhat lesz a tovbbi kutatsban a Brdossy (2009) ltal vizsglt
150
RWCT (Reading and Writing for Critical Thinking) tmakre. Angolul
szakirodalmi ttekintst Lai (2011) ksztett a kritikai gondolkodssal
kapcsolatban, az angolszsz eredmnyek ttekintse elengedhetetlen a
tma mlyebb megrtse rdekben.
Felhasznlt irodalom
151
Lynch, Julianne: What can we learn from McLuhan? Electronic
communication technologies and the future of schooling.
https://deakin.academia.edu/JulianneLynch (2014.05.23.)
Molnr Lszl (2002): A kritikai gondolkods. In: Csap Ben (szerk.): Az
iskolai mveltsg, Osiris Kiad, Budapest. pp. 217-237.
Nagy Jzsef (2000): A XXI. szzad s nevels. Osiris Kiad, Bu-
dapest.
Papp-Danka Adrienn (2013): Az online tanulsi krnyezet fogalmnak
rtelmezsi lehetsgei. Oktats-Informatika, Budapest. 1-2. szm
http://www.oktatas-informatika.hu/2011/12/papp-danka-adrienn-az-
online-tanulasi-kornyezet-fogalmanak-ertelmezesi-lehetosegei/
Simon Gbor (2014): Edu 2.0 adminisztrci.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sl4tCB5OKwM (2014.05.25.)
Simon Gbor (2014): Edu 2.0 feladatlap kszts.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LL3YsDuba2g (2014.05.25.)
Simon Gbor (2014): Edu 2.0 foglalkozsok ltrehozsa.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4dXgj3ZOx0 (2014.05.25.)
Simon Gbor (2014): Regisztrci, tankrk ltrehozsa, tanulk hozz-
adsa.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvsHTcBuXs4 (2014.05.25.)
Z. Karvalics Lszl (szerk.) (2009): Web 2.0 az oktatsban.
INFONIA Alaptvny, Budapest. pp. 43-44.
http://www.infonia.hu/webketto_az_oktatasban.pdf (2014.05.07.)
***
152
SPICZN BUKOVSZKI EDIT
Abstract
Bevezets
153
szet) lltja vizsglatnak kzppontjba azokat a tnyezket, amelyek
hozzjrulnak a tanuls sikeressghez.
Ez a tanulmny azokat az innovatv, nyelvpedaggiban hasznlatos
mdszereket s pedaggiai megkzeltseket mutatja be, amelyek a
tantsi folyamatot egy aktv tanuli rszvtelen alapul, nszablyozott
tanulsi folyamatt alakthatjk t. Meggyzdsnk, hogy az idegen
nyelvek tantsnak elvei s gyakorlata sok ponton rintkeznek a fels-
oktats-pedaggia szakterletvel, amennyiben mindkt kontextus a
tanuls-tants hatkonyabb ttelnek lehetsgeit s a 21. szzadi
oktats kihvsaira adand innovatv vlaszokat keresi.
Elsknt felvzoljuk azokat a tnyezket, amelyek indokoljk a ha-
gyomnyos tantsi gyakorlat jragondolsnak szksgessgt, ttekin-
tst nyjtva a tmval foglalkoz hazai s klfldi szakirodalomrl. Tesz-
szk mindezt az albbi hat szempontot vizsglva: (1) trsadalmi-
gazdasgi-munkaerpiaci helyzet (2) tudomnyos szakmai httr (3)
intzmnyi szint (4) tanulsi krnyezet (5) a tanr/oktat (6) a tanu-
l/hallgat1.
A dolgozat kvetkez fejezete a pedaggiai paradigmavlts krds-
krt elemzi. Nzetnk szerint a konstruktivista pedaggia knl megfele-
l vlaszokat azokra a kihvsokra, amelyekkel az oktats minden sznte-
rn szembeslnk napjainkban. A konstruktivista alapelvek bemutatsa
utn a gyakorlati megvalsts pldi kvetkeznek a szerz szkebb
szakterletrl a felsoktatsban zajl nyelvoktatsbl. Ismertetjk egy
680 felsoktatsi hallgat megkrdezsvel zajl kutats egyik rsz-
eredmnyt, amely igazolja a tanri mdszerek rendkvli fontossgt a
tanuls-tants sszefggsrendszerben. A bemutatott pldk s j
gyakorlatok tapasztalatai s eredmnyei alkalmazhatk az oktats ms
kontextusaiban is s hozzjrulhatnak a (nyelv)oktats minsgnek
fejlesztshez s eredmnyessgnek javtshoz.
Trsadalmi-gazdasgi krnyezet
1
Felsoktatsi sszefggsben az oktat/hallgat kifejezseket, ltalnos rtelemben a
tanr/tanul fogalomprt hasznlom
154
munka- s letkrlmnyek kzepette is meglljk a helyket, kpesek
legyenek az lland fejldsre az lethosszig tart tanulsra.
A kvetkez tblzatban, mely az Eurpai Uni ajnlsait sszefog-
lalva kszlt, sszegyjtttk az imnt felsorolt kulcskompetencikat, de
szerepel benne a kompetencik elsajttsnak sznhelyt biztost okta-
tsi intzmnyi httr s a kompetencik alkalmazsnak szntere, a
gazdasg s trsadalom is, rzkeltetve a krdskr /sszetettsgt. (1.
bra)
Tudomnyos httr
155
Csap Ben szerint a tudsfajtk hromfle szervezdsi elv szerint
alakulnak ki s ezek alapjn megklnbztetnk szakrtelem, mveltsg
s kompetencia jelleg tudst. Egy msik felfogs szerint jellegt s m-
kdst tekintve alapveten a tuds kt vltozatrl beszlhetnk: az
ismeretjelleg s a kpessgjelleg tudsrl (Korom, 2005). Korom Er-
zsbet ttekinti ms tudomnyterletek tudskoncepciit is, s arra a
kvetkeztetsre jut, hogy ms terminusokkal ugyan, de ezt a kt tuds-
fajtt klnbztetik meg a kvetkez szakterleteken is. Kibernetika: le-
kpez tuds s operatv tuds; informatika: informci s program; ok-
tatselmlet: trgyi tuds s kszsg; pszicholgia: deklaratv s proce-
durlis tuds. Ide kvnkozik azonban egy harmadik tudskategria is: a
metakognci, azaz a tudsrl val tuds. A nevelstudomnyi s okta-
tsfejlesztsi kutatsok kiemelt terlete a metakognci vizsglata, mert
kulcsfontossg szerepe van a gondolkods fejlesztsben, a tanuls
hatkonyabb ttelben s az nll tanulv vls folyamatban egya-
rnt. (Cskos, 2007)
Az, hogy milyen tartalm diszciplinris tudsra lesz szksge a mun-
kaerpiacra most kilp genercinak, nem lehet megjsolni. Ezrt az
oktats elsdleges feladatnak a kszsgek s kompetencik fejleszt-
st tzi ki clul (Nagy, 2000), ezt igyekszik mrni a nemzetkzi sszeha-
sonltsokat is lehetv tev PISA teszt is. Az eredmnyek rtkelsnl
pedig az iskolarendszer tlzott ismeretkzpontsgt nevezik meg a si-
kertelensg egyik f okaknt. Van azonban egy msik, tudomnyosan
szintn megalapozott felfogs, amely a kpessgeket a tudsrendszerrel
egytt tartja mkdnek s fejlesztendnek (Nahalka, 1997). Ez a peda-
ggiai paradigma a konstruktivizmus, amelyrl a ksbbiekben mg
rszletesen lesz sz.
Nemcsak a tudsfelfogsok rtelmezse terletn, de a tanulsrl va-
l gondolkodsban is szmos elmlet ltezik amelyek kimondva vagy
kimondatlanul nagy hatst gyakorolnak a mindennapi pedaggiai tev-
kenysgekre. A tanulsrl val gondolkodsban megklnbztetnk for-
mlis, non-formlis s informlis keretek kztt zajl tanulst. (Csap,
2006). Egyre elfogadottabb vlik az a felismers, hogy az iskolarend-
szeren kvl szerzett tudst is el kell ismerni, be kell szmtani a tanul-
mnyok teljestsbe. Ennek a folyamatnak a rszletes kidolgozsa a
felsoktats egyik srget feladata. (Dernyi, 2008)
A tanulst ma mr nem gy kpzeljk el, mint egy magnyosan vg-
zett mentlis tevkenysget, amely a knyvtrak csendjben knyvek
fl hajl fejekben zajlik s a memorizlsi folyamat eredmnyeknt rep-
roduklhat tnyszer tudst eredmnyez. A tanulsi folyamat kzssgi
tevkenysgknt, gykeresen megvltozott tanulsi krnyezetben, az
osztlytermek falain kvl (is) zajlik s irnytsa nem kizrlag a tanr
156
kezben van. St, kutatsok bizonytjk, hogy az igazn eredmnyes s
maradand, alkalmazhat tudst eredmnyez tanuls sikere a tanul
motivcijtl s nszablyozott mdon, nllan vgzett tanulsi tev-
kenysgeinek minsgtl is nagyban fgg (Rthy, 2002, 2003;
Zimmerman, 2001).
A tanulsi folyamatrl val jszer gondolkods s kutats lenjri
az angolszsz s szak-eurpai orszgok. Oktatsi rendszereik eredm-
nyessgnek kulcst abban a tanuls-centrikus oktatspolitikban lehet
megtallni, amelynek alapja a hagyomnyos iskolai tanulssal szakt j
paradigma, a tanulskutats eredmnyeinek hasznostsa a gyakorlat-
ban. Ezeket az eredmnyeket s fontos felismerseket ismertetjk az
albbiakban Halsz Gbor cikke (2009:11) alapjn:
az elzetes tuds meghatroz jelentsg a tanulsi folyamat-
ban
a tanuls ptkez jelleg (vs. lineris)
az rzelmek s a motivci alapveten befolysoljk a tanulsi
folyamatot
a tanuls trsas jelleg tevkenysg
a tanuls folyamata rendkvl sszetett
Intzmnyi szint
157
rsre. A legeredetibb mdszertani tlet is kudarcra van tlve hossz
tvon, ha nem ll mgtte egy tmogat szervezeti krnyezet.
A tanulsi krnyezet
A tanr
158
A tanul
II. Konstruktivizmus
159
tudomnyok 1950-es vekbeli megjelense s eredmnyeik tovbb er-
stettk azt a tudomnyos lgkrt, amely vgl is paradigmavltshoz
vezetett a megismersi folyamatokrl val tudomnyos gondolkods
tern (Plh, 1998; Plh, 2001).
A konstruktivizmus egy gyjtfogalom, amelyet hasznlhatunk filoz-
fiai rtelemben, fellehet benne J. Piaget pszicholgija, Vigotszkij tr-
sas(szocilis) konstruktivizmus fogalma. Vannak radiklis konstruktivis-
tk, mint von Glasersfeld, a biolgia szempontjait kpvisel konstruktivis-
tk, mint H. Maturana. Bennnket most elssorban a pedaggiai konst-
ruktivizmus rdekel, mint j oktatsi paradigma, hiszen amit a tudom-
nyos kutatsok feltrnak az emberi szemlyisgrl, a szemlyisg lehet-
sges fejlesztsrl (Piaget, 1970; Nagy, 2000), az informcifeldolgo-
zsrl s a tanulsrl, az trvnyszeren megjelenik az oktats-nevels-
iskolztats sznterein is. (Termszetesen a tudomnyos tartalmak gya-
korlati alkalmazsnak mrtke, elterjedsk az oktatsban, idbeli
megvalsulsuk koronknt s kultrnknt vltoz).
A konstruktivista paradigma legfbb rdeme, hogy a figyelmet a tu-
dsrl, mint eredmnyrl a tuds megszerzsnnek folyamatra irny-
totta, felismerte s kiemelte a tanul szemlyisgnek s elzetes tud-
snak szerept a tuds kialaktsban. Az albbiakban a konstruktivista
pedaggia alaptteleit vesszk sorra s kapcsoldsi pontokat keresnk
ezen elvek alkalmazsa s az idegen nyelvek oktatsnak pedaggija
kztt. A konstruktivista didaktika felsoktatsban trtn alkalmazs-
nak sikereirl tbb kutats is beszmolt (Symonds, 2008; Xamani, 2013;
Wang, 2011).
A konstruktivista pedaggia felfogsa szerint a tuds nem ismerett-
ads rvn keletkezik, hanem egyni konstrukci, amely a fejnkben
lev elzetes tuds segtsgvel alakul ki. A konstruktivizmus tbbfle
tanulstpust klnbztet meg, amelyek kzl leginkbb kvnatosnak a
konceptulis vlts bekvetkezst tartja. A nyelvtanul mr elsajttott
egy komplex nyelvi rendszert, az anyanyelvt. Ennek ismeretre, mint
elzetes tudsra szksges s rdemes tmaszkodni a nyelvoktats
sorn. Knnyen belthat az anyanyelvi tuds segt szerepe pldul a
pragmatikai, szociolingvisztikai funkcik, beszdstratgik tantsa so-
rn. A krdsrl bvebben olvashatunk Budai Lszl professzor knyv-
ben (Budai, 2010).
A tuds konstrulsa egy deduktv (elmlet-vezrelt) folyamat. Ebben
a folyamatban analgik s modellek segtsgvel trtnik a tanuls. Az
l idegen nyelvek tanulsa sorn rendkvl nagy segtsget nyjthat a
telekommunikcis eszkzk s az Internet ltal biztostott kzvetlen s
gyors hozzfrs az autentikus forrsokhoz. Ezeknek az eszkzknek a
tanrai felhasznlsa egyelre mg nagyon esetleges, s fknt a tanr
160
egyni ksrletez kedvn s a technikai felszereltsgen mlik, hogy ez a
potencilis lehetsg hasznosul-e.
A konstruktivizmus kiemelt fontossgot tulajdont az ismereteknek, az
agyunkban mr ltez smknak, az elzetes tudsnak. Azt felttelezi,
hogy a kpessgek nem nmagukban, hanem az ismeretek ltal biztos-
tott kontextusban lteznek, azaz az adott kpessg csak akkor tud m-
kdni, ha a kognitv struktrban lteznek a szmra szksges ismere-
tek. Ennek bizonytsra elegend idzni azt a minden nyelvet tanul s
tant szmra ismers helyzetet, amikor a kommunikcit nem (csak) a
nyelvtudsbeli hitusok akadlyozzk, hanem a vilgrl val ltalnos
ismeretek hinyai is.
Az rtkels a konstruktv pedaggiban formatv s diagnosztikus,
clja a visszacsatols, a tanul s fknt a tanr tjkoztatsa az eddig
elrt eredmnyekrl s az esetleges megakadsokrl. A szemeszteren-
knti egy-kt alkalommal trtn szmonkrs nyilvnvalan nem tudja
betlteni ezt a funkcit. A vizsgztats jszer mdjrl s mdszereirl
is zajlik a szakmai diskurzus, a j gyakorlatokkal rdemes volna minden
rdekeltet megismertetni.(Bbosik, 2012; Kiszely, 2012).
A konstruktv pedaggia a tanulst dinamikus folyamatnak kpzeli el,
amelyben tbb stratgia alkalmazsa zajlik egyidejleg. Clkpzete az
adaptv tuds kialaktsa. A pedaggus szerepe a konstruktv pedaggi-
ban alapveten eltr a hagyomnyos vezrl s/vagy szablyoz sze-
reptl. A pedaggus szakrtje, tervezje s facilittora a tanulsi folya-
matnak.
A konstruktivizmus nagy teret ad a tanuli autonminak s az
nreflexivitsnak s fejleszteni igyekszik ezeket. A klnbz tanulsi
stlusok s stratgik szerept egyre inkbb felismeri s elismeri a
szakmai kzvlemny is. (Mr a felsoktatsi tantervek is knlnak
tanulsmdszertani kurzusokat.)
A konstruktivizmus mdszertani-didaktikai jellemzi kzl a kvetke-
zket tartjuk fontosnak kiemelni:
aktv tanuli rszvtel az oktatsi folyamatban
tanuli autonmia
reflektv kpessgek kialaktsa, melyek segtsgvel a tanulk
kpesek rtkelni sajt tanulsi tevkenysgket s eredmnyei-
ket
a tanr szerepe az egyni tudskonstruls elsegtse, az el-
zetes tuds aktivizlsa rvn s a tudatos tanuli erfesztsek
sztnzse
161
Mindezek a jellemzk alkalmass teszik ezt az j paradigmt arra,
hogy mind a nyelvpedaggiai mind a felsoktats-pedaggiai innovcik
elmleti kerett biztostsa.
162
1. A nyelv-
tanuls
2. Milyen mrtkben
sikerben 3. Terletek, amelyeken
tartja megvltoztat-
szerepet kls segtsgre van szk-
hatnak ezeket a
jtsz t- sge
tnyezket?
nyezk
fontossga
Szbeli ks-
Tanuli
2.87 3.12 2.89 3.26 zsgek fejlesz-
erfeszts
tse
Halls utni
rdeklds 2.84 2.65 2.51 3.21 rts fejleszt-
se
rskszsg
Motivci 3.11 3.09 3.10 3.00
fejlesztse
Tanri Tanulsi clok
3.19 2.92 - 2.95
mdszerek kitzse
Tanulsi se-
Tanulsi
2.71 3.02 2.84 2.94 gdletek meg-
stratgik
vlasztsa
163
kzl szeretnk emlteni olyanokat, amelyek diszciplntl fggetlenl
alkalmazhatk az oktats minden szintjn s a felsoktats-
pedaggiban is. Ezek a mdszerek szaktanak a hagyomnyos bemuta-
ts-gyakorls-nllan elads (presentation-practice-performance) s-
mval s arra helyezik a hangslyt, hogy a tanul nllan szerezzen s
dolgozzon fel informcikat s ismereteket s ptse be azokat a sajt
kognitv smiba. A tanuls autonm, nszablyozott, rdekldsbl s
bels motivcibl tpllkoz formi s mdjai ezek, amelyekhez a
konstruktivista pedaggia elvei szolgltatjk az elmleti htteret.
kooperatv tanuls (Lencse, 2010)
projektmdszer (Torgyik, 2012)
kutatsalap tanuls (inquiry based learning) (Nagyn, 2010)
tartalom alap nyelvoktats (content-based language-teaching)
(Bodnr, 2009)
Just-in-Time Teaching (Spiczn, 2013)
164
alap nyelvoktats (content-based teaching, CBT) s a tartalom s nyelv
integrlsval megvalsul tanuls (content and language integrated
learning, CLIL), amely tbbek kztt a kzoktats kt tantsi nyelv
programjaiban valsul meg. A felsoktats nemzetkziesedsnek k-
vetkezmnyeknt egyre tbb klfldi fiatal rkezik a hazai felsoktatsi
intzmnyekbe s a magyar fiatalok kzl is egyre tbben vlasztanak
idegen nyelv kurzusokat hazai vagy klfldi egyetemeken. Az oktatk-
nak fel kell kszlnik a ms pedaggiai kultrbl rkez, eltr nyelvi
s httrismeretekkel rendelkez dikok oktatsra is.
sszegzs
165
alapozva fog mkdni, amelyben a tanr szerepe az lesz, hogy a tantst
eredmnyes tanulss transzformlja.
Felhasznlt irodalom
166
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***
168
JASKN DR. GCSI MRIA
Abstract
169
veldst. (Torgyik, 2005.) Egyre inkbb fontoss vlik a nyelvi sokfle-
sg megrzse, s ezt az oktatsnak is segtenie kell. A nevels-oktats
rendszerben kiemelten fontos helyet kell, hogy kapjon a csoportok k-
ztti megrts erstse, a msik elfogadsa s tolerlsa. Ehhez pedig
az szksges, hogy a pedaggusok is rendelkezzenek a tolerancia k-
pessgvel (Palnkai, 2007.).
Napjainkban a technika gyors s igen ltvnyos fejldsvel a tuds
trsadalma talakulban van, elavultt vlik a hagyomnyos oktatsi
rendszer. Fiatalok, akik szmtgpekkel krlvve nnek fl, s az inter-
net csodival mr korn megismerkednek, a hagyomnyos iskolai kr-
nyezetet egyszeren termszetellenesknt lik meg. Hozzszoknak ah-
hoz, hogy krdseikkel ne a felnttekhez (szleikhez, tanraikhoz,
knyvtroshoz), hanem a hlzathoz forduljanak (Nyri, 2001, 120.). A
Nemzeti alaptanterv is kiemelten foglalkozik az IKT1 alkalmazsnak
lehetsgeivel az iskola falain bell:
A digitlis kompetencia a termszetnek, az IST2 szerepnek
s lehetsgeinek rtst, alapos ismerett jelenti a szemlyes
s trsadalmi letben, valamint a munkban. Magban foglalja a
fbb szmtgpes alkalmazsokat szvegszerkeszts, adat-
tblzatok, adatbzisok, informcitrols-kezels, az internet
ltal knlt lehetsgek s az elektronikus mdia tjn trtn
kommunikci (e-mail, hlzati eszkzk) a szabadid, az in-
formci megosztsa, az egyttmkd hlzatpts, a tanuls
s a kutats tern. Az egynnek rtenie kell, miknt segti az
IST a kreativitst s az innovcit, ismernie kell az elrhet in-
formci hitelessge s megbzhatsga krli problmkat, va-
lamint az IST interaktv hasznlathoz kapcsold etikai elveket.
(243/2003. (XII. 17.) Korm. rendelet).
Egyrtelm teht a parancs; olyan fiatalokat kell tnak indtani, akik
sikeres tanulsi stratgikkal a hlzatalap tanuls lehetsgeivel gy
tudnak lni, hogy megalapozzk a konstruktv letvezetst, az lethosz-
szig tart tanuls pedig termszetes letformjukk vlik. Az osztlytermi
interakcik vltozsai nem indokoljk, hogy a virtulis tanuls oly mr-
tkben trhdt legyen, melynek sorn a szocilis berendezkedsnk s
alapvet letvitelnk megvltozzon. (Falus, 2001.) Azok a pedaggusok,
akik lpst szeretnnek tartani dikjaikkal, akik szeretnk megrteni
ket, akik hatkony vlaszt akarnak adni a 21. szzad egyre komplexebb
1
Informcis s Kommunikcis Technolgik
2
Information Society Technology (az informcis trsadalom technolgii)
170
kihvsaira, nem hagyhatjk figyelmen kvl a korszer mdszertani
technikk alkalmazsi lehetsgeit (Kagan, 2004.).
Tudjuk azt is, hogy a pedaggus hivats gyakorlshoz klnfle
szemlyisgvonsok megltre s szakmai felkszltsgre van szksg.
Ahhoz, hogy tanraink megfeleljenek a korszer pedaggiai elvrsok-
nak, a kpzsk sorn kompetenss kell tenni ket abban, hogy a hiva-
ts gyakorlshoz nlklzhetetlen kszsgek birodalmban kpesek
legyenek gazdagtani mdszertani repertorjukat. Mihly Ildik sszell-
tsban olvashatjuk, hogy a pedaggus plya kulcsfontossg elemei
kztt szerepel tbbek kztt az nismeret, a kapcsolatpt kpessg, a
szaktrgyi tuds, a team munkra val alkalmassg. (Mihly, 2002.) Te-
ht a magasan kvalifiklt pedaggus kpes megbirkzni az egyre nvek-
v iskolai autonmia ltal tmasztott kvetelmnyekkel, tovbb megfelel
a multikulturlis nevels ignyeinek, ami komoly paradigmavltst hozott
a nevels terletn. Magval hozza a klnbz gondolkodsmdok
rtkknt val elfogadst, s amely egyszeren termszetesnek veszi a
mssgot. A multikulturlis oktats jellemzje az inkluzivits, magyarul a
befogads; befogad minden csoporttal szemben, amelybl senki sem
rekedhet ki, s amely mindenki szmra hasznos lehet (Torgyik, 2005,
33.). Drmapedaggusknt vallom, hogy a drma eszkzei, a sznhzi
konvencik alkalmazsa hozzsegti a kicsiket s nagyokat egyarnt a
bks egyttls megtapasztalshoz, az eltletes attitd cskken-
shez. Lesznyk-Czachesz kifejti, ha cskken az eltlet, akkor javul a
kapcsolat a csoportok kztt, melyet a kooperatv technikk alkalmaz-
snak ksznhetnk. Az jszer mdszerek hasznlatval a pedaggu-
sok olyan mankt adnak a neveltek kezbe, amellyel hossz tvon
konstruktvabban vezethetik az letket (Lesznyk-Czachesz, 1998.).
171
emberek magnleti viszonyrendszerben, munkahelyeken s a trsada-
lom egyb kzssgeiben. A ma emberre rfrne, hogy emptis k-
pessgeit fejlesszk (Benedek, 1992.). El kell fogadni a szlknek, pe-
daggusoknak a gyerek egynisgt, gy megalapozdhat egy olyan
nemzedk, amely mr nagyfok emptival rendelkezik. Az emptis
kpessg mr felttelez egy olyan interperszonlis kapcsolati kpess-
get, ami minden korosztlyban kimutathat.
Milyen eszkzk llnak a pedaggusok rendelkezsre, hogy a pszic-
holgiai kulturltsg magvt kpez emptit kifejlesszk a gyermekek-
ben?
nismeretnk fejldse, a msikra val odafigyels, a trs meghallga-
tsa, megrtse a szemlyisg fejlesztse a drmapedaggia mdszere-
ivel elrhet. Eszkzrendszere alkalmas arra, hogy a pszicholgiai kultu-
rltsg magvt kpez emptit kifejlesszk a gyermekekben. A drma-
pedaggia fontos, kzponti eleme a jtkossg. A jtk a gyermeket leg-
inkbb fejleszt tevkenysg. Mindent, amit a vilgrl megtud, mindent,
amit a vilgnak feltr nmagbl, azt a jtkon keresztl teszi. A jtk
nkntesen vlasztott, pozitv rzelmekkel ksrt tevkenysg, mely n-
magban hordja cljt, s sokoldalan alaktja a szemlyisget, tovbb
az lmnyszerzs, a tapasztalatszerzs, az ismereteknek, klnbz
tudselemeknek az elsajttsa mind a jtkon, a cselekvsen keresztl
trtnik. Ez a megismers, a fejlds tja.
Ha a jtk rtelmezsben visszatekintnk, lthatjuk, hogy a XIX.
szzadban megjelen jtkelmletek milyen eltr mdon fogalmaztk
meg a jtk lnyegt. Vizsgltk a jtkot eszttikai szempontok szerint
s biolgiai megkzeltsben. Mivel a jtknak sok meghatroz s spe-
cilis lelki sszetevje van, termszetesnek mondhat, hogy helyet kap
szmos pszicholgiai elmletben, s minthogy a gyermek letben a
jtknak jval nagyobb, mondhatni dnt jelentsge van, a legtbb
pszicholgiai elkpzels a jtkrl a fejldsllektan terletn szletett.
Ezek kzl is kiemelkedik Piaget koncepcija, melyben a jtk s az r-
telmi fejlds sszefggst trgyalja. Ebben kifejti, hogy a gyermek a
kezdeti idszakban egy vgyvezrelt, autisztikus belltds vilgban l.
Ebbl a helyzetbl alakul ki a kls krlmnyek hatsra az a kt vilg,
amelyek egyike, a jtk s fantzia vilga az rmelv uralma alatt ll,
mg a msik, amely idvel egyre inkbb eltrbe kerl, a felnttek relis
vilga, mely a valsgelvnek megfelelen mkdik. Piaget elkpzelst
ezrt a "kt vilg elmletnek" is nevezik. A pszichoanalzis eredmnyei
a jtk jelensgnek egy msik aspektust trjk fel: a jtk s az r-
zelmek viszonyt. Amint azt mr a jtk lnyegi sajtossgainak trgya-
lsnl rintettem, a jtk feszltsgcskkent funkcijval legelszr
Freud foglalkozott. maga ugyan nem alkotott kln jtkelmletet, de
172
esettanulmnyaival elindtotta a jtk tovbbi analitikus orientcij vizs-
glatt. A jtkot gy tekintette, mint az rmelv s a realitselv tkz-
sbl szrmaz feszltsg kreatv feldolgozst. (Ez az elkpzelse ro-
konsgot mutat a piaget-i kt vilg-terival.) A jtk ezen elaborcis
funkcijra alapoznak az analitikus jtkterpik is. Mrei V. Bint,
1983.)
Erik Erikson szemlletben a jtk a tapasztalatszerzs gyermeki
formja, amely nagy teret, szabadsgot s a kvetkezmnyektl val
relatv mentessget biztost a jtsz szemlynek ahhoz, hogy szmos
helyzetben kiprblhassa magt, s ktetlenl azonosulhasson klnb-
z trgyakkal s emberekkel. Mivel a jtkban nagymrtkben fggetle-
nthetjk magunkat a realitstl, az mdot nyjt arra, hogy ideiglenesen
flbe kerekedjnk a trnek, idnek, oksgnak s trsadalmi szksg-
szersgnek (Benedek, 1992.).
Ahogy fentebb emltettem, a jtk filozfiai jelentsgv vlt. Mr
nemcsak a gyermeki tevkenysgformk egyike, hanem elfogadjuk ki-
emelt szerept a gyermek fejldsben s fejlesztsnek lehetsgei
kztt is. A legfontosabb, hogy a jtk teszi lthatv az rzelmi ktd-
seket, a viselkeds s az rtelmi kpessgek egysgt, pl. a viselkeds-
kontroll terletn a ksleltets kpessgt, vagy a problmamegolds
terletn a helyzetfelismerst. Ezek a funkcik a trsakkal val jtkban
vlnak meghatrozv, ott emelik ki legjobban a kompetencia hinyokat.
A felnttel val pros jtkban ez sokszor rejtve marad. A jtk a legjobb
diagnosztikai eszkz mind pedaggiai, mind pszicholgiai rtelemben.
Jelzi a mindenkori rettsg szintjt is, s itt elssorban az iskolra val
rettsgre kell gondolnunk, az rsi folyamat brmely terletre, pl. a
mozgsra, a beszdre, a finommotoros koordincira, a tri tjkozds-
ra, a viselkedsszervezsre s az rzelmi-akarati jellemzkre. Nyugodt
szvvel kijelenthetjk, hogy kzs funkcii vannak minden fejldsi terlet
vonatkozsban. (Bettelheim, 2003.)
A jtk els pillantsra gy fest, mint valami intermezzja a
mindennapi letnek, szabadid-tevkenysg, dls. De mivel
szablyosan visszatr vltozatossg ksrje, st kiegsztje,
rsze lesz az letnek. Dszti azt, kiegszti, nlklzhetetlen az
egyn szmra, mint biolgiai funkci. Nlklzhetetlen a k-
zssg szmra bels tartalma, rtelme, jelentsge s kifejez
rtke, tovbb azok miatt a szellemi s trsadalmi kapcsolatok
miatt, amelyeket ltrehoz. A kifejezs s egyttls lmnyeit
valstja meg. Rendet teremt, st maga a rend. A tkletlen vi-
lgba s zavaros letbe idleges s elhatrolt tkletessget
visz be. (Nagy Ranschburg Szakcs Trnokin, 2005, 55.)
173
Ezek a sorok nem mai keletek, magyar nyelven elszr 1944-ben je-
lentek meg. ,,Huizingaszavai, aki elsnek lpett tl azon a vlemnyen,
hogy a jtkot rszjelensgnek tekintse, s csak szk magyarzatt ad-
ja. Nevhez fzdik a ,,homo ludens, a jtsz ember fogalma. mondta
ki elsnek, hogy a jtk biolgiai funkci, ugyanakkor az is kitnik az
rsbl, hogy trsas funkciknt s kulturlis funkciknt egyarnt sz-
mon tartja. (Benedek, 1992.) Ami ebbl a laikus szmra rthet lehet,
az a fontos felismers, hogy a jtk rmszerz, tagol funkcija kiemel-
kedik a tbbi kzl. Ezt az intenzv rmszerzst a felntt is rezheti sa-
jt hobbijaiban, felntt jtkaiban, a malom-, a domin-, a rmi-, s a
bridzs jtszmk sorn, s termszetesen akkor is, ha brmely kor
gyermeke mell lel s beleli magt a jtsz kisgyermek rzelemvil-
gba, azonosul a kpzetramls rzelmi-gondolati egysgvel
(Bettelheim, 2003.).
174
kzs dramatizls olyan lmnnyel ajndkozza meg a rsztvevket,
mely sorn megtapasztaljk milyen az pt egymsrautaltsg.
(Gabnai, 1993.) A projekt kerettmja a hagyomnyaink ismerete, np-
szoksaink feleleventse mellett, a kzs dramatizls fzisainak meg-
ismertetse, a kivlasztott nnepkr cselekmnyvz elemeinek elksz-
tse is szerepelt. Az elkszts sorn a tudatosan tgondolt rsosan
dokumentlt forgatknyv a megfelel szereposztssal, valamint a ha-
gyomnyismereti naptr elksztsvel a projekt sszetett alkotss vlt.
A megfelel szakirodalmak felhasznlsa a magyar np hiedelemvilg-
nak megismersre, npi gyermekjtkok gyjtsre, npszoksok ta-
nulmnyozsra, a npviselet s a kellkek felkutatsra motivlta a
hallgatkat. (1. bra)
Az elkszletek sorn, valamint a gyakorlati foglalkozsok alkalm-
val a hagyomnyoknak megfelel dszletek megtervezse, kivitelezse
rendkvl krltekinten s szervezetten zajlott. A hasznlati trgyak, az
telek, a viselet, a zenei anyag sszelltsa, illetve az egyes szoksok-
hoz tartoz tncok s mozgsok begyakorlsa, ellltsa nagyon gon-
dos s sszehangolt kooperatv munkt ignyelt a csoportoktl s tagjai-
tl egyarnt. (2. bra)
A sikeres megvalsts rdekben a pontos tervezs elengedhetetlen.
Ennek lnyeges elemei a vlasztott nnepkrhz kapcsold sznjtk
szvegknyvnek sszelltsa, valamint a helyszn kialaktsa, dszle-
tek kivitelezse. Magtl rtetdik, hogy ennek a projektnek a kzponti
elemei a beszd s mozgs, illetve a tnc. A hallgatk arra rendezkedtek
be, hogy sajt s nmaguk beszde, mozgsa tkrzze az adott nnep-
kr s hagyomny hangulatvilgt. (3., 4. brk)
175
1. bra: Betlehemezs
176
3. bra: Szreti mulatsg
4. bra: Pnksdls
177
A klcsns tiszteletre alapozott egyttmkds a szocilis kompe-
tencik fejlesztse tern az ismeretek elsajttsa konstruktv, alkot
mdon valsulhatott meg; hiszen a csoport sikere az egyni munka
eredmnyeknt jhetett ltre. Egy ilyen hossz tv, sikeresen kivitele-
zett projekt sorn a proszocilis viselkeds kompetencii hozhatk hely-
zetbe. Hangslyozom a segtsgnyjtst, msok vlemnynek, gondo-
latmenetnek elfogadst, az emptia, a klcsns tisztelet gyakorlst,
a szervezsirnyts s az rtkels formit. A tants helyett a tapaszta-
lati tanuls aktivizldott, s a tanr tmogat, koordinl, tanulst seg-
t, a dikokkal kzsen kutat szerepbe lpett.
sszegzs
Felhasznlt irodalom
178
Falus Ivn (2001): A gyakorlat pedaggija. In: Golnhofer Erzsbet s
Nahalka Istvn (szerk.): A pedaggusok pedaggija. Nemzeti
Tanknyvkiad, Bp., 2001, 65-83. p. ISBN 963 970 464
Gabnai Katalin (1993): Drmajtkok. Magyar Drmapedaggiai Trsa-
sg Bp., 1993. ISBN 963-8457-01-5
Jonothan Neelands (1994): Drma a tanuls szolglatban Magyar Dr-
mapedaggiai Trsasg Bp., 1994. ISBN-963-8457-05-8
Lesznyk Mrta, Czachesz Erzsbet (1998): Multukulturlis oktatspoliti-
kai koncepcik. Mozaik Oktatsi Stdi, Szeged, 1998, 13p. ISBN
963-05-7992-8.
M. Ndasi Mria (2003): Projektoktats. Gondolat Kiadi Kr, Bp., 2003.
ISBN 9639500631.
Mrei Ferenc V. Bint gnes (1983): Gyermekllektan. Gondolat, Bp.,
1983, 122-134. p. ISBN 9632809734
Mihly Ildik (szerk.): A pedagguskpzs s a pedaggus letplya az
lethosszig tart tanuls korban. j Pedaggiai Szemle, 4. 2002.
Nagy Jenn - Ranschburg Jen - Szakcs Mihlyn - Trnokin Jo
Ildik (2005): vnk Kincsestra. RAABE, 2005.
Nyri Kristf (2001): Az rsbelisgrl s nhny mdiumrl. In: Bres
Istvn Hornyi zsb (szerk.): Trsadalmi kommunikci. Osiris,
Bp., 2001, 117-128.
Palnkai Tibor (2007): A globlis talakuls kihvsai- elkerlhetk-e a
kataklizmk? Magyar Tudomny, 2. sz. 2007, 204-225.
Spencer Kagan (2004): Kooperatv tanuls. konet Kiad, Bp., 2004.
ISBN 9632166598;
Torgyik Judit (2005): Fejezetek a mulikulturlis nevelsrl. Etvs Jzsef
Kiad Bp., 2005, 33. p. ISBN 963 7338 26 8
Voigt Vilmos (2005): Magyar folklr szveggyjtemny. Osiris, Bp., 2005.
ISBN 978 963 87785 1 2
http://www.nefmi.gov.hu/letolt/kozokt/nat_070926.pdf Letltve: 2014.
jnius 22. 8:21
***
179
TTH VA VINCZE MRIA
Abstract
Bevezets
180
zeteket. Hogyan tovbb? Kell ezzel foglalkoznunk, vagy szksgtelen?
krdezhetnnk.
Mai vilgunkban, amikor lpten-nyomon azzal tallkozunk, hogy nem
elg az anyanyelv ismerete, hanem kt-hrom idegen nyelv elsajttsa
szksges, esetenknt elengedhetetlen ahhoz, hogy a
nemzetkzieseds korszakban megtalljuk a helynket az letben, s
jl tudjunk boldogulni a vilgban. Mindez kihvs s feladat a felsoktat-
si intzmnyek hallgati szmra is.
A nemzetkzieseds elterjedse, a klfldi tanulsi lehetsgek mind
mind megkvetelik a hasznlhat idegen nyelvtudst, melynek egyik
alapvet eleme, hogy megrtsk, amit mondanak, amit hallunk vagy ol-
vasunk. A beszdrts s hallsrts is egy olyan nyelvi kompetencia,
amelyet fejlesztennk kell ahhoz, hogy nyelvtudsunk hasznlhat le-
gyen. Mindez termszetes, ha idegen nyelv tanulsrl van sz, de az
anyanyelvnk esetben alig van r plda.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln a Tmop 4.1.2. D-12/1/KONV 2012-
0002 plyzat keretben lehetsg nylott arra, hogy megvizsgljuk hall-
gatinknl a magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi kompetencit. Anyanyelvi
hallsrtsre viszonylag ritkn kerl sor, klnsen idegen nyelv tant-
sa/tanulsa kapcsn, ezrt hallgatink kzl sokan meglepnek talltk
a feladatot. Voltak olyan hallgati vlemnyek is, amelyek jl megfogal-
maztk e-feladatnak a fontossgt, jelentsgt.
Utoljra az ltalnos iskolban csinltunk magyar halls
utni szvegrtst. Vlemnyem szerint fontos a halls utni
kompetencia-mrs. A kommunikci alapja a msikra val
odafigyels. Sokan nem kpesek erre vagy csak felletesen fi-
gyelnek vagy nem rtik meg a msikat. (ltalnos angol nyelvet
tanul hallgat)
A magyar hallsrtsi feladat nagyon tetszett, gy gondo-
lom, elszr mindenkinek a sajt anyanyelvn kellene ilyet kitl-
teni, s csak ezutn elkezdeni a felkszlst az idegen nyelv
hallsrtsre. Az anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladat stresszold, hi-
szen rtjk a szveget, csupn tudni kell szelektlni, kiemelni a
lnyeget. Knnyebb, mint idegen nyelvbl, ezrt sokat segthet
abban is, hogy idegen nyelven is jl teljestsk ezt a feladatot.
(zleti angolt tanul hallgat)
Jelen tanulmnyunkban a hallsrtsi kszsg/kompetencia elmleti
httert s a magyar anyanyelvi hallsrts vizsglat eredmnyeit kvn-
juk bemutatni.
181
A hallsrts kszsg elmleti httere (Vincze Mria)
182
A hallsrts lehet interaktv s nem interaktv attl fggen, hogy mi-
lyen mdon vesznk rszt a kommunikciban: hallgatknt s beszl-
knt egyarnt (pl. dialgus) vagy csak hallgatknt (pl. rdihallgats).
gy vlik rthetv, hogy mi a klnbsg a hallsrts s a beszdrts
kztt: ez utbbi csak a trsalgsban interaktvan rszvev beszl-
hallgat rtsi folyamataira utal, s gy leszkti a hallsrts fogalmt,
mg a hallsrts minden hallott szveg rtst magban foglalja. Mi a
hallsrts (halls utni szvegrts) terminust hasznljuk munknkban,
ezzel kvnunk foglalkozni.
A halls utni szvegrtsnek szmos modelljt ismeri a szakiroda-
lom (pl. motoros modell, aktv-passzv modell, kohort modell, Ellis s
Young szfeldolgozsi modellje stb. v. Sznt, 2013). Gsy Mria
(Gsy, 2005:147-9) hierarchikus felpts modellje (2. bra) bizonyos
rtelemben tjelzl szolglhat a hallsrts fejlesztst clz gyakor-
latok sszelltshoz. A beszdszlels szintjn a nyelv formlis oldal-
ra sszpontostunk, hogy a hasonl hangzs hangokat, fonmkat,
morfmkat, szavakat (a szavak hangzst) kpesek legynk megkln-
bztetni. A beszdmegrts szintje utal a szemantikai s szintaktikai
elemzsek oda-vissza irnyul kapcsolatra, majd az asszocicik megje-
lensvel jutunk el az rtelmezsig. A modell sugallja a fentebb emltett
sszetevk rszkszsgeit s kisebb elemeit, amelyek fejlesztse hozz-
jrulhat a hallsrts fejldshez: a helyes kiejts, a hangok felismerse,
elklntse, a hangsly, a ritmus, az intonci, a hangz formk vltoz-
sai/vltozatai, a sztvek s az agglutinatv magyar nyelv esetben a
toldalkok elklntse, a szrendi mintk ismerete anyanyelven (ameny-
nyiben idegen nyelvrl van sz, idegen nyelven is), a hallott szveg koh-
zis eszkzeinek azonostsa, a szkincsnk nagysga, a httrismere-
tnk a tmrl, amelyrl a szveg szl, stb. mind fontos eleme a hallsr-
tsnek.
183
2. bra: A hallsrts hierarchikus felpts modellje (Gsy, 2005:148)
1
Br e mrsek a nyelvi kszsgek kzl alapveten a szvegrtst veszik clba, azon-
ban hasonlsga a hallsrtssel lehetv teszi, hogy utaljunk a mrsek eredmny-
re.
184
globlis (extenzv) hallsrts: a hallott szveg ltalnos megr-
tse a cl (pl. a trtnet elmeslse),
szelektv hallsrts: adott szempont rszlet rdekel bennnket
(pl. a szereplk jellemzse), idesorolhat a szvegrtsbl is mr
ismert 'skimming' (a legfbb tartalmi pontok krli tmrts) s a
'scanning' (az adott tartalmi rszlet tbbszri elfordulsnak k-
vetse),
informcitranszfer: tkp. a szvegrts mlysgnek ellenrzse
(pl. rajz ksztse a hallott szveg alapjn).
185
foszl szvegrszeket, hogy vgl megrtsk, rtelmezni tudjuk a sz-
veg tartalmt (ld. a 2. brt).
A szkincs a szavak, mint nyelvi elemek vgtelen halmaza. Azok al-
kotjk a mondatokat, amelyeket az rts sorn szemantikailag s szin-
taktikailag elemznk. Minl gazdagabb a szkincsnk, annl knnyebben
trtnik ez a feldolgozs, gyorsabban zajlik a sztvek s a toldalkok
elklntse (Peacock, 2001, idzi Bacsa, 2012:171), s vlheten a me-
mrinkbl is knnyebben elhvhatak a szavak (van minek eljnni,
mg egy szegnyes szkincs esetn kevsb), s nem utolssorban a
nagyobb szkincs tbbfle asszocicira ad lehetsget, azaz maga az
asszocici is knnyebb. A szkincset pedig sok-sok olvasssal fejleszt-
hetjk.
A bemutatsra kerl felmrs magyar anyanyelvi beszlkkel k-
szlt. A hallsrtst az anyanyelvi beszlkn tl azonban szemllhetjk
az idegen nyelvi hallsrts tekintetben is, ezrt rdekes megvizsglni
az anyanyelvi s az idegen nyelvi kszsgek egymsra hatst.
Egyes kutatk (Sparks, Patton, Ganschow, Humbach s Javorsky,
2008, valamint Sparks, Patton, Ganschow s Humbach, 2009) sajt
kvetkeztetseikre s szakirodalmi pldkra hivatkozva fogalmaztk
meg, hogy az idegen nyelv tanulsnak sikeressgben az anyanyelvi
kszsgek fejlettsge meghatroz jelentsggel br (idzi Somin,
2011). Longitudinlis vizsglataikban a vizsglati alanyok iskolba lp-
stl kezdden tz ven keresztl kvettk nyomon a tanulk nyelvi
fejldst, s hasonltottk ssze az anyanyelvi kszsgek fejlettsgt az
idegennyelv-tanuls kezdetekor (kilencedik vfolyam elejn) felvett
nyelvrzk-mrseknek, valamint az egy-kt vnyi idegennyelv-tanuls
utni L2-mrseknek az eredmnyeivel (v. Somin, 2011:59). Sparks
s Ganschow megllaptst, mely szerint az anyanyelv elsajttsa biz-
tostja az alapot az idegen nyelv(ek) megtanulshoz a ksbbiekben,
szmos kutat vizsglata igazolta. (Tnczos, 2006:5) Kutatsaik az n.
Nyelvi kdolsi klnbsg hipotzis (Lingustic Coding Differences
Hypothesis, LCDH, v. GanschowSparksJavorsky, 1998) megfogal-
mazshoz is elvezettek, amely tbbek kztt megllaptja, hogy a
nyelvet alkot sszetevk (pldul fonolgia, ortogrfia, szintaktika, de
nem a szemantika) brmelyikvel kapcsolatos nehzsg negatvan befo-
lysolja mind az anya-, mind az idegen nyelv tanulst (v. Tnczos,
2006:5). Ez azt jelenti a gyakorlatban, hogy a nyelvet alkot sszetevk
ismerett, kszsg szintjn trtn felismerst s hasznlatt fejleszt
feladattpusok klns tekintettel a fonolgiai, ortogrfiai s szintaktikai
jelensgekre nagyban hozzjrulhatnak mind az anyanyelvi, mind az
idegen nyelvi kszsgek, gy a hallsrts fejldshez is.
186
Ez az sszefggs vlheten a nyelvrzkkel ll szoros kapcsolatban
(nem vletlenl mrtk azt is), hiszen a szakemberek rmutattak, hogy a
nyelvtanuls sikeressgnek leghatkonyabb elrejelzje tovbbra is
konzisztensen a nyelvrzk. (Skehan, 1989; Carroll, 1990; Parry s
Child, 1990; Ott, 2003) idzi Tnczos (2006:4). Ez a nyelvrzkkel
kapcsolatos llspont nem azt mutatja meg, hogy meg tudunk-e tanulni
valamely idegen nyelvet (gyakran ugyanis a htkznapokban helytelenl
ezt gondoljk nyelvrzknek), hanem azt vetti elre, hogy milyen gyor-
san haladunk a nyelvi kszsgeink fejlesztsben (anyanyelven is s az
idegennyelv-tanulsban is) a megfelelen megvlasztott felttelekkel
(tananyag, tanulsi stratgik stb.), a megfelel motivcival s kitarts-
sal.
A nyelvrzkkel foglalkoz kutatk llspontja egyntetnek tekinthe-
t a nyelvrzket alkot kpessgek meghatrozsban: a nyelvrzket
alkot tbb fggetlen kpessg hrom nagy csoportba oszthat: mem-
ria-, auditv s analitikai kpessgek. (Ott 1996, idzi Tnczos 2006:3).
A Harvard Egyetem kutati mr a 20. szzad 50-es veiben megllap-
tottk s ez az llspont mig szinte alig vltozott , hogy a nyelvelsaj-
tts ngy, egymstl fggetlen kpessgbl ll, ezek az albbiak:
187
Magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi vizsglat (Tth va)
A hallgatk nyelvismerete:
188
Hallgatink nyelvismerete sszessgben jnak mondhat, a tanult nyel-
vek kre is imponl.
Nyelvvizsga adatok:
189
A hallsrtsi feladatot tartom a legnehezebb nyelvvizsga fela-
datnak, nem szeretem.
(zleti angol nyelvet tanul hallgat)
190
1. tblzat: Az ltalnos idegen nyelvet tanul hallgatk megoszlsa
nyelvek s csoportok szerint
191
0 5 6 6, 7 7, 8 8, 9 9,5 10 N= 71 f
5 5 5
- -
4, 5,
5 5
elgtelen 2 2 2
(1)
elgsges 6 6 6
(2)
kzepes (3) 7 4 3 7
j (4) 13 8 5 13
jeles (5) 43 1 1 8 9 2 43
1 3
sszesen 71 2 6 7 13 43 71
192
7. tblzat: A 3. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa
193
Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pontszm %
ltalnos 34 - 109 109 76 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 20 - 51 51 72 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 54 - 160 160 74 % 214
194
11. tblzat: A 7. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa
195
14. tblzat: A 10. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa
196
sszegzs
197
az eredmny rvendetes, mg akkor is, ha ez anyanyelvi hallsrtsi
feladat volt.
198
mindssze 49 f, a vlaszolk 23%-a rt el maximlis pontot, jellemzen
6-8 kztti felsorols volt, amely 0.5 pontot rt.
Az 1. krds nehzsge valszn abban rejlik, hogy mg nem tudtak
teljes mrtkben koncentrlni a feladatra, ezrt sokan csak egy vlaszt
rtak, az elvrt kett helyett. A jellemz pontszm itt 0.5 pont volt.
A harmadik legnehezebb krds az ltalnos nyelvet tanulknl a 6.,
a szakmai nyelvet tanulknl pedig a 3. szm krds volt, az eredmny
mindkt esetben 74 %.
A 6. krdsnl az volt a jellemz, hogy sokan egyltaln nem vla-
szoltak, ezrt a kt jellemz pontszm ennl a krdsnl a 0 s az 1 pont
volt. (azaz vagy tudta, vagy nem.)
A 3. krdsnl a jellemz pontszm a 0.5 pont volt, kt informcit
kellett volna megadni, ebbl tbbnyire az indoklst tartalmaz rsz elma-
radt, ez okozhatta a szernyebb teljestmnyt.
199
A 7. krds nehezebbnek bizonyult, a szvegben nem szerepelt, br
gyakoribb az elfordulsa, a 8. krds viszont kzelebb llt a hallott sz-
veg tmjhoz, ezrt eredmnyesebben megoldottk a feladatot.
200
A hallott szveg rthet volt, jl tagolt. Az elhangzottak nagy r-
szt mr tudtam, megjegyzse nem okozott gondot. A terem
akusztikja is j volt, gy tisztn rthet volt minden.
(zleti nmetet tanul hallgat)
201
10. Mi a leglnyegesebb klnbsg a meghls s az influenza kztt?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
202
Felhasznlt irodalom
http://www.anyanyelv-pedagogia.hu/cikkek.php?id=25
Hinkel, E. (2006): Current perspectives on teaching the four skills.
TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 109-127.
Klmn L. Molnr C. (2009): A nyelvi nevels mdszertana. Educatio
Trsadalmi Szolgltat Nonprofit Kft.
Somin Hrebik Olga (2011): Az anyanyelv-elsajtts s az idegennyelv-
tanuls sszefggseinek megkzeltsei egy kzs rtelmezsi
keret lehetsge. Magyar Pedaggia. 111. vf. 1. szm 53-77.
Sznt Anna (2013): A halls utni szvegrts kisiskolsoknl, nhny
szociolingvisztikai tnyez tkrben. Anyanyelv-pedaggia,
2013/4.
http://www.anyanyelv-pedagogia.hu/cikkek.php?id=482
Tnczos Judit (2006): A kognitv folyamatok zavarainak hatsa az idegen
nyelv tanulsra. Iskolakultra. 2006/11. 3-11
Tindall, E.Nisbet, D. (2010): Exploring the Essential Components of
Reading. Journal of Adult Education. Information Series, No. 1,
Vol. 39, 2010
***
203
CSORBA LSZL
KONTRASZELEKCI S A HAZAI
FELSOKTATS
Abstract
A kontraszelekci
204
fokozd mrtkben alulrazzk, amely a magasabb minsg termk-
kel jelentkez eladkat ugyancsak fokozd mrtkben tartja tvol a pi-
actl. Ebben az esetben teht a vevk nem kpesek megtlni a ter-
mkminsget, s intzmnyi segtsg hinyban ez a piac leplst
eredmnyezi. A kontraszelekci ebben az esetben a vevi oldali szerep-
lk tudshinynak kvetkezmnye, mghozz nem szndkolt mdon.
A vevk kifejezetten szeretnk felismerni a magasabb minsget, ldoz-
nnak is r ezzel arnyosan tbbet, de erre kptelenek.
Arrow (1979) az rak bizonytalansgnl is jelentsebbnek tlte a
megvsroland ru minsgnek bizonytalansgt. Az r s a nem r
jelleg pldul minsgre vonatkoz jelzsek egyformn szerepet
jtszanak a gazdasgi szereplk dntsei sorn. Egy biztosttrsasg,
ha nem kpes a lehetsges gyfelek rossz minsg hnyadnak kisz-
rsre, akkor a kontraszelekci jelensge teret nyerhet, s egyre inkbb a
legmagasabb krtrtsre ignyt tarthat gyfelek ktnek majd biztostst
a rossz portfli miatti magasabb ron. Ahogy romlik az gyflportfli, s
emelkednek a biztostsi djak, gy maradnak egyre inkbb tvol a bizto-
stsi piactl a j minsg gyfelek. A trsasgnak teht erfesztse-
ket kell tennie annak rdekben, hogy a j s a rossz minsg gyfele-
ket megklnbztetve egymstl (screening szr elmlet), min-
denkinek arnyos biztostsi djat tudjon ajnlani. Nem r jelleg jelz-
sek, informcik felkutatsra, kiknyszertsre fordtott kiads megt-
rlhet ez ltal. A j minsg gyfeleknek is rdekk arra vonatkozan
hiteles jelzst kibocstaniuk (signaling jelzs elmlet), hogy k j
minsg gyflnek szmthatnak.
A signaling elmlet eredetileg az oktats vonatkozsban szletett
Spence-nek tulajdontva, (Spence, 1973), hogy a leend munkavllalk
pldul egy megfelel elismertsggel diploma megszerzsvel miknt
cskkenthetik a leend munkaadk nehzsgeit a munkra jelentkezk
rostlsakor. Amennyiben a diploma megszerzsnek kltsgei arny-
ban llnak az ltala elrhet magasabb fizetssel, msrszt a diploms
munkavllali minsge arnyban ll az ltala munkahelyn ltrehozott
j rtkkel, gy az rintett piacon a munkaadk kltsghatkonyabb
vlnak, ugyanakkor biztostott vlik a jvbeni megfelel szakmai utn-
ptls is. Spencer ksbb kiterjesztette elmlett lnyegben valamennyi
piacra, s rmutatott, megfelel jelzsek gazdasgi intzmnyeslsvel
mind az eladk, mind a vevk tudshinya jelentkeny mrtkben ptol-
hat (Spence, 2002). A szereplk kpesek megtallni a szmukra meg-
felel minsg, a piac msik oldaln ll szereplt, elfogadhat szintre
cskken a bizonytalansg s a kockzat mrtke, a piaci tranzakcik
szma nvekszik, vagy legalbbis relatve kedvezbben alakul. J pl-
dk erre a nagy internetes kereskedhzak, ahogy minstsi rendszerk
205
rvn lehetv teszik a msik fl gazdasgi elletnek jobb megisme-
rst, a megfelel adott r mellett a lehet legmagasabb minsg
potencilis partner megtallst, felismerst.
A screening elmlet kidolgozsa az oktatsra is Spence-hez kapcso-
ldik (Spence, 1973), de Stiglitz adta meg az ltalnostott modellt
(Stiglitz, 1975). Az alapproblma hasonl az Akerlof-fle tragacspiachoz.
A hitelezni kvn bank olyan minsg gyfelekhez szeretne kihelyezni
pnzt, akiktl vissza is kapja, kamatostul, hatridben. Ha nem tesz
semmit, akkor egyre nagyobb arnyban olyanok kvnnak hitelt felvenni,
akik finoman szlva is kockzatos gyflnek tekinthetk. A visszafizets
idszak azonban majd a jvben kezddik el, de ma kell a banknak dn-
teni. Kzenfekv, hogy tbb-kevsb szigor felttelrendszerrel meg-
prblja az gyfelek kzl kiszrni a megfelel minsgeket, hogy az-
tn majd nekik tegyen ajnlatot. A szrs egy kvetelmnyrendszer alap-
jn trtnik, amelyek teljeslse esetn megfelel mrtkben valszn-
sthet, hogy az gyfl j, minsgi gyfl lesz. A gazdasgi szerep-
lknl termszetesen nem jdonsg ez az eljrs, gyakorta alkalmazzk,
belertve a magnszemlyeket is, s nem csak gazdasgi dntsek ese-
tben. Mint ahogy arra Bester is rmutat (1985), lnyeges a szrs szi-
gorsgnak finomhangolsa. Tl nagy szigor a minsgi gyfelek egy
rsznek elvesztsvel ugyangy hanyatlsba taszthatja a piacot,
mint a kontraszelekcis folyamatok trnyerse. Tlsgos lazasg viszont
mg ronthat is a helyzeten a kontraszelekci idbeni lefutsa szempont-
jbl. Termszetesen a szrs ismtld alkalmazsa a piac egyik olda-
ln a msik oldali szereplket arra sztnzheti, bizonyos piacokon
knyszertheti, hogy a szrs felttelrendszernek eleget tev jelzseket
tudjk magukrl kibocstani (Riley, 2001).
Kornai Jnos a szocialista orszgok gyakorlatt vizsglva a mennyi-
sg s minsg sszefggsrendszerben (1993: 212) bemutatja, hogy
a mennyisg s a minsg kztt sajtos tvlts is rvnyeslhet. A
minsg rovsra valsul meg a mennyisgi nvekeds. Az adott piac
szempontjbl termszetesen kvnatos lenne a minsg javtsa, illetve
fenntartsa nagyobb mennyisg esetn is, azonban amint arra Kornai
rmutat (Uo. 213) a brokratikus koordinci erre vagy nem kpes,
vagy ezt nem is igazn kvnja kiknyszerteni. A szocialista vllalatok a
szerzdseket rendszeresen s bntetlenl megsrthetik (U. 523) ha
nrdekk ezt kvnja. Ebben az esetben teht nem arrl van sz, hogy
a magasabb minsget nem kpesek a vevk felismerni, s megfelelen
rtkelni, hanem sajtos egyni rdekeiket kvetve nem akarjk.
rdemes a tovbbiakban nmileg grcs al venni, hogy miknt le-
hetsges az, hogy br a szerepl meg tudja klnbztetni a magasabb
minsg jszgot, ezt mgsem teszi, s ez itt nem rkrds.
206
A megbz-gynk s a kontraszelekci elmlett sszekapcsolta
Harrison s Harrel (1993) is. A vllalat menedzsmentje mint a tulajdonos
megbzk gynkei hatroznak projektek beindtsrl, megvalsts-
rl. Mivel rdekeik eltrek a tulajdonosokitl, s tbblet informcikkal is
rendelkeznek velk szemben a projektek s a vllalat jvedelmezsge
szempontjbl, gy sok esetben nem a vllalat s a tulajdonosok szm-
ra kedvezbb, jobb minsget fogadjk el, hanem a gyengbb, alacso-
nyabb minsget nyjtt. Az Amerikai Egyeslt llamokban egybknt a
menedzsment ilyen visszalsszer gyakorlatt a korrupcihoz soroljk,
hiszen egy kzssg rdekei kerlnek felldozsra magnrdekek rv-
nyestse okn, mghozz szablyellenesen. A hivatali korrupci hason-
lan felfoghat a megbz-gynk elmlet keretben, azzal a klnbsg-
gel, hogy a hivatalokat ellenrz politikusok maguk is a vlasztpolgrok
gynkei. Teht ebben az esetben az gynkk gynkeirl van sz.
Mint ahogyan Guriev (2004) is bemutatja, a korrupci azzal, hogy a hiva-
talnokok rszt kvetelnek maguknak a projektek kivitelezsi kltsgeibl,
vagy bevteleibl, a legmagasabb minsget irtjk folyamatosan, szisz-
tematikusan. Hiszen a gyztesek nem a legjobbak lesznek tipikusan,
nekik nem lenne ugyanis szksgk korrupcira ahhoz, hogy nyerjenek.
De mg ha esetenknt a legmagasabb minsg is kerl kivlasztsra,
megsznik a gazdasgi sztnzs a tovbbi minsgfejlesztsre. Teht
mindenkppen fokozatosan eltnik a minsgi jszg a piacrl, egyre
gyengbb minsg egyre nagyobb krokat okozhat a kzssgnek.
Kornai Jnos a puha kltsgvets korlt elemzsekor rmutat arra
(1997, 944. o.), hogy kemny kltsgvetsi korlt esetn let-hall kr-
dse a szereplnek, hogy jvedelmkbl megfelel hatkonysgot elrve
fedezni tudjk kiadsaikat. Puha kltsgvetsi korlt mellett azonban a
szerepl mr nem a verseny termszetes szelekcijval szembesl. Aki-
nek a termszetes szelekci ldozatv kellene vlnia, azok is tovbb
virulhatnak, hiszen tnyleges vagy a hatkonyabbakhoz kpest rela-
tv vesztesgeik fedezsre kerlnek. Amennyiben az llam a megment,
gy kzvetlenl, vagy kzvetve, a sikeres szereplk nyeresgt elvve
teremti el a forrsokat e vesztesgfedezshez, jvedelemptlshoz. (
Uo. 948. o.) Ebbl is addik, hogy kontraszelektv folyamatok nyerhetnek
teret, nem kltsgcskkent, s/vagy termk-rtknvel minsgfej-
leszts, s az ebbl add ersd kltsghatkonysg fel val halads-
ra sztnzi a verseny a szereplket.
Rgtn felmerl a krds, hogy amennyiben a puha kltsgvetsi kor-
lt egyfajta sajtos forrsbsg, akkor az ezzel szembesl vllalkozs
vezeti mirt nem hasznljk ki ezt a lehetsget arra, hogy magasabb
minsg rutinokat ptsenek ki a szervezetknl, nveljk jvbeni ver-
senykpessgket. Mg akkor is, ha erre klnsebb szksg, piaci,
207
brokratikus knyszer nincs, ha msrt nem azrt, hogy tartalkokat k-
pezzenek a rendszerben a jvbeni elvrsoknak val aktulis megfele-
ls cljbl: racsnihats (Kornai, Maskin, Roland 2004b, 784. o.)
Az llami vllalatoknl nem volt lnyegi klnbsg a kiemelkeden,
vagy az alacsony szinten teljest vllalatvezetk, ahogy az orszgos
nagyvllalat vagy helyi vllalat vezetinek munkabre kztt sem. A ter-
mels korszerstse, vagy a vgtermk fejlesztse azonban kezdet-
ben mindenkpp fokozott erfesztst, ptllagos erforrsokat, jelen-
tkeny bizonytalansgot s kockzatvllalst ignyel, amely ldozatokrt
a majdani nyeresg nyjthat krptlst. Azonban ha a vllalat mrete s
a nyeresgessg mrtke nem befolysolja jelentkeny mdon a veze-
tk javadalmazst, akkor nincs meg a kell sztnz er arra nzve,
hogy lnyegi erfesztseket tegyen a vezets a kltsgek cskkentse,
a nyeresgessg nvelse rdekben. (Kornai, Maskin, Roland 2004a,
619. o.) De ugyanez a helyzet a beosztottak vonatkozsban is: a sike-
res jtsnak nincs, vagy jelentktelen a jutalmazsa a kzpont rszrl
mg vezet szinten is, ami alig rinti a feladatot tnylegesen elvgzket
(Kornai, 2010. 14. o.).
Tmnk szempontjbl klnsen rdekes a szocialista mezgazda-
sgi termelszvetkezetek mkdse az 1970-es, 80-as vekben. A ma-
gyar mezgazdasg a vilg lvonalba kerlt kltsghatkonysg, hoz-
zadott rtk, alkalmazott fejlett technolgia szerint (Cski, 1983). A ha-
zai mezgazdasg egy lakosra vettve 93,1%-t volt kpes ellltani,
mint az USA agrrszektora. (Merrese, 1983, 331. o.) A tulajdonformk
hierarchijban a szvetkezeti az llamit kvette ugyan, de megelzte a
magnt. A parasztsg is csak msodlagos bzis s clcsoport volt a
munkssghoz kpest a prtllam szmra s szempontjbl, ugyanak-
kor biztostani kellett a vidki lakossg foglalkoztatst, s gondoskodni
kellett az orszg lelmiszerszksgletnek kielgtsrl is. A puha klt-
sgvetsi korlt a termelszvetkezetek esetn is rvnyeslt, ha nem is
olyan mrtkben, mint az llami vllaltok esetben. Azonban lnyeges
klnbsgek addtak a szvetkezeti vezetk s az llami vezetk kztt.
A szvetkezeti vezetket a tagsg vlasztotta 4 vente. Igaz, e vlaszts
nem volt teljes mrtkben szabad, hiszen a jellteket az llamprt el-
szrte, ugyanakkor a felsvezetknl alapfelttel volt a szakirny vg-
zettsg. Minden termelszvetkezet menedzsmentjben legalbb 2-3
agrrvgzettsg, s 1 pnzgyi vgzettsg szemly llt akkor, amikor
az agrrkpzs vilgsznvonal volt, s nem tmegkpzs folyt. A munka-
brek tekintetben hasonl volt a szvetkezetek s az llami vllalatok
helyzete: a dolgozk munkabre jelentkeny mdon nem trhetett el a
kartrsaktl, de a beosztottak sem a vezet dolgozktl. Ugyanakkor a
vezetk s a beosztottak szmra vente nyeresgrszesedsrl dnttt
208
a kzgyls. Ezt egsztette mg ki az integrlt hztji gazdasgok s
szakcsoportok, illetve ipari tevkenysget folytat mellkzemgak rend-
szere. gy a puha kltsgvetsi korlt ellenre a mezgazdasgban a 80-
as vek kzepig alig rvnyesltek kontraszelektv folyamatok, ntt a
kibocsts, s ezzel egyidejleg a minsg, a tagok s a vezetk tnyle-
ges jvedelme, javultak a hatkonysgi mutatk, lenjr technolgik
kerltek alkalmazsra, st fejlesztsre. Nem volt ritka az sem a 70-es
vektl, hogy tartsan gyenge teljestmnyt nyjt termelszvetkezetet
szomszdos, hatkonyabb szvetkezetbe integrltak.
A szocialista termelszvetkezetek mkdsnek ellehetetlenlsvel
a meglehetsen hatkonynak s produktvnak bizonyult hztji, szak-
csoporti gazdlkodsnak bealkonyult. Az szvetkezet technolgija
mvelsi eszkzk jelents rsze, feldolgoz kapacits dnt hnyada
ltalban a korbbi vezetk irnytsa al kerlt gazdasgi trsasgokba
kerlt. A hztji gazdasgok tbbsge kiegszlt a szvetkezetbl meg-
szerzett fldterletekkel, ritkbban gpekkel, felszerelsekkel. A korbbi
rdekkzssg fellazult: a vezetvlasztsba a korbbi tagoknak nem
volt beleszlsuk, a nyeresgbl sem rszesedhettek. Az j integrto-
rok ltalban valjban mr csak felvsrlk voltak, akik a felvsrlsi
rak leszortst tartottk ltalban megfelelnek ahhoz, hogy minl na-
gyobb nyeresget rhessenek el. Szksgk volt a minl magasabb mi-
nsg alapanyagra, de a magasabb minsget nem szndkoztak
megfizetni, s ltalban nem is fizettk, fizetik meg. Semmilyen elnyt
nem jelent teht a magasabb minsg jszg az ellltjnak, elvileg
brmikor alacsonyabb minsg ellltsra trhet t. Fontos hangs-
lyozni, hogy ebben az esetben nem klcsnsen egyttmkd, egyms
irnt elktelezett felekrl van sz, hanem a knlati oldali szerepl gaz-
dasgilag aszimmetrikusan fgg a termkt megvsrltl (Balogh,
2007. 18-19. o.), aki ezzel visszalhet.
Mint Akerlof modelljben (1970) is lthattuk, ilyenkor a magasabb mi-
nsg fokozatosan el is tnik a piacrl a knlati oldalon. Krds, milyen
hossz ez az tmenet. A knlati oldal szerepli ugyanis tudsuk, kpes-
sgeik birtokban alaktottk ki rutinjaikat, melyek eredmnye egy adott
mennyisg s minsg jszg. Elkpzelhet, hogy maga a technol-
gia sem teszi lehetv gyengbb minsg ellltst. Msrszt a gyen-
gbb minsget elllt termelsi folyamat ms rutinokat ignyel a
munkaer szempontjbl is. A minsgront rutinokat is ki kell dolgozni,
meg kell tanulni, ez is erfesztst ignyel. Harmadrszt akr a termel
stratgit alkot tulajdonosai, vezeti, akr a dolgozk kulturlis begya-
zottsga, normarendszere nem teszi lehetv a minsg szndkos
cskkentst, mg akkor sem, ha az nveln a szerepl nyeresgess-
gt, tllsi eslyeit. Amennyiben a magas minsg, lehet legjobb
209
jszg ellltsa mlyen begyazott normkon, szoksokon, esetleg
vallson alapul, gy ezek akr vtizedekig, genercikig is kpesek tar-
tani magukat (Williamson, 2000, 596-598. o.) Ugyanakkor az intzmnyi
talakuls, melynek motorja North (1994. 4. o.) szerint pontosan a relatv
rak megvltozsa, elbb-utbb mdosthatja a magasabb minsg el-
lenttelezs nlkli nyjtsra vonatkoz intzmnyeket, gy akr elfo-
gadott vlhat akr a kzssg elhagysa is pldul munkahelyvlts,
emigrls formjban.
Kontraszelekcinak nevezzk teht azt a folyamatot, melynek sorn
adott piacon a vevk nem kpesek, vagy nem akarjk olyan mrtkben
elnyben rszesteni a piac fennmaradshoz, illetve tovbb fejlds-
hez szksges jszgminsget, hogy az megrizze, illetve nvelje r-
szesedst a knlaton bell. Kontraszelekcival a piac lepl, zsugoro-
dik, marginalizldik, vgl sszeomlik.
A kontraszelekci erssge annl nagyobb, minl kevsb lvez rela-
tv elnyt a kvnatos minsg jszg a minsg alattihoz kpest.
210
stmnnyel hasonl rtkelst szerezhetnek a gyengbbek. Hasonl ha-
tst gyakorol a meg nem engedett mdszerek hasznlata a szmonkr-
sek folyamn. E rossz mintk terjedsnek oka fkppen a kontrasze-
lekci az oktatsban, msrszt a trsadalmi normk tern lezajl hasonl
ltalnos folyamatok.
Oktati kar. Az oktatk javadalmazsa a versenyszfra fel is kedve-
ztlen, de az oktati karon bell sincs megfelelen ltalnosan rendezve
a minsg jutalmazsa. Az elmeneteli rendszer gyakran csak formli-
san elktelezett a minsgi oktats, s tudomnyos tevkenysg folytat-
sa mellett. A folyamatosan hanyatl ltalnos hallgati sznvonal ugyan-
csak nem a minsgi oktati kar ersdsnek kedvez.
Kibocstott hallgatk. A diplomsok meghatroz hnyada az llami,
nkormnyzati szfrban helyezkedik el, ahol a kapcsolati tke nagyobb
sllyal esik latba, mint a diploma mgtt hzd tuds, kpessgek. A
privt szfrban sem fejldtt ki ltalnosan a kell rzkenysg, fog-
konysg a minsg irnt, igaz, itt nem az akarat, hanem a megfelel in-
formltsg hinyzik tipikusan. Nem kedvez a minsg megfelel rtke-
lsnek, hogy az orszg jelents rszeirl elvndorolnak a kpzett szak-
emberek, s gy a marad esetlegesen gyengbb minsg munkaer is
hasonl rtkelsben rszesl, mint a magasabb.
Hallgatk iskolavlasztsa. Miutn a hallgatk jelents rsze nem a
tuds megszerzse cljbl kvn diplomt szerezni, ugyanakkor a kibo-
cstott diplomk minsge kztt a piac nem tesz arnyos klnbsget,
gy a hallgatk jelents rsze gyenge minsget nyjt, alacsony kve-
telmnyeket tmaszt iskolk vlasztsban rdekelt. Olyan tuds di-
kokra is rvnyes mindez, akik szigorbb kvetelmnyek kztt is meg-
llnk a helyket.
Hallgatk kurzusvlasztsa. A hallgatk tipikusan nem egy megfelel
sznvonal tudshalmaz megszerzsre, hanem meghatrozott kreditr-
tk, meghatrozott tanulmnyi tlag elrsre trekednek. A magas k-
vetelmnyeket llt kurzusok gy kifejezetten kerlendk, az ilyeneket
tart oktatkkal egytt, mg akkor is, ha kivl pedaggusokrl, tudsok-
rl van is sz. Amennyiben a hallgatk eltt nem ll prhuzamos lehet-
sg az ilyen kurzusok elkerlsre, sok esetben a maguk mdjn a kve-
telmnyek leszlltsra, vgs esetben az oktat eltvoltsra tesznek
ksrletet.
Intzmnyek, szakok akkreditcija. A munkaadk bizonytalansgt
cskkentend hoztk ltre az akkreditci intzmnyt, hogy viszonylag
egysges kvetelmnyrendszer alapjn kerlhessenek kibocstsra a
diplomk, s velk a hallgatk a klnbz ipargi piacokra. Azonban, ha
nagysgrendi minsgi eltrsek ellenre, a ktelez adminisztratv fel-
211
tteleket teljestve szinte brki akkreditcihoz juthat, az jelentkeny ht-
rnyba hozza a minsgi tevkenysget folytat oktatsi intzmnyeket.
Beruhzsok, plyzati forrsok, egyedi tmogatsok. Az intzm-
nyek sajt forrsbl val fejldse, fejlesztse elhanyagolhat mrtk a
plyzati esetnkben dnt rszben EU ltal finanszrozott forrsok-
hoz, illetve az eseti, clzott kormnytmogatsokhoz kpest. A sikeres
forrsszerzs nincs sszhangban az egyetemek, fiskolk ltal ltreho-
zott minsgi jszghalmazzal. Tbbet nyom a latba a politikai kapcso-
latrendszer, illetve j plyzatr appartus, msrszt sok beruhzs,
fejleszts az iskolk ftevkenysgvel sincsenek kell sszhangban.
Gyakran ellenttesek a plyz hosszabb tv rdekeivel is, hiszen
olyan kapacitsokat hoznak ltre, melyek fenntartsra forrs sincs.
Nemzetkzileg is rtkelt egyetem nem jut forrshoz, esetleg kzismer-
ten gyenge minsg kpzst produkl vidki fiskola dskl a kollgi-
umi s kutati frhelyekben egy szmra is msodlagos karon.
212
ban trekedtek arra, hogy az egyetemek inkbb kiegsztsk egymst,
mintsem konkurljanak. Tbb-kevsb ez sikerlt is a 18. szzad vg-
ig. Az egyetemek mint a Samuelson-fle telepes trsadalom kpviseli
hdtottk meg Eurpt. A klnbz egyetemek, s egyb felsfok isko-
lk ltnek, mkdsnek sszehangolshoz termszetesen jabb ki-
egszt jtkszablyok, intzmnyek megszletse vlt szksgess.
Ezek vagy a regultorok ltal szlettek meg, vagy maguk a piaci szerep-
lk alkottk meg ket a chrendszerhez hasonlatos mdon. A verseny
ugyanis bizonytalansgot teremt, ami rvidtvon legalbbis tbblet kia-
dsokat okoz a szereplk rszrl. Termszetes teht, hogy ezt ameddig
csak ez lehetsges, a szereplk el kvntk kerlni.
Az egyetemek, fiskolk szmossga, a nemzetllamok rivalizlsa,
az egyre marknsabban eltr s tkz stratgik a 19. szzad elejre
ltalnoss tettk azt, hogy a korbbi sszehangol intzmnyek meg-
gyengltek, s fokozatosan tadtk helyket a verseny intzmnyeinek.
Verseny kezddtt az oktatkrt, a hallgatkrt, a forrsokrt. A verseny
alapveten ktfle lehet, attl fggen, hogy mekkora az intzmnyest
szereplk relevns tudsnak, illetve a szkssg mrtknek egyms-
hoz viszonytott arnya. Amennyiben a tuds relatve szmottevbb, gy
az rintett szerepli kr kpes az sszehangoltsg rovsra az egyedi
felelssget olyan mrtkben s felttelekkel megnvelni, hogy az egye-
di erfesztsek eredjeknt mind az egynek, mind a piac kedvezbb
helyzetbe kerlhet. Ebben az esetben ugyanis a szereplk nmaguk sor-
sa irnti tbbletfelelssg ltal hajtva tudsukkal egymst is tmogatva
olyan mkdsi tartalkokat trnak fel, melyek felhasznlsval keve-
sebb hallgatval, oktatval, forrssal is kpesek vltozatlan stratgiai
cljaikat megvalstani. A fair play intzmny adta eslyekkel brki lhet,
de ehhez tbblet-erfesztseket szksges tennie. Folyamatosan tarta-
lkokat kell feltrnia, majd ezeket felhasznlnia, mindehhez pedig term-
szetesen folyamatosan jabb s jabb tartalkokat ltre is kell hoznia.
Amennyiben ezek a tartalk-feltr intzmnyek sikeresek, a tll sze-
repli kr valamennyi tagja relis mdon kpes lehet az sszehangoltsg
llapothoz hasonlan cljainak megfelel eredmnyessggel val reali-
zlsra.
Nem minden esetben sikerl megfelelen a tartalk-feltr intzm-
nyek ltrehozsa, ms esetekben a szkssg mr olyan mrtk, hogy
a szerepli tartalkok mozgstsa mellett sem tarthat fenn a szerepli
kr egsze a piacon. A harcnak, a hbornak is megvannak az intzm-
nyei, amelyek abbl a szempontbl tekinthetk elsdlegesen unfair-nek,
hogy msok erfesztseitl dnt rszben fggnek a szereplk, kzve-
tettebb vlik a sajt erfesztsek s a sikeressg kapcsolata. A szerep-
lk alapveten msok rovsra kzdhetik le a sajt problmikat. A sze-
213
lekcis intzmnyeket a relatve korltozott tuds, a mgttesen fokoz-
d szkssg knyszerti ki. Egyidejleg mindenkinek mr elvileg sem
lehet helye a piacon. A piac tarts fennmaradsa rdekben viszont nem
mindegy, kik lesznek a tllk. A rjtszsba azoknak a szereplknek
kell bejutniuk, akik azutn tartsan kpesek a piacot vagy sszehangolt
llapotban, vagy tartalk-feltr verseny kzepette mkdtetni. A kontra-
szelekci ebben a megkzeltsben teht az, amikor tllv olyan piaci
szereplk vlnak a hosszabb tv szempontjbl ideiglenesen akik
nem kpesek ltrehozni, ltrehozatni a szelekcis intzmny helyett a
szereplk egyttmkdsre pt versenyt, vagy a szerepli tevkeny-
sget sszehangol kartelt. A tartss vl szelekci kivrezteti a meg-
marad piaci szereplket, lerombolja a piacot.
214
tzmnyi keretek a brokratikus koordincis mechanizmusok kisebb
rvnyeslse mellett is.
A puha kltsgvetsi korlt eleve nem innovci-bart krnyezetet
eredmnyez. Az sszehangol intzmnyek pedig kifejezetten nehezen
viselik az egyes szereplk tevkenysgnek, stratgiinak megvltoz-
st.
A rendszervltst kveten fokozatosan megntt a felsoktatsban
rsztvev hallgatk szma, mghozz gy, hogy ehhez tbbletkapacit-
sok kerltek kiptsre. A hallgatk tlagminsge ezltal is romlott, hi-
szen korbban a legkivlbbak kerlhettek a felsoktatsba. Az oktati
kar esetben szintn felersdtek a kontraszelektv folyamatok. Ez rsz-
ben a hallgatk minsgromlsra adott vlasz volt, dnten azonban az
oktati javadalmazsok vllalati, kzigazgatsi szektorral szembeni le-
maradsa, elremeneteli rendszer torzulsa kvetkeztben llt el. E kt
folyamat tartssga, a korrupci terjedse, a politikai alap kontraszelek-
ci felledse a korbban trgyalt maradk 4 terleten is fokozta a kont-
raszelektv folyamatok erssgt.
A hazai felsoktatsban ezen az oligopol-szer kis piacon az el-
mlt 25 vben nem sikerlt olyan tartalk-feltr intzmnyt, fair versenyt
ltrehozni, amely egyidejleg biztosthatn valamennyi szerepl eredm-
nyes clmegvalstst. Emiatt nem egyszeren szelekcis, hanem kont-
raszelekcis intzmnyek intzmnyesltek. Ugyanakkor lnyegben
mg egy piaci szereplt sem sikerlt a knlati oldalon likvidlni, ami a
felek tovbbi ltalnos tartalkfelshez vezet. Ebben a helyzetben pr-
blja forrsszkts, azaz a szkssg mestersges fokozsa rvn el-
rni a jelen kormnyzat, hogy a piaci szereplk tartalk-feltr intzm-
nyeket hozzanak ltre, s ezek alkalmazsa ltal vljon egyszerre klt-
sghatkonyabb s minden szempontbl minsgibb a hazai felsok-
tats. Ez egy lpsben lehetetlen, mivel ez kevsb szks krlmnyek
kztt sem sikerlt eddig.
Az elmaradt endogn intzmnyi talakuls oka elsdlegesen az,
hogy a szereplk a kontraszelekcis rvid tv bizonytalansgcskke-
nst a korbbi sszehangol intzmny nmileg eltorzult vltozatnak
eredmnyekpp lik meg, holott az sszehangoltsg mr rgen a mlt.
Msrszt eleve hinyoznak szerte a trsadalomban is a piaci szerep-
lk egyttmkdst elsegti, generl intzmnyek, s ha lteznek is,
akkor is csak formlisan, mint pldul a kamark. Harmadrszt s ez
nem hazai sajtossg a felsoktats rdekrvnyest kpessge ele-
ve gyenge. Mindehhez jrul, hogy a felsoktatsban a szereplk tbbs-
ge mr clszersget preferl az ugyan dnten informlisan ltez,
minsget kzppontba llt intzmnyek helyett. Vgl, de nem utols
215
sorban, a szereplk tbbsgnl mg mindig hinyzik a megfelel kom-
petencia a stratgiai egyttmkdshez a vezetsben.
216
stratgiai s tnyleges pnzgyi-kontrolling vezetk is szks-
geltetnek.
2. A felesleges kapacitsok leptse, ugyanakkor a feltrek-
v OECD orszghoz ill a GDP 1,1-1,3 szzalkt elr forrs-
biztosts mellett lehetsge nylik az gazatnak, hogy ismt
csak egyttesen, a kormnyzat jvhagysval olyan tartalk-
feltr verseny-intzmnyrendszert dolgozzanak ki, amely rvn
a kontraszelekcis folyamatok minimalizlhatk, magas min-
sg s fenntarthat felsoktats hozhat ltre.
A kulcs mindkt feladat elvgzshez a felsoktatsi vezetk kezben
van. Kpesek-e piaci szereplktl elvrt mrtkben s mdon egyttm-
kdni, felismerni azt, hogy mindent megprblni megrizni annyit tesz,
mint mindent kockra tenni.
Joggal merlhet fel azonban kt krds. Egyrszt, hogy egyes gyen-
ge lncszem intzmnyek mit tudnnak ajnlani a tllsrt cserbe,
vagy megfordtva, mit ajnlhatnak nekik a tbbiek a httrbe vonulsrt
cserbe. Msrszt, mi az akadlya annak, hogy az egyetemek, fiskolk
tnylegesen ipargi kartellbe tmrljenek, felosszk a piacot egyms
kztt, s megllaptsk azokat a terleteket, ahol versenyeznek egyms-
sal- a piac fejldse rdekben , s azokat ahol nem a tartalkok feltl-
tse kapcsn.
Pldul egy kisebb intzmnynek nem szksges, hogy mindenkinek
tudjon ajnlatot tenni. Elg, ha egy-egy dominns szerepl fel meg tud-
ja ezt tenni, s ezzel vlik egy kzs ajnlati-hl rszesv. Az szm-
ra szabad piaci rseket lehet felknlni, valamint elssorban forrsokat a
kompenzcihoz, mely a leplsi vesztesgeket az rintett szereplk-
nek ellenslyozhatja.
A leglis kartell ltrejttnek akadlya a szereplk relatve elgtelen
tudsa. Az intzmnyi lthatatlan kz termszetesen folyamatosan te-
szi a dolgt, de ahogy North is rmutatott nem szksgkppen hat-
kony eredmnyeket teremtve. A krlmnyekhez, kvetelmnyekhez
kpest nem kell kpessgekkel rendelkez szerepli kr nem kpes
olyan felttelrendszert a termkeny versenyhez kialaktani, mely egyfor-
mn elfogadhat a kartellt alkot oligopliumoknak, s a f forrsgazda
kormnyzatnak.
Felhasznlt irodalom
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***
219
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lszl Csorba taught Economics and Finance studies at the
Comparative Economics Department of Corvinus Budapest University
and Department of Finance of University of Debrecen. He has taught
Business Administration studies at the Department of Business
Economics of Eszterhzy College in Eger, Hungary. He is candidate for
PhD in the Management and Business Administration PhD School of
Szent Istvn University Gdll, where the theme of his thesis is
uncertainty and risk taking. He carries out research into topics of
institutional and ecological economics.
220
Krisztina Godsave graduated from College for Foreign Trade in Bu-
dapest and before taking on her current role as Country Manager for the
London Chamber of Commerce & Industry Examinations Board (LCCI),
now part of Pearson Education, she specialised in Customer Care
training for major international companies such as American Express and
Ford. Recognising that taking an examination can be a stressful event,
Kriszti has created a candidate package focused on providing timely
information and support, which combined with a range of third-generation
Business English examinations offers a vital service to both learners and
teachers.
221
Prima Dona Hapsari is an English teacher at the Faculty of
Performing Arts, Indonesia Institute of the Arts Yogyakarta known as
ISI Yogyakarta. Her major focus is on English language teaching.
Moreover, she is also a Bahasa Indonesian teacher for non-native
Indonesians. She published an English book for kids (Fun Learning Eng-
lish for Kids, 2006). She has received research grants from ISI
Yogyakarta and the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture. For
holding her master degree in English studies for English teaching prog-
ram, she is much interested in Education. However, she is also
developing her interest in Art Education and Cross-Cultural
Understanding. Currently she is also the secretary of International Affairs
Office of ISI Yogyakarta which enables her to explore the International
programs in developing any potential partnerships that ISI Yogyakarta
could develop and in sharing the positive effects on partnership programs
with ISI Yogyakarta counterparts.
Judit Agnes Kadar habil., PhD has taught American and Canadian
culture studies at the Department of American Studies of Eszterhzy
College in Eger, Hungary for 23 years, more recently with a focus on
ethnic and multicultural studies. She published a textbook (Critical
Perspectives on English-Canadian Literature, 1996). She has received
some research grants (FEFA, FEP, FRP/CEACS, JFK, Fulbright) and
held a temporary lecturing position at GCSU (Georgia, USA, 2009),
taught and did research at UNM (Albuquerque, USA, 2012-3). As for
research, she has studied alternative histories in recent western
Canadian fiction (PhD thesis), the psychological and sociological
implications of the vanished indigenous passage rites
(Othering/indigenization) in US and Canadian literature and culture, and
has published Going Indian: Cultural Appropriation in Recent North Ame-
rican Literature (2012, University of Valencia Press). In 2013, she
obtained her habilitation at ELTE University of Budapest. Currently she
explores mixed blood narratives and identity negotiation in the SW
literature and recent Nuevomexicano writing respectively. She is the
director of the International Relations Center at Eszterhzy College.
222
and their possible development in foreign language education. His main
concern is to improve students level of fluency in speaking while
maintaining accuracy.
223
Member of Scientific Committee of the 8th International Workshop on
Grapevine Trunk Diseases, Valencia, Spain (2012); Member of Scientific
Commitee of the 7th International Workshop on Grapevine Trunk
Diseases, Sta Cruz, Chile (2010); Member of Scientific Commitee of the
6th International Workshop on Grapevine Trunk Diseases, Florence, Italy
(2008); member of the Organising Commitee of 2nd International
Workshop on Grapevine Trunk Diseases, Lisbon (2001).
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student and teacher mobility programs and the coordination of related
administrative, housing and visa services.
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observation and multicultural education in the field of teacher training
also belong to her main concern.
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Kroly College. Her scientific research focuses on teaching and learning
methods in order to make the learning of mathematics more effective. In
addition, she also investigates questions such as the integration of
computers into teaching and learning mathematics in primary, secondary
and advanced levels.
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