RANK 1-ONE

Licensure Examination for Teachers Reviewer

English and Literature

Prof. Haydee Claire Beltran-Dy

July 5, 2015
GRAMMAR
PARTS OF SPEECH

Every name is called a NOUN,

As field and fountain, street and town

In place of noun the PRONOUN stands

As he and she can clap their hands

The ADJECTIVE describes a thing,

As magic wand and bridal ring

The VERB means action, something done -

To read, to write, to jump, to run

How things are done, the ADVERBS tell,

As quickly, slowly, badly, well

The PREPOSITION shows relation,

As in the street, or at the station

CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways,

Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase

The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark!

I need an exclamation mark!'

Through Poetry, we learn how each

of these make up THE PARTS OF SPEECH .

NOUNS
Nouns are naming words. It names person, places, things, titles, events and animals

A.PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS

Proper noun has two distinctive features:
1. It will name a specific item
2. It will begin with a capital letter no matter where it occurs in the sentence
Common nouns are general type of noun and written in a small letter.

Proper Nouns

The following table below are classifications of proper nouns with its common nouns
General names-Common nouns Specific names Proper Nouns
personal abbreviations of positions Dr. Engr. Prof. Atty. Lt.
complete names Miriam-Defensor Santiago
Albert Einstein, Jose P. Laurel
animal breed German shepherd, Siamese cats,
Thoroughbred horse, Phili
countries and continents Italy, Japan, Pakistan, Asia, Europe
cities New York, Quezon City, Dumagete City
Days Tuesday, Thursday Saturday,
months January, March, June
Events Christmas, Valentines day
Religions Catholic, Protestant, Born Again
languages and nationalities Italian, Latin, Spanish
newspaper and magazine Philippine Daily Inquirer, Bato Balani,
Time
books and movies The Cask of Amontillado, Harry Potter,
Frozen, Tuesdays with Morrie
organizations Reading Association of the Philippines
Social Security System
Philippine Educational Theater Association
scientific terms Pandaca Pgymea, Biology, Venus

B.ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE NOUNS

Abstract nouns are not perceived by the senses. They name ideas, feelings, concepts
ideals, emotions/feelings, states/ attributes movements and events.

Emotions/Feeling States/Attributes Ideas/Concepts/Ideals Movements/Events

s
love bravery beliefs progress
hate loyalty dreams education
anger honesty justice hospitality
peace integrity truth leisure
pride compassio culture trouble
sympathy n trust friendships
charity dedication relaxation
success

Concrete nouns are people, places, or things that are experience with the use of the five
senses

Abstract forms of nouns are very common and an important part of communication. In
many cases these types of nouns are derived from an addition of a suffix or alteration in
the root word. Child is a concrete noun, for example, but childhood is an intangible state,
so it is abstract
C.COLLECTIVE pack of dogs, hounds, books - library
NOUNS wolves camels - caravan
panel of experts candidates - slate
-nouns in group
parliament of owls cards -deck
armada of ships pit of snakes caterpillars - army
army of caterpillars, platoon of soldiers cattle - drove, herd, kine
frogs, soldiers pod of whales chicks - clutch
bank of circuits pride of lions, peacocks circuits - bank
battery of tests quiver of arrows crows - murder
bed of clams, snakes range of mountains dogs - pack
belt of asteroids school of fish eggs - clutch
bouquet of flowers shrewdness of apes experts - panel
brood of hens slate of candidates fish - school
caravan of camels sloth of bears flamingoes - stand
chain of islands sounder of boars, pigs flowers - bouquet
clan of hyenas squad of players, geese - gaggle
class of students soldiers giraffes - corps
cloud of gnats stand of flamingoes, gnats - cloud
clutter of cats trees goats - trip
clutch of chicks, eggs swarm of ants, bees, hens - brood
company of actors fkies hounds - cry, pack
colony of ants, bats, team of horses, oxen, hyenas - clan
beavers, lepers, players information - wealth
penguins thicket of trees islands - chain
congregation of plovers, tribe of monkeys, kangaroos - mob, troop
worshippers natives kittens - litter
corps of giraffes trip of goats lawyers - murder
coven of witches troop of apes, kangaroos leopards - leap
crowd of onlookers troupe of lepers - colony
culture of bacteria actors,performers lions - pride
deck of cards unit of soldiers monkeys - tribe, troop
den of snakes, thieves wad of bills, money mountains - range
division of soldiers wealth of information owls - parliament
drove of cattle yoke of oxen oxen - team, yoke
fleet of airplanes, ships puppies - litter
List of Collective Nouns
flock of birds, sheep ships - armada, fleet,
by Noun
flotilla of ships flotilla
forest of trees actors - company, troupe snakes - bed, den, nest,
gaggle of geese airplanes - fleet pit
galaxy of stars ants - colony, swarm soldiers - army, brigade,
herd of antelope, antelopes - herd company, division,
buffalo, cattle, deer, apes - troop, shrewdness platoon, squad, unit
zebra arrows - quiver sparrows - host, flight
hive of bees asteroids - belt students - class
host of sparrows bacteria - culture tests - battery
knot of toads bats - colony toads - knot
leap of leopards bears - sloth trees - forest, grove,
library of books beauties - bevy orchard, stand, thicket
litter of puppies, kittens beavers - colony, lodge trucks - convoy
lodge of beavers bees - hive, swarm turkeys - rafter
mob of kangaroos bills - wad vipers - nest
murder of crows birds - dissimulation, whales - pods
nest of mice, snakes flock, volery witches - coven
orchard of trees boars - sounder wolves - pack

D. SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

Most nouns name something you can count; for example, if you buy a bag of peanuts,
you can count each peanut in the bag--one peanut, two peanuts, three peanuts, and so on.
We call nouns like peanut count nouns, and usually we add an -s ending to show more
than one.

Singular count nouns refer to one person or thing while plural count nouns refer to more
than one person or thing. We have several ways of making count nouns plural.

Plurals of nouns- Most nouns make their plurals by simply adding s to the end (e.g.
cat/cats, book/books, journey/journeys). Some do change their endings, though. The main
types of noun that do this are:

Nouns ending in -y Nouns ending in -f or -fe

If the noun ends with a consonant plus - With nouns that end in a consonant or a
y, make the plural by changing -y to -ies: single vowel plus -f or -fe, change the -
f or -feto -ves:
singular Plural
singular Plural
Berry berries
knife Knives
activity activities
half halves
Daisy daisies
scarf scarves

If the noun ends with -ch, -s, -sh, -x, or -

z, add -es to form the plural: Nouns which end in two vowels plus -
f usually form plurals in the normal way,
singular Plural
with just an -s
church churches
singular plural
bus Buses
chief chiefs
fox Foxes
spoof spoofs

Theres one exception to this rule. If the

-ch ending is pronounced with a k Nouns ending in -o
sound, you add -s rather than -es:
Nouns ending in -o can add either -s or -
es in the plural, and some can be spelled
either way.
Singular plural

Stomach stomachs As a general rule, most nouns

Epoch epochs ending in -oadd -s to make the plural:

singular plural

solo solos

zero zeros
 avocado avocados

Those which have a vowel before

the final-o always just add -s:
singular plural

studio studios

zoo zoos

embryo embryos

Heres a list of the most common

nouns ending in -o that are always
spelled with -es in the plural:
singular plural

buffalo buffaloes

domino dominoes

echo echoes

hero heroes

mosquito mosquitoes

potato potatoes

tomato tomatoes

torpedo torpedoes

veto vetoes

Here are some of the common

nouns ending in -o that can be spelled
with either-s or -es in the plural:
 singular plural

banjo banjos or banjoes

cargo cargos or cargoes

flamingo flamingos or flamingoes

fresco frescos or frescoes

ghetto ghettos or ghettoes

halo halos or haloes

mango mangos or mangoes

memento mementos or mementoes

motto mottos or mottoes

tornado tornados or tornadoes

tuxedo tuxedos or tuxedoes

volcano volcanos or volcanoes

Plurals of foreign nouns

The plurals of words which have come into English from a foreign language such as
Latin or Greek often have two possible spellings: the foreign plural spelling and an
English one. For example, you can spell the plural of aquarium (from Latin) as
either aquaria (the Latin plural) or aquariums (the English plural).
Words of Latin origin

Heres a list of some words that came into English from Latin which can form their
plurals in two ways:

Word Latin plural English plural

Antenna antennae antennas

Appendix appendices appendixes

Cactus cacti cactuses

Curriculum curricula curriculums

Formula formulae formulas

Index indices indexes

Millennium millennia millenniums

referendum referenda referendums

stadium stadia stadiums

terminus termini terminuses

thesaurus thesauri thesauruses

vortex vortices vortexes

Note that there are a few nouns which have come into English from Latin which should
always form their plural in the Latin way. Most of these are scientific or technical terms.
The most common ones are:

Singular plural

alga algae

alumnus alumni

larva larvae

Remember too, that the plural form of octopus should always be octopuses and
never octopi. This is because the word came into English from Greek, not Latin, and so
the usual rules for Latin plurals don't apply.
Words of Greek origin

Nouns which end in -is usually come from Greek. Their plurals are made by changing
the -is to -es:

singular plural

crisis crises

analysis analyses

neurosis neuroses

Words of French origin

Certain words which have come into English from French have two possible plural
forms: the original French plural and an English one. These words end in the letters -eau,
for example:

Word French plural English plural

bureau bureaux Bureaus

chateau chateaux Chateaus

gateau gateaux Gateaus

trousseau trousseaux trousseaus

Words of Italian origin

Most words which have come into English from Italian form their plurals with an -s, as if
they were English words. For example, the Italian plural of cappuccino is cappuccini, but
when the word is used in English, its plural form is cappuccinos. Here are some more
examples:

Word Italian plural English plural

espresso espressi Espressos

pizza pizze Pizzas

risotto risotti Risottos

fresco freschi frescos orfrescoes

A notable exception to this is the word paparazzo, which keeps the Italian plural form
paparazzi in English.
There's also a group of Italian words which have entered English in their plural forms
these are typically the names for various kinds of pasta. For example:

spaghetti; tagliatelle; tortellini; cannelloni; lasagne.

Although these words are already in their Italian plural forms, they can take an -s to form
English plurals in certain contexts. For example:

They ordered three spaghettis and two cannellonis.

Here, the meaning is a dish or serving of spaghetti rather than a kind of pasta.

Note that in British English, you should spell lasagne with an e at the end. In American
English it's spelled with an -a at the end, i.e.lasagna (which is the Italian singular form,
though this is rarely if ever used in Italian itself).

Words that have come into English from foreign languages are known as loanwords.
Some of these loanwords have developed plural (or singular) forms in English that are
regarded as grammatically incorrect because they go against the grammar of the original
language.

E. COMPOUND NOUNS

A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. A compound noun is
usually [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun], but there are other combinations (see
below). It is important to understand and recognize compound nouns. Each compound
noun acts as a single unit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.

There are three forms for compound nouns:

1. open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe)

2. hyphenated - hyphen between words (six-pack)

3. closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (bedroom)

Here are some examples of compound nouns:

noun + Noun bus stop Is this the bus stop for the number 12 bus?
fire-fly In the tropics you can see fire-flies at
night.
football Shall we play football today?
adjective + Noun full moon I always feel crazy at full moon.
Blackboard Clean the blackboard please.
software I can't install this software on my PC.
verb(-ing) + Noun breakfast We always eat breakfast at 8am.
washing Put the clothes in the red washing machine.
machine
 swimming What a beautiful swimming pool!
pool
noun + verb(-ing) sunrise I like to get up at sunrise.
haircut You need a haircut.
train-spotting His hobby is train-spotting.
verb + preposition check-out Please remember that check-out is at 12
noon.
noun + prepositional mother-in-law My mother-in-law lives with us.
phrase
prepositio + noun underworld Do you think the police accept money
n from theunderworld?
noun + adjective truckful We need 10 truckfuls of bricks.

British/American differences
Different varieties of English, and even different writers, may use the open, hyphenated
or closed form for the same compound noun. It is partly a matter of style. There are no
definite rules. For example we can find:

container ship

container-ship

containership

If you are not sure which form to use, please check in a good dictionary.

Plural forms of compound nouns

In general we make the plural of a compound noun by adding -s to the "base word" (the
most "significant" word). Look at these examples:

Singular Plural
a tennis shoe three tennis shoes
one assistant headmaster five assistant headmasters
the sergeant major some sergeants major
a mother-in-law two mothers-in-law
an assistant secretary of state three assistant secretaries of state
my toothbrush our toothbrushes
a woman-doctor four women-doctors
a doctor of philosophy two doctors of philosophy
a passerby, a passer-by two passersby, two passers-by

Note that there is some variation with words like spoonful or truckful. The old style was
to say spoonsful or trucksful for the plural. Today it is more usual to say spoonfuls or
truckfuls. Both the old style (spoonsful) and the new style (spoonfuls) are normally
acceptable, but you should be consistent in your choice. Here are some examples:

old style plural new style plural

(very formal)
teaspoonful 3 teaspoonsful of sugar 3 teasponfuls of sugar
truckful 5 trucksful of sand 5 truckfuls of sand
bucketful 2 bucketsful of water 2 bucketfuls of water
cupful 4 cupsful of rice 4 cupfuls of rice

Some compound nouns have no obvious base word and you may need to consult a
dictionary to find the plural:

higher-ups

also-rans

go-betweens

has-beens

good-for-nothings

grown-ups

Note that with compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the first noun is like an adjective
and therefore does not usually take an -s. A tree that has apples has many apples, but we
say an apple tree, notapples tree; matchbox not matchesbox; toothbrush not teethbrush.

With compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the second noun takes an -s for plural. The
first noun acts like an adjective and as you know, adjectives in English are invariable.
Look at these examples:

long plural form becomes plural compound noun

[noun + noun]
100 trees with apples 100 apple trees
1,000 cables for telephones 1,000 telephone cables
20 boxes for tools 20 tool boxes
10 stops for buses 10 bus stops
4,000 wheels for cars 4,000 car wheels

F. COUNT NOUNS AND MASS NOUNS

Count nouns are words which can be counted. They have singular form and plural form.
They usually refer to things Most countable nouns become plural by adding an s at the
end of the word.

Ex: chair-chairs bottle-bottles student-students

It can be pluralized when appropriate. We can use expressions such as

a. many bottles

b. few bottles

c. a few bottles

These nouns, both singular and plural, can be preceded by the

appropriate definite and indefinite articles the with both singular and
plural, a or an with singular count-nouns.
 Singular count nouns can be preceded by this and that and by every, each,
either, and neither.

Plural count nouns can be preceded by these and those and by some, any,
enough, and the zero article. The phrase number of is accompanied by count
nouns.

Count nouns cannot be preceded by much. The phrase amount of is also a

sure sign that you are not dealing with a count noun.

Mass or Non-Count nouns are words which cannot be counted . Therefore, they only
have singular form . They do not have plural forms. These words are thought of as
wholes rather than parts. They usually refer to abstractions or collectives.

Examples:

wood water reading Chinese

cloth milk boating Spanish
ice wine smoking English
plastic beer dancing luggage
wool cake soccer equipment
steel sugar hockey furniture
aluminum rice weather experience
metal meat heat applause
glass cheese sunshine photography
leather flour electricity traffic
porcelain biology harm
hair history publicity
dust mathematics homework
air economics
oxygen poetry

Generally, these nouns cannot be pluralized. The non-count nouns of the

second column (foodstuff) are pluralized when we use the word to express a
"type":

a. There are new wines being introduced every day.

b. The waters of the Atlantic are much warmer this time of year.

c. The Dutch are famous for their cheeses.

d. The spring rains came early.

We can use expressions such as

a. much harm

b. little harm

c. a little harm

It is appropriate to precede these nouns with a definite or indefinite article.

a. the sunshine
 b. an experience

c. a wine

But they frequently appear with zero article:

d. Smoking is bad for you.

e. Poetry is beautiful.

f. Sugar is sweet.

g. Experience is the best teacher.

These nouns can be preceded by some, any, enough, this, that, and much.

Because they are not countable, these nouns cannot be preceded by these,
those, every, each, either, and neither.

Partitive Nouns or quantifiers are used to make mass nouns singular or plural

Ex;
pieces of advice, baggage, evidences, equipment
rounds of applause
cubes of butter, ice
slices of cheese
ears or kernels of corn
specks of dust
teaspoons of flour
strands of hair
bits of information
bottles of water, wine
sachets of shampoo
heads of lettuce
bolts of lightning
glasses of milk
drops of oil
grains of sands
cups of tea
peals of thunder

G. POSSESSIVE NOUNS It is use it to show ownership.

To show the possessive form, put an apostrophe (') and an s 's after a singular
noun

Examples:

o This is my dog and that is Tom's cat.

o The child is pulling the cow's tail.

o Everybody's shoes must be left outside the door.

o We all like the church's teaching on forgiveness.

Use an apostrophe and an s ('s) after plural nouns that do not end in s to make the
possessive form

Examples:

o The plane's tail section had broken off.

o This is the second attempt on the president's life.

o Some people's houses in the neighbourhood are bigger than ours.

o He cut off the mice's tails.

When making plural possessive nouns which end with an s, add only an apostrophe

Examples:

o The girls' mother is taller than the boys' mother.

o Their wives' parents were present in the Christmas celebrations.

o The strong winds destroyed all the villagers' houses.

o He had three days' moustache growth drooping over his mouth.

Two possessive forms ('s)may appear one after the other

Examples:

o She is Jim's brother's girlfriend.

o This is Tom's car and that is Tom's father's car.

o Jane's dog's bushy tail wags furiously when she arrives home.

When two nouns/names that are joined together are jointowners, the possessive
form should take an 's after the second name only

Examples:

o On that hill is Jack and Jill's house. (The house belongs to both Jack and Jill)

o Paul and Paula's mother is a doctor.

When two nouns (names) that are joined together have different ownership, each
will need an apostrophe s ('s) added

Examples:

o Adam's and Eve's cars are parked one behind the other.
o The police are keeping watch on the suspect's and his accomplice's houses.

When a name ends in s, the possessive form can take either an apostrophe and an s
('s) or only an apostrophe

Examples:

o This is a portrait of King Charles's wife.

o This is a portrait of King Charles' wife.

o My uncle James's factory was burnt down last night.

o My uncle James' factory was burnt down last night.

Only an apostrophe and an s ('s) is used when the place of business is understood
and thus not stated

Examples:

o He went to the barber's to have his hair cut.

o She was at the butcher's when I called her.

When an apostrophe is not used

When the word its is used, it indicates possession. Inserting an apostrophe so that it
becomes it's gives it a different meaning; it's is a contraction of it is.

It's your turn to make the dinner. = It is your turn to make the dinner.

To show possession, do not use an apostrophe

Examples:

o The dog is licking its paw. (The paw belongs to the dog as indicated by the
possessive its.)

o It flapped its wings and flew off.

o Their house has its own swimming pool.

II. CASES OF NOUNS

Case indicates if the noun is a subject, an object, a predicate complement, a possessive

modifier, or an appositional element.

1. subjective or nominative -they act as the subject of independent or dependent

clauses. Subject or Predicate Nominative

2. possessive- they show possession of something else.

3. objective -they function as the recipient of action or are the object of a

preposition- Direct object, Indirect object or object of preposition
 Nouns can be used

1. As a subject of a verb- eg; Flowers grow in the garden

2. As predicate nominative-(complement of a linking verb eg: Jossie is the pride of

the school

3. As a direct object of the verb- eg. Lito drives his car to the bank.

4. As an indirect object of the verb- eg. The man gave his wife a golf ring.

5. As an object of preposition eg. You will find the vase beside the chair.

6. As objective complement- We made Isaac lead guitarist of the band

7. As nominative of address(noun that is used in direct quotations; also called direct

address) Ben, take this.

8. As appositive (a noun that renames, identifies, or explains a noun or a pronoun in

the sentence. eg. Our dog, a poodle, turned seven last week.

PRONOUNS- substitutes a noun or words that refer to nouns.

Properties of Pronoun

A. Person reference of dialogue to the speaker

a. First person-the speaker

b. Second person-the person whom the speaker directly talks to

c. Third person- the person talked about

B. Number tells how many

a. Singular b. plural

C. Case- tells how a pronoun is used

a. nominative/subjective- the doer of the action or the one being

talked about

b. objective- the receiver of the action

c. possessive- the one that shows ownership

Contractions:

Its--------Its- (it is, it has, it was0

His-------Hes (he is, he has, he was)
Their-----theyre (they are)
Theirs----theres (there is, there has)
Whose----whos (who is, who has)
Your------youre (you are)

Kinds of Pronouns;

A.Personal Pronouns

Types:
 It can take the place of a subject word.

(I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

It can take the place of an object word.

(me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

It can take the place of a possessive word.

(my, mine, your, yours, his, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs)

B.Demonstrative Pronouns indicate location of a noun or pronoun

Location Singular Plural

Near the speaker this These

Far from the speaker That Those

C.Relative Pronouns-connect a dependent clause to a main or independent clause. They

also follow the same rules as those of the personal pronouns.

Case Person Non-person

Subject Who/that/whoever Which/that/whichever

Object Whom/that/whomever Which/that/whichever

Possessive whose Whose

D.Indefinite Pronouns refer to persons, places or things in general. They do not need
specific antecedents or nouns which pronouns refer to.

Singular Plural

any one nothing both, few, many others, several

another everybody nobody

anybody everyone such

anyone everything something

somebody anything much
someone no one each
neither either

E.Interrogative Pronouns- pronouns used in questions

who whom whose which what

F.Reciprocal Pronouns- express mutual relationships or feelings between two or more

persons, animals or objects

Ex. each other one another

G. Compound Personal Pronouns

Singular Plural

First Person myself ourselves

Second Person yourself yourselves

Third Person himself, herself, itself themselves

Types:

1. Reflexive Pronouns

Add information to the sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun

earlier in the sentence.

Eg; Joy helped herself to some pizza.

2. Intensive Pronouns

-Simply adds emphasis to a noun or pronoun in the same sentence.

-eg. The mayor herself attended the meeting.

VERBS

Be-Verbs

1. Linking verb.

A verb that expresses a state of being often functions

It is usually followed by a noun or an adjective.

A linking verb links, or connects, the subject with a noun or an adjective in the
predicate that names or describes the subject.

Peanut is a toad.

Peanut is tiny.

Some verbs may be used either as linking verbs like appear, become, feel, grow, look,
remain, seem, smell, sound, stay and taste

2. Helping verbs- It is followed by a verb and they add meaning to other verbs
Kinds of Helping Verbs

1. Modals- verbs that modify the meaning of the main verb in the sentence

Eg: She can do it! (not can did it)

2. Auxiliary Verbs- show the progressive, the passive, the emphatic, the negative or
the perfect forms

Be-verbs Do-verbs Have-verbs

am, is, are, was, were, do, does, did, do not, has, have, had, have not, has
not, had not
will be does not, did not

Only verbs in the present Only verbs in the simple Only verbs in the past
participle or past participle present participle

However, if have verbs have

been after them, then the
present participle can also be
used

TENSES OF THE VERB

I. PRESENT

A. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

1. To talk about regular habits, usual activity or repeated actions:

Ex: I get up really early and practice for an hour or so most days.
I use the internet just about every day
Bicolanos cook many dishes with coconut milk and chili.
2. Words that describe how often or when are often used
Ex: always, generally, normally, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never,
every day every evening
3. To talk about permanent situations
My parents own a restaurant
4. To talk about facts or generally accepted truths at the moment of speaking
Students dont generally have much money.
If you hear water to 100 C it boils
The earth rotates on its axis
The following words are often used
generally mainly, normally, usually, traditionally
5. To give instructions or directions and synopses
To start the program, click on the icon on the desktop
6. To tell or narrate stories about films, books, plays pieces of writing or something
to caption a picture
 In the film, the tea lady falls in love with the Prime Minister.
The classic film Dr. Zhivago shows in graphic images many of the
textual imagery in the original novel
7. To state about what a document states
Actually, the Bible narrates two versions of creation.
8. To express a commentary about an on-going activity
The traffic light turns red and the drivers step on their brakes.
9. To narrate past events whose present relevance is being emphasized (historical
present)
Cleopatra seduces Julius Caesar to help her get the throne of Egypt
from her brother.
10. To express a statement which can be true in the future, especially about some
prearranged activity
As soon as she signs the contract, we have the right over the property.
The train leaves this station at quarter to three.
The space shuttle flies again next month for experiments in crystals

B. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE/CONTINOUS
1. To talk about temporary situations
Im studying really hard for my exams
My cousin is living in Thailand at the moment
Words like at the moment, currently, now, this week/month/year are often used.
2. To talk about actions happening at the moment of speaking
Im waiting for my friends
3. To talk about one thing happened in the past, and is in progress at the present
time, and probably will continue.
I am washing the dishes.
4. To talk about trends or changing situations
The internet is making it easier for people to stay in touch with each other.
5. To talk about things that happen more often than expected, often to show envy or
to criticize with words like always, constantly, continually, forever
My mom is always saying I dont help enough!
Hes always visiting exciting places!

C. PRESENT PREFECT TENSE

1. action that started in the past and continues to the present / action or condition that
was begun in the past and has just been completed or is still going on.
Since 1992, the words consultation, democratization and empowerment
have become popular ad often misused terms.
2. action that has just been finished at the time of speaking
The country has just east the restrictions on foreign ownership of certain
commercial venues.
3. action that happened recently at an indefinite time
Hubert has admitted his mistakes already
 The verb in the present perfect tense is formed by:
has or have + past participle

has or have + been + past participle

time expressions: for, since, since last, just, already, yet
D. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the past,
continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by
using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in
-ing).
The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where
profits would be larger.

II. PAST
A. SIMPLE PAST
1. At one particular time in the past, it happened. It began and ended in past.
I walked to school this morning.
2. A statement which was true in the past but no longer, or not necessary, true at
moment of speaking.
3. To talk about single past completed actions.
In the 1950s, the Philippines had the most advanced educational system in
Southeast Asia.
A few weeks ago a woman called to report a robbery at her house.
4. A statement which became true in the past
Action or state referred to by the verb happened in the past
The asteroid impacted in the bay of Mexico at the close of the Jurassic
period.
5. An if statement which is not real, yet applies to the present
If he understand the staffs sentiments, he would know whom to appoint
as their director.
6. A tentative or polite statement with modal verbs
Could I record this interview?
7. To give series of actions in the order that they happened
The burglar came in through the front door, picked up the womans
handbag, emptied it out and stole her purse.

B. PROGRESSIVE
1. One thing happened before and was in process at a particular time in the past, and
it continued.
I was doing my homework.
2. To provide background scene to an action or event
We often use words like when, while and as
It happened at five in the afternoon while he was watching the news on
TV.
 He was doing his homework in his bedroom when a visitor came into the
house.
3. When we want to emphasize the activity without focusing on its completion
Last year, I was working at the cinema, studying for my degree and
writing a column for the local newspaper.
C.PAST PERFECT
It expresses action that started and ended before another past action.

It is used to express an action or state of being that was completed in the past
before another past action or state of being.
The verb is formed with the helping verb and the past participle.

The verb is formed by had + past participle form of the verb

Time expressions: when, before, after, already

I had accepted my place and found joy in little things

Flor had spent nearly an hour working on her project when she finished it.

After I had eaten my dinner, I went to see a movie.

Before I arrived at the theater, the movie had already begun.

Sometimes, when the meaning is clear from context, the simple past tense can be
used.
After I had gone shopping, I stopped at the health spa.

D.PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

describes a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other
past action. This tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect
of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many
extracurricular activities.
III. FUTURE

A. SIMPLE FUTURE
1. At one particular time in the future, it will happen.
Jason will go to bed at 12 oclock.
2. Express action that will happen in contrast to things that have happened or are
happening
I will attend the conference in Manila Hotel on Monday.
3. To show an action which is not planned at all.
Shall is used with I and we, especially in questions.
Will is used for all persons both questions and in statements.
We shall pay the workers their salary.
Shall I finish this report tomorrow?
4. Use will to predict future events or situations.
Computer will recognize any voice command.
 The people will realize the errors they committed and learn to repent.
5. Shows a command or a formal announcement if will/shall is emphasized.
The shopping hours will be extended up to ten oclock on Saturday.
6. Will/shall can be used with verbs which do not have a continuous form: know,
seem etc.
I shall know the truth of this matter
She will understand your predicament.

B. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE/CONTINOUS
1. One thing will happen in the future, and it will be in process at a particular time in
the future, and it will probably continue.
Katie will be sleeping when her father comes home.
2. To show that an activity will be continuing for a certain time in the future.
He will be discussing the issue for several days.
I will be assuming office by tomorrow.
3. It is also used to show a future action that is not planned at all.
The man shall be talking to her in the office tomorrow.

C. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1. It expresses future action that will be completed before another future action.
2. The verb is formed with the helping verb shall have or will have and the past
participle
3. The time expressions before and by the time are used in this tense
Examples:
When you get this message I will have left for New York.

I hope that I will have finished my work before the weekend.

By the end of the month, she will have completed the English course.

In December, 2016, Dave's ESL Cafe will have been online for six years. (It
hasn't yet been online for six years.)
I hope that I will have finished this Hint by 9:30 PM. (It isn't finished yet).

D. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time.
This tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb
(the verb form ending in -ing).
By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-
European language family for more than 200 years.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE

A transitive verb is an action verb. It requires a direct object to complete its meaning. In
other words, the action of the verb is transferred to the object directly.
Eg. The old lady wrote a letter (wrote what?)
 An intransitive verb is an action verb, but it does not have a direct object. The action ends
rather than being transferred to some person or object or is modified by an adverb or
adverb phrase. (Typically, an adverb or prepositional phrase modifies an intransitive verb
or the verb ends the sentence.
Eg. The couple danced

VERB MOOD
1. Indicative, the most common verb mood, expresses statements and questions of fact
or opinion.
Did you go to class yesterday?
Yes, the professor is so wacky that I dont like to miss her lectures.
2 .Imperative expresses direct commands, advice, and requests, for which you is the
understood subject.
Please remove your shoes before entering the gallery.
Keep your arms and legs inside the vehicle.
3.Subjunctive -expresses wishes, hypothetical situations, and indirect advice and
requests.
I wish I had found a nicer apartment for next fall.
If Rene were to visit me next week, I should be in Italy by then.
The director decided to have the opening night next week as if our rehearsals were
that much.
VERBALS
A verbal is the form of a verb used as a noun, adjective or adverb.
Identifying verbals can be somewhat tricky. While verbals are forms of verbs, they are
NOT the action associated with the subject. In other words, they are not verbs.
o Gerunds are forms of the verb that function as nouns. They always end in "ing."
o Participles are forms of the verb that function as adjectives. They can end in
"ed," "en," or "ing."
o Infinitives are forms of the verb that may acts as adjectives, adverbs or nouns.
They include "to" plus the base form of the verb, as in "to run."

VOICE
1. Active voice- describes a sentence where the subject performs the action
stated by the verb.

2. Passive voice- describes a sentence where the subject is acted upon by the
verb.

eg. Harry ate six shrimp at dinner. (active)

At dinner, six shrimp were eaten by Harry. (passive)

________________________________________________________________________
______

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

The verb of a sentence must agree in number with the subject. The difference between the
singular and plural forms of the verb appears only in the present tense(except for be) even
then, problems with agreement of subject and verb arise because many types of academic
writing use the present tense more than any other tense.
RULES:
 1. Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs.
My brother is a nutritionist.
My sisters are mathematicians.
Ann always tells the truth.
I am ready for lunch now.
Jerry was playing football.
2. A compound subject consists of two or more subjects usually connected by or
/and. A number of different rules apply to compound subjects.
3. Singular Subjects joined by or or nor
When both parts of compound subject connected by or or nor are singular a
singular verb is required
Beth or Sam is going to win.
4. Plural Subjects Joined by Or or Nor
When both parts of a compound subject connected by or or nor are plural, a
plural verb is required.
The girls or the boys are going to win.
5. Subject of Mixed Number Joined by Or or Nor
If one part of a compound subject is singular and the other is plural, the verb
agrees with the subject that is closer to it.
Marie, Sarah or the twins are going to win the game.
Either the twins or Sam is going to win the game.
6. The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the
subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject
comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the
number.
Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.
Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.
Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
Is either my father or my brothers responsible?
Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the
house" sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer
to the verb whenever that is possible.
7. A compound subject joined by and is generally plural and must have a plural verb.
Pam and Rose are going to the party.
The boys and girls are going to have a rematch.
The twins and Sam are going to make paper folding.
My sister and brother live in Berlin.
Both the teacher and the student were surprised.
8. If the parts of compound subjects are thought of as one item, then a singular verb
is needed.
Partnership joined by and
Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.
The cup and saucer is antique.
9. Measurement of length, time, distance, weight and amount of money and volume
are plural in form but take a singular verb.
Length: Twenty-four inches is her waistline.
Time: Four months is too long for my vacation.
Distance: Two kilometers is the distance of his house from school.
Weight: 49 pounds is her total weight lost after thorough workout.
Money: 4.5 million pesos is the total price of her condo unit in Victoria
Towers.
Volume: Two liters of iced tea is enough for the team.
10. Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are
sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same
is true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as subjects.) :
More than one student has tried this.
A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
Sixty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
Ten percent of the population is male.
11. Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and
require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a
singular verb
Two and two is four.
Four times four divided by two is eight.
12. The subject the number" needs singular verb while a number requires plural
verb
A number of people are waiting to see you.
The number of stars in the sky seems countless.
The number of people living in extreme poverty is staggering.
A number of workers are dedicated to finish the project.
13. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a singular
verb.
The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.
Harry Potter is the book that earned a million dollars.
Da Vinci Code was written by Dan Brown.
My Heart will Go On is the theme song of the movie, Titanic.
K-zone magazine is one of the best selling magazines about entertainment
and fun,

14. When indefinite pronouns like the following are used as subjects, they take
singular verb.
Everybody Someone
Anybody No one
Somebody Everything
Nobody Anything
Each Something
Everyone Nothing
Anyone
 The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always
singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.
Everyone has done his or her homework.
Somebody has left her purse.
Everybody knows the answer.
Nobody speaks German here.
Somebody was in the room

15. Some indefinite pronouns such as all, some are singular or plural depending on
what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a
verb to accompany such pronouns.
Some of the beads are missing.
Some of the water is gone.
16. On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or
plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb unless
something else in the sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none as
meaning not any and will choose a plural verb, as in
None of the engines are working, (but when something else makes us regard none
as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in
"None of the food is fresh.")
None of you claims responsibility for this incident?
None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word
their precludes the use of the singular verb.
17. Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and everybody (listed
above, also) certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, students are
sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though.
Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the
cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular
verb.
Everyone has finished his or her homework.
You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular
and nothing will change that.

Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.
Every man and woman has the right to vote.
Each student and teacher was aware of the difficulty.
Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always
singular Each is responsible
18. The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they
seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.
Neither of the two traffic lights is working.
Which shirt do you want for Christmas?
Either is fine with me.
Either Miss Brown or Jane writes on the blackboard.
Either the teacher or the students write on the blackboard.
19. In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns
are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of
interrogative constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are
either of you taking this seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash between notional and
actual agreement."*
This also applies to not only. . .but also, and neither. . .nor. The subject closest to the verb
determines whether the verb is singular or plural.

Not only Julie but also Georgette wants to visit grandma.
Not only Julie but also all of the grandchildren want to visit grandma.
Neither Miss Brown n or Jane writes on the blackboard.
Neither the teacher n or the students write on the blackboard.

20. Several, many, both, few are plural words and take a plural verb.
Both are happy with the grades they got.
Many were lost on the way.
Few have done their homework.
Some people in my office are very annoying
Few mountain climbers have successfully reached the peak of Mt. Everest.

21. The words there and here are never subjects.

With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb but
still determines the number of the verb.
When the verb comes before the subject as in there or here sentences, it agrees with the
subject that immediately follows the verb.
Here is my jacket.
Here are my shoes.
There is a tree in the garden.
There are many trees in the garden.
There is a pine tree and some oaks in the garden.
There goes the cat.

22. Introductory it is always singular.
It is the bag of Liza.

23. Some nouns are always plural and always take a plural verb.
Trousers, pants, slacks, shorts, briefs, jeans eyeglasses, sunglasses ,scissors, pliers,
tweezers
My jeans are old.
This year shorts are in fashion.
Where are my scissors?
My eyeglasses are broken.
My sunglasses were on the bed.
My pants were torn.
A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

24. Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything
those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.
He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . .
25. Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not
confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.
The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of
various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally
going to jail.

26. Collective nouns are usually singular when regarded as a unit.Some collective nouns in
this group are:Family, team, crew, class, government, committee
My family lives in Quezon city.
Our team has won every game this year.
 Sometimes when the members are seen as functioning independently, these collective
nouns may be plural.
Their family have a lot of money. (members of my family)
Our team are working hard to win every game they play. (team members)

27. If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other
singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.
The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's
Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.

28. Some nouns have the same singular and plural form. They take singular or plural verb
depending on the meaning.
This species of monkeys lives only in India.
There are many species of monkeys.
Some nouns in this group are:
Species, series, deer, fish, sheep

29. Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular
verbs.Some nouns look plural with s but they take a singular verb.

The news from the front is bad.

Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
Mathematics is found difficult by many students.
Statistics requires complicated methods.

30. If two infinitives are separated by and they take the plural form of the verb
To walk and to chew gum require great skill.
To sing and to dance are forms of art.

31. Generic references with the require plural verb.

The rich are not always happy.
The young like to listen to loud music.
The old hate loud music.
The English are distant and the French are humorous.

32. Intervening Expressions do not affect the number of the verbPrepositional phrases that
come between the subject and the verb do not change the number of the subject.
Some examples of prepositional phrases that function like that are:
As well as
In addition to
Together with
Along with
Except

The teacher as well as the students was working on the problem.

The mother together with her children is waiting.
Tandang Sora, together with some neighbors, was a great help in the fight for freedom.
The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

 ADJECTIVES
Categories:

1. Descriptive Adjective- state condition or quality which can be changed

a. Gradable- more grateful, wisest
b. Absolute- absent, final, ideal
2. Limiting Adjectives- point out or indicate a quantity or quality that limits the nouns that
follow them.
c. Articles a, an, the
d. Numerals- Cardinal- two, twelve- Ordinal-sixth, eighth
e. Pronominals
Demonstrative this, that, these, those
Possessive-my, your, his, her, his, their, its
Distributive each, every, either, neither
Indefinite any, all, another, both, few, many
Interrogative - which, whose

Order of Adjectives

1. Determiner
2. Possessive Noun
3. Number
4. Size
5. Quality, shape etc
6. Color
7. Proper or Noun Adjective

Eg. The runners first three 2 inches authentic gold Olympian medals.

________________________________________________________________________
___

ADVERBS

a verb (He drove slowly. How did he drive?)

an adjective (He drove a very fast car. How fast was his car?)

another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. How slowly did she
move?)

Kinds of Adverbs

1. Adverbs of Manner
She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
2. Adverbs of Place
She has lived on the island all her life.
She still lives there now
3. Adverbs of Frequency
She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.
4. Adverbs of Time
She tries to get back before dark.
 It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
She left early.

5. Adverbs of Degree- also called intensifiers

We saw her baby who is so cute.

6. Adverbs of Affirmation definitely, surely, positively, certainty, absolutely

I am absolutely going to the party.

7. Adverbs of Negation never, not, no

I do not understand you.

8. Adverbs of Purpose
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
9. Adverbs of Doubt- maybe, perhaps, most likely, possibly
The mail would probably arrive later.

10. Adverbs of Approximation about, almost, approximately, more, less, around

The building is roughly seven feet high.

PREPOSITIONS

CONJUNCTIONS
1.Coordinating Conjunctions

F-OR
A-ND
N-OR
B-UT
O-R
Y-ET
S-O

and (+) and nor (-) are used to show an agreement between items/clauses.
yet, and but are used to show a disagreement between clauses.
for and so are used to show a reason between clauses.
or is used to show agreement or disagreement between items/clauses.
 Remember, when using a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses
(complete thoughts) you must insert a comma before the conjunction.

Example: I want to buy the new jacket, but it is too expensive.

In this example, there are two independent clauses:
#1: I want to buy a new jacket. (complete thought)
#2 It is too expensive. (complete thought)
These clauses are separated by a comma and the conjunction but which is used to
show disagreement.

2.Subordinating Conjunction- joins a subordinate clause to a main clause.

The following is a list of the most common subordinating conjunctions.

after how till ( or 'til)

although if unless
as inasmuch until
as if in order that when
as long as lest whenever
as much as now that where
as soon as provided (that) wherever
as though since while
because so that
before than
even if that
even though though

Time: after, as soon as, before, once, when, whenever, while

Reason: as, because, since, so that, whereas
Condition: as, as though, if, provided that, unless, whether
Contrast or surprise: although, even though, than, though
Place: everywhere, where, wherever

An adverb clause is always introduced by a subordinating conjunction. A noun clause and

adjective clause sometimes are.

Adverb clause: Before you go, sign the log book.

Noun clause: He asked if he could leave early.

Adjective clause: That is the place where he was last seen.

A subordinating conjunction is always followed by a clause. Many subordinating

conjunctions can be other parts of speech.

Adverb:Jill came tumbling after.

Preposition: Jill came tumbling after Jack.

Subordinating Conjunction: Jill came tumbling after Jack had fallen.

3. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together to coordinate two
 items.
both..and whether.or
eitheror notbut
neithernor not only.but also

Example: Both my sister and I will attend the party.

my sister _ first item
I _ second item
The correlative conjunction Both is used to coordinate the item my sister, while the
correlative conjunction and is used to coordinate the item I.

INTERJECTIONS

Express emotions such as happiness, fear, anger, pain, surprise, sorrow, exhaustion,
indecision and hesitation

Eg, hey!, gosh!, my goodness!, wow

DETERMINERS

Tell the degree of definiteness, quantity or proximity of the noun or nouns after them.

TYPES Examples
Articles a, an, the
Demonstrative this, that, these, those
Specifier such
Quantifiers any, each, every, either, neither
Negatives no, not any, not a single
Possessives my, your, his, her, its, our, their

SENTENCES

Basic Sentence Patterns

The 5 Basic Patterns

Subject + Verb
I swim. Joe swims. They swam.

Subject + Verb + Object

I drive a car. Joe plays the guitar. They ate dinner.

Subject + Verb + Complement

I am busy. Joe became a doctor. They look sick.

Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object

I gave her a gift. She teaches us English.

Subject + Verb + Object + Complement
I left the door open. We elected him president. They named her Jane.


KINDS OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

1. SIMPLE SENTENCE- have just one clause. They may have additional phrases.
o I went to the park to eat a hamburger.
o Kyle, Keith, and Doug, my best friend from middle school, went to the playhouse
and watched Shakespeares Hamlet.
2. COMPOUND SENTENCE- Two or more clauses joined with a coordinating conjunction.
Using commas between clauses is optional.
I went home so I could get some sleep.
Doug did his work but he got some wrong, yet he didnt mind.

o F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Conjunctive Adverb moreover, however, otherwise, therefore

Dave is handsome; moreover, he is rich.

3. COMPLEX SENTENCE -Two or more clauses joined with a subordinating conjunction.
If you begin a sentence with a subordinating conjunction, there MUST be a comma after
the first clause.
Unless you want trouble, you should stop.
You should stop because Im getting mad

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
after how until even though

although if unless though

as in as much as if that

in order that when as long as even if

At least whenever as much as before

now that whereas soon

wherever as though since

while because so that

4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX-has an independent clause and at least two dependent clauses,

one of which is joined with a coordinating conjunction and one with a subordinating
conjunction.
o Because I paid attention, I got an A on the test and I was so happy.
 o I went home because it was getting late, but I had to wait on the porch until my
mom got home anyway.

A complete sentence is not merely a group of words with a capital letter at the beginning
and a period or question mark at the end. A complete sentence has three components:

1. a subject (the actor in the sentence)

2. a predicate (the verb or action), and

3. a complete thought (it can stand alone and make senseits independent).

Some sentences can be very short, with only two or three words expressing a complete
thought, like this:
John waited.
This sentence has a subject (John) and a verb (waited), and it expresses a complete
thought. We can understand the idea completely with just those two words, so again, its
independentan independent clause. But independent clauses (i.e., complete sentences)
can be expanded to contain a lot more information, like this:

John waited for the bus all morning.

John waited for the bus all morning in the rain last Tuesday.
Wishing hed brought his umbrella, John waited for the bus all morning in the rain last
Tuesday.
Wishing hed brought his umbrella and dreaming of his nice warm bed, John waited for
the bus all morning in the rain last Tuesday because his car was in the shop.

As your sentences grow more complicated, it gets harder to spot and stay focused on the
basic elements of a complete sentence, but if you look carefully at the examples above,
youll see that the main thought is still that John waitedone main subject and one main
verb. No matter how long or short the other sentence parts are, none of them can stand
alone and make sense.
Being able to find the main subject, the main verb, and the complete thought is the first
trick to learn for identifying fragments and run-ons.
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. Some fragments are incomplete because
they lack either a subject or a verb, or both. The fragments that most students have
trouble with, however, are dependent clausesthey have a subject and a verb, so they
look like complete sentences, but they dont express a complete thought. Theyre called
dependent because they cant stand on their own (just like some people you might
know who are SO dependent!). Look at these dependent clauses. Theyre just begging for
more information to make the thoughts complete:
Because his car was in the shop (What did he do?)
After the rain stops (What then?)
When you finally take the test (What will happen?)
Since you asked (Will you get the answer?)
If you want to go with me (What should you do?)

Does each of these examples have a subject? Yes. Does each have a verb? Yes. So what
makes the thought incomplete? Its the first word (Because, After, When, Since, If). These
words belong to a special class of words called subordinators or subordinating
 conjunctions. If you know something about subordinating conjunctions, you can
probably eliminate 90% of your fragments.
First, you need to know that subordinating conjunctions do three things:
1. join two sentences together
2. make one of the sentences dependent on the other for a complete thought (make
one a dependent clause)
3. indicate a logical relationship



Second, you need to recognize the subordinators when you see them. Here is a list of
common subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they indicate:
Cause / Effect: because, since, so that
Comparison / Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
Place & Manner: how, however, where, wherever
Possibility / Conditions: if, whether, unless
Relation: that, which, who
Time: after, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until

Third, you need to know that the subordinator (and the whole dependent clause) doesnt
have to be at the beginning of the sentence. The dependent clause and the independent
clause can switch places, but the whole clause moves as one big chunk. Look at how
these clauses switched places in the sentence:
Because his car was in the shop, John took the bus.
John took the bus because his car was in the shop.

Finally, you need to know that every dependent clause needs to be attached to an
independent clause (remember, the independent clause can stand on its own).
How do you find and fix your fragments? Remember the basics: subject, verb, and
complete thought. If you can recognize those things, youre halfway there. Then, scan
your sentences for subordinating conjunctions. If you find one, first identify the whole
chunk of the dependent clause (the subject and verb that go with the subordinator), and
then make sure theyre attached to an independent clause.
John took the bus. (Independent clause. So far, all is well!) Because his car was in the
shop. (Dependent clause all by itself. Uh oh! Fragment!)
John took the bus because his car was in the shop.


RUN-ON SENTENCE
A RUN-ON SENTENCE (sometimes called a "fused sentence") has at least two parts,
either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the
two parts have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected..
 It is important to realize that the length of a sentence really has nothing to do with
whether a sentence is a run-on or not; being a run-on is a structural flaw that can plague even a
very short sentence:

The sun is high, put on some sunblock.

An extremely long sentence, on the other hand, might be a "run-off-at-the-mouth"

sentence, but it can be otherwise sound, structurally. When two independent clauses are
connected by only a comma, they constitute a run-on sentence that is called a comma-splice.
When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a little
conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so).

The sun is high, so put on some sunscreen.

Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances*:

a. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was

said in the prior independent clause:

This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should
start studying right away.

(We could put a period where that comma is and start a new sentence. A
semicolon might also work there.)

b. When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression

(conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless.

Mr. Nguyen has sent his four children to ivy-league colleges,

however, he has sacrificed his health working day and night in that dusty
bakery.

(Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a
period and started a new sentence or a semicolon.)

c. When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects
it to the first independent clause.

This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.

(Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related, this
is a run-on sentence. We need a period where that comma now stands.)
Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken
already, this proves my point about American computer manufacturers.
Again, two nicely related clauses, incorrectly connected a run-on. Use a period
to cure this sentence.
Heres an example of a run-on:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky.
This one sentence actually contains two complete sentences. But in the rush to get that
idea out, I made it into one incorrect sentence. Luckily, there are many ways to correct
this run-on sentence.
You could use a semicolon:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus; it is very garlicky.
 You could use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so):
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, for it is very garlicky. -OR- My favorite
Mediterranean spread is hummus, and it is very garlicky.
You could use a subordinating conjunction (see above):
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus because it is very garlicky. -OR- Because
it is so garlicky, my favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus.
You could make it into two separate sentences with a period in between:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is humus. It is very garlicky.
You could use an em-dash (a long dash) for emphasis:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummusit is very garlicky.
You CANNOT simply add a comma between the two sentences, or youll end up with
whats called a comma splice. Heres an example of a comma splice:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, it is very garlicky.
You can fix a comma splice the same way you fix a run-oneither change the
punctuation or add a conjunction. The good news is that writers tend to be either comma
splicers or run-on artists, but almost never both. Which one are you? If you have
particular trouble with comma splices, try looking at our handout on commas.

EXPLANATION
As you can see, fixing run-ons is pretty easy once you see thembut how do you find
out if a sentence is a run-on if you arent sure? Rei R. Noguchi, in his book Grammar
and the Teaching of Writing, recommends two methods for testing your sentences. Try
these two tests:
1. Turn your sentences into yes/no questions.
2. Turn your sentences into tag questions (sentences that end with a questioning phrase at
the very endlook at our examples below).
These are two things that nearly everyone can do easily if the sentence is not a run-on,
but they become next to impossible if it is.
Look at the following sentence:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus.
If you turn it into a question that someone could answer with a yes or no, it looks like
this:
Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus?
If you turn it into a tag question, it looks like this:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, isnt it?
The first sentence is complete and not a run-on, because our test worked.
Now, look again at the original run-on sentence:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky.
The yes/no question can only be made with each separate thought, not the sentence as a
whole:
Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus? Is it very garlicky?
But not:
Is my favorite Mediterranean spread hummus is it very garlicky?
The tag question can also only be made with each separate thought, rather than the whole:
 My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, isnt it? Its very garlicky, isnt it?
But never:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky, isnt it?
Unlike the complete sentence, the run-on sentence doesnt pass these tests. When you try
to turn the run-on sentence into a single question, you immediately see that the sentence
has more than one complete concept. Make sure you try both tests with each of your
problem sentences, because you may trick yourself by just putting a tag on the last part
and not noticing that it doesnt work on the first. Some people might not notice that My
favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky isnt it? is wrong, but most
people will spot the yes/no question problem right away.