Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
eMail: mts@mts-cnc.com
CNC-Demo........................................................................................................................ 34
CNC milling ...............................................................................................................................................34
CNC turning ..............................................................................................................................................35
2.2 NC Mathematics .............................................................................................................................36
Basics of coordinate point calculations ..........................................................................................36
Calculation of NC coordinates........................................................................................................39
2.3 Zero and reference points on CNC machine tools .........................................................................41
Types of zero and reference points................................................................................................41
Setting the work part zero point W on a CNC lathe .......................................................................44
Setting the work part zero point W on a CNC milling machine ......................................................45
CNC exercise............................................................................................................................................47
2.4 Numeric Controls on CNC Machine Tools .....................................................................................53
Control chain and control loop........................................................................................................53
CNC Control ...................................................................................................................................53
Types of CNC controls ...................................................................................................................56
DNC operation................................................................................................................................60
2.5 Tool Compensations for CNC Machining.......................................................................................62
Inhalt
The idea of numerical control (NC) of machine tools emerged in 1949/50 at the MIT (Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, USA) as a result of a US Air Force order to manufacture important airplane parts
from full material rather than by riveting and welding material together.
The templates and patterns needed for form cutting were however very complicated and could only be
manufactured with a considerable time and cost increase when using conventional technology. Since how-
ever the contours of the large parts could easily be represented as mathematical functions it was decided to
develop a control to control a milling machine on this basis.
NC Numerical control
CIM
CNC Numerical control with inte-
CAD / CAM grated computer
CAD FFS Flexible manufacturing sys-
tem
FFS CAD Computer aided draw-
CNC ing/design
Figure 1
Development into CIM technology
The technical realization of this idea required a control which interprets binary and digital entries for travel
paths and switching operations in such a way that they could be understood and processed by the milling
machine. Herewith the basic principle was formulated for the application of numerical controls. The rapid
development of electronic data processing then enabled the practical realization.
First a corresponding NC control was developed for a vertical milling machine. The machining path and
switching information necessary for manufacturing was given on punch card. The idea was to control the
infeed axis of the milling machine so that separately working motors control the axis movements of the tool
carrier. The sequence of the travel path and switching information in form of code letters and numbers was
called a NC program.
This first NC machine tool already showed all the characteristics of the NC machines to be developed later
on:
Entry unit with numerical starting value for the travel path and switch information on a punch card.
Computer control to process the travel path and switch information.
Separate power supply for each infeed axis and spindle to control the movements of the tool and tool
carrier.
Measuring and control systems returning feedback to the controlling computer regarding the tool posi-
tions.
In the mid 50s almost all machine tool manufacturers began developing and manufacturing numerically con-
trolled milling machines which were soon followed by NC lathes. The rapid development of new microele-
tronic components, such us micro processors and micro computers, enhanced the development of NC con-
trols to CNC (computerized numerical control) controls in the mid 70s.
With the increased contribution of high-performance microprocessors it was possible to extend the opera-
tions of the computer controlled machine tools. The current microcomputers and CNC controls as well as the
PLC (programmable logic controller) of the machine tools have improved NC programming efficiency. Con-
tour precision and machining speed of the tools as well as cutting power have continuously improved. Mod-
ern CNC controls additionally offer a multitude of further characteristics. This has made it possible, for in-
stance, to program complex tool geometries without using mathematical calculations.
The continuous further development of CNC machine tools takes place in a reciprocal innovation exchange
between the manufacturers of microelectronic components, CNC controls, tools and machine tools. Users
also facilitate this increasingly rapid development by continuously demanding new and improved solutions.
CNC machining centers, flexible production systems (FFS) and fully automated manufacturing (CIM) mark
significant stages of this development which started in the 50s.
interfaces with high performance for more rapid transfer of constantly increasing data
complete machining centers with high precision, e.g. CNC lathes with 7-32 NC axis, several spindles and
live milling tools for turning
high speed machining for turning, milling and boring with maximum dynamic travel path accuracy
development of servo motors whose scanning rate for defining the manufacturing dimensions becomes
smaller and smaller (presently the scanning speed is already less than 1ms)
minimizing the programming effort for the individual manufacturing tasks
simple, high-performance NC programming systems with dynamic-interactive simulation of the machining
processes
graphic control error diagnosis of the CNC machine tool or of the complete machining system
The movement directions of the components of a CNC controlled machine tool are specified by a coordinate
system, which refers to the work part to be machined and shows axes located parallel to the main linear
movement. The movements necessary for machining the individual machine tool assemblies (table, turret
and others) are calculated, controlled and tested by a computer. For this purpose each machining direction
has a separate measuring system to calculate the corresponding positions of the machine tool assemblies
and to return this information to the control.
Function
In the following overview conventional, NC and CNC machine tools are compared in their basic functionality:
Productivity
Advantages of the CNC machine tool
1. The higher machining speed of the CNC machine tool as well as decreased basic, auxiliary, preparation
and finishing times on the machine increases productivity. The following factors are especially influential:
programming directly on the machine tool with manual entries
shared responsibility in a department responsible for work preparation for programming, materials and
tools and due entry of the data at the CNC work seat
storing recurrent machining processes of a tool specific program in form of subprograms
optimizing NC programs on the control
description of the work part shapes to be machined with simple geometry entries
automatic infeed of the tool until the required dimension has been reached
automatic initiation of all functions of the machine and direct intervention when identifying errors or
disturbances
automatic monitoring of the production through the CNC control (automatic measuring and testing)
universal application of tools in tool clamping systems
possibility to preset the tools outside of the machine tool without influencing machine run-time
4 2
Figure 2
Application field of CNC machine tools
To operate and program CNC machine tools the machine operator needs a higher qualification. Experience
from conventional machining can not necessarily be transferred.
CNC lathes (see figure 3) have at least 2 controllable or adjustable feed axes marked as X and Z.
Figure 3
Controllable NC axes on an automatic lathe
CNC- milling machines (see figure 4) on the other hand have at least 3 controllable or adjustable feed axes
marked as X, Y, Z.
Figure 4
Controllable NC axes on a milling machine
In addition to the linear movements along the X, Y and Z axes it is possible to control rotation around each
axis.
These controllable rotation axes are marked with A, B and C (see figure 5).
+Y
+B
+A
+X
+C
+Z
Figure 5
Feed and rotation axes
in Cartesian coordinate system
Often further controllable feed axes are needed. These are then marked as U, V, W. Additionally there are
the adjustable rotation axes around which the machining table, head stock and tool holder can rotate inde-
pendent of the feed axes. They are marked as A, B and C.
The required tool and work part carriers are moved by feed drives. The feed drives meet the highest re-
quirements due to high machining and iteration precision. The individual axis movements must be carried
out with maximum feed speed and minimum positioning time. To meet these requirements a modern feed
drive (see figure 6) consists of the following components:
For exact positioning the feed drives are connected with the measuring facilities. Each controllable axis of a
CNC machine needs a path measuring system with automatic interpretation of the measuring signal. The
most frequently used resolution for length measuring is 0.001 mm, however for the X axis of the lathe (di-
ameter dimension) 0.0005 and for the precision grinding machine up to 0.0001 are customary.
2 feed drive
1 3
work table
measuring system
ball screw
4
5 ball screw nut
Figure 6
Feed drive for carrier with ball screw drive
The embodiment of the measure is usually a ball circulating screw. If the spindle is set in motion by the mo-
tor, then the spherical thread nut, which works almost free of play, moves in longitudinal direction and
pushes the corresponding tool or work part carrier along the carrier track (see figure 7). The almost friction-
free transfer of power from the spindle to the carrier is achieved through a system of balls. To guarantee the
minimum of thread play the two halves of the ball thread nut are clamped against each other to achieve high
and reproducible accuracy of production. Eventual pitch errors of the spherical contour spindle can be auto-
matically rectified by the CNC control through the spindle pitch error compensation. Further mechanical pos-
sibilities are for instance the rack/pinion and spindle/nut. If less accuracy is sufficient hydraulic drives are
used as well.
2
ball screw nut
1 3 Clamping ring
balls
Drive spindle
3
4
Figure 7
ball screw drive with play-free double nut
The manufacturing tolerances resulting from the manufacturing process of the ball screw drive can be recti-
fied by modern CNC controls using the spindle pitch error adjustment. For this purpose the tolerances are
measured by laser measuring systems and stored in the CNC control.
Depending on the applied measuring device or scale direct and indirect position measuring are differentiated
as well as absolute and incremental position measuring. The most accurate measuring values are achieved
with direct measuring scales.
In direct position measuring (see figure 8) the measuring scale is given in the carrier or on the machine
table so that inaccuracies on spindle and drive connection have no influence on the value measured.
The measuring values are specified by an optical pick-up on a scanning pattern of the measuring scale. The
pick-up converts these values into electrical signals and transfers them to the control.
pick-up
X glass ruler with scale
Y
1
2
Figure 8
Direct position measuring
In indirect position measuring (see figure 9) the travel path is specified using the rotation of the ball circu-
lating screw, which is equipped with a pulse disk as a measuring scale. A signal generator registers the rota-
tions of the pulse disk and transfers them to the control. The control then calculates the exact carrier move-
ments or its present positions based on the rotation pulses.
1
carrier
2
pulse disk as a measuring scale
spindle
X 3 signal generator
Figure 9
Indirect position measuring
In absolute position measuring (see figure 10) a coded measuring scale immediately shows the position
of the carrier with reference to one fixed orientation point on the machine. This point is the machine zero
point, which is specified by the machine manufacturer. This method presupposes that the reading-in area of
the measuring scale is as large as the machining area and that the coding of the measuring scale is binary.
This is to enable the control to allocate a numerical value to each read-in position.
012345678
1 2
binary-coded measuring scale
current tool carrier position
Figure 10
Absolute position measuring
In incremental position measuring (see figure 11) a measuring scale with a simple grating consisting of
light and dark fields is used. For a feed movement passing the sensor the sensor counts the number of light
and dark fields and calculates the current carrier position based on the difference from the last carrier posi-
tion.
1 2 3 4
ruled grating
previous carrier position
current carrier position
carrier on reference point
Figure 11
Incremental position measuring
The control has once to be given one absolute position, which it then uses as a reference point when calcu-
lating the current carrier position using incremental position measuring. Therefore, it is necessary to go to
this absolute point once the control is started. This absolute point is called the reference point on the ma-
chine. Each axes movement, even when traveled manually using the hand wheel or buttons, needs to be
registered by the control.
Since the control loses the control/information on mechanical movements when switched off the reference
point has to be returned to each time the control is switched on.
The main drive of a CNC machine needs to transmit the necessary power output for machining the current
work part. This power output is transmitted from the main drive to the drive of the corresponding work spin-
dle. The friction loads of the mechanical parts of the machine are also to be considered. They ultimately
determine the efficiency of the CNC machine. It is necessary to have a drive with high stability, i.e. the mo-
ment of rotation has to be so that the current machining position remains unchanged even if the machining
loads are high. In addition to this, the drive has to possess sufficient dynamics to master speed changes
rapidly and without overshooting.
The work spindle and the eventually available counter spindle were previously driven by a direct-current
motor. To keep the cutting speed constant a stepless regulation of the rotation speed of these motors within
a wide range, for instance to turn various diameters, is required. A disadvantage of the direct-current motor
is the abrasion of the carbon brushes, which need to be regularly checked and changed if necessary.
Thanks to the progressive development of microelectronic components three-phase motors are now mostly
used. Their disadvantage, the complicated control of the number of rotations, has become irrelevant due to
the price development in electronic controls.
There are two types of three-phase motors: asynchronous and synchronous motors. They have consider-
able advantages compared with direct-current motors. With identical dimensions higher rotation moments
are achieved. Furthermore, up to three times higher number of rotation and much better power output is
possible. These motors work without carbon brushes, without collectors or collecting rings and are corre-
spondingly maintenance free.
The spindle head of the work spindle is standardized to guarantee the maximum possible exchange of
clamping devices. In CNC machines, the work spindle as well as many other parts are more solidly built than
in conventional machine tools because of the considerably higher acceleration rate (10 to 40m/s) and higher
machining performance.
Work part clamping devices hold the work part in the correct and exact position on the work spindle for turn-
ing or on the work table for milling. The work part must be clamped so that it is absolutely free from play,
positioned correctly and exactly, and fully resistant to dynamic stresses. A multitude of work part clamping
devices are available.
In milling, loading and withdrawal of work parts will automatically be done by charging robots in the future
(see MTS robot simulator ROBIN). For turning, mostly controllable jaw chucks of different types are used.
These chucks are designed to allow pneumatically or hydraulically controlled automatic charging and ap-
proach of the chucks. The clamping powers are adjustable. Depending on weight, material, length/diameter
relation, clamping depth and other machining conditions the clamping powers have to be adjusted higher or
lower.
Chuck jaws for high number of rotations have a centrifugal force compensation so that the clamping power is
not reduced by the contrary centrifugal force. This centrifugal force is realized for instance by compensation
weights, which are connected with the clamping jaws by a lever. The centrifugal force of the compensation
weight exerts then an opposite force to the centrifugal force of the chuck jaws. The clamping power is kept
constant with this compensation. For machining between centers mostly drivers, face drivers and controlla-
ble live turrets are used. For clamping small parts controllable collet systems are commonly used.
In CNC milling the main function of the work part clamping devices is the correct positioning of the work
parts. The work part clamping should allow a work part change which is as quick, easy to approach, cor-
rectly and exactly positioned, reproducible as possible. For simple machining controllable, hydraulic chuck
jaws are sufficient. For milling on all sides the complete machining should be possible with as few re-
clamping as possible. For complicated milling parts milling fixtures, also with integrated automatic rotation,
are being manufactured or built out of available modular systems to allow, as far as possible, complete ma-
chining without re-clamping. Work part pallets, which are loaded with the next work part by the operator out-
side the work room and then automatically taken into the right machining position, are increasingly being
used.
Figure 12
Example of a turret
Depending on the type and size, the turrets of the CNC machines have 8 to 16 tool places. In large milling
centers up to 3 turrets can be used simultaneously. If more than 48 tools are used tool magazines of differ-
ent types are used in such machining centers allowing a charge of up to 100 and even more tools. There are
longitudinal magazines, ring magazines, plate magazines and chain magazines (see figure 13) as well as
cassette magazines.
Figure 13
Example of a chain magazine
1 milling tools
2
tool gripper (tool changer)
work spindle
tool magazine
Figure 14
Automatic tool change facility
In the tool magazine the tool change takes place using a gripping system also called tool changer (see figure
14). The change takes place with a double arm gripping device after a new tool has been called in the NC
program as follows:
The tool change procedure takes between 6 to 15 seconds, whereby the quickest tool changers are able to
make the tool change in merely one second.
The target of work security is to eliminate accidents and damages to persons, machines and facilities at work
site.
Basically the same work security precautions apply to working on CNC machines as to conventional ma-
chine tools. They can be classified in three categories:
Danger elimination
Defects on machines and on all devices necessary for work need to be registered at once.
Emergency exits have to be kept free.
No sharp objects should be carried in clothing.
Watches and rings are to be taken off.
Screening and marking risky areas:
The security precautions and corresponding notifications are not allowed to be removed or inacti-
vated.
Moving and intersecting parts must be screened.
Eliminating danger exposure
Protective clothing must be worn to protect from possible sparks and flashes.
Workshop
The parts of machine tools should be shown and explained on the available machine tools. Similarities and
differences between conventional machine tools and CNC machine tools are to be emphasized.
1. Discuss relevant differences between CNC machine tools and conventional machine tools.
1. What are the advantages of CNC machine tools compared with conventional machine tools?
1. How many feed axes at minimum should be available on a CNC milling machine?
1. Which operations can be achieved by controllable rotation axes on CNC milling machines?
1. What are the advantages of main drive motors with controllable number of rotations?
In the two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, e.g. in the X, Y coordinate system, each point on the
plane is explicitly defined (see figure 15). The distance from the Y axis is called the X coordinate and the
distance from the X axis is called Y axis. These coordinates can either have a positive or a negative sign.
Y
Example:
P2
P1 P1
P2
X= 80
X= -80
Y= 40
Y= 70
P3 X= -50 Y= -40
X P4 X= 40 Y= -70
P3
P4
Figure 15
Cartesian coordinate system with 2 axis (X;Y)
If a work part drawing is placed in this coordinate system all important work points can be determined. De-
pending on where the zero point of the work part is placed, it is possible to exactly define the points either
with positive or also with negative coordinates.
The three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is necessary for the description and location specifica-
tion of three-dimensional work parts, e.g. milling parts. To describe a point in space three coordinates are
required. These are called X, Y or Z according to the corresponding axis (see figure 16).
Such three-dimensional coordinate systems with positive and negative areas of the coordinate axis enable
the exact description of all points, for instance in the operating space of a milling machine, regardless of
where the zero point of the work part is positioned.
Z Y Example:
P1 X= 30 Y= 20 Z= 0
P1
P2 X= 30 Y= 0 Z= -10
P2
Figure 16
Cartesian coordinate system with 3 axes (X,Y,Z)
The specifications of the three axes as well as the three coordinates is done as a so-called clockwise-
rotating system and follows the right-hand-rule (see figure 17). The fingers of the right hand always show to
the positive direction of each axis.
+Y
+X
+Z
Figure 17
Right-hand-rule
In the polar coordinate system a point is specified by its distance (radius r) to the point of origin and its angle
() to a specified axis. The angle () refers to the X axis in the X,Y coordinate system. The angle is positive,
if it is measured counterclockwise starting from the positive X axis (see figure 18). In the opposite direction it
is negative (see figure 19).
Y
Y
r X
P
P
X r
Figure 18 Figure 19
Polar coordinate system (positive angle ) Polar coordinate system (negative angle )
Each of the 3 main axes X, Y and Z also have a rotation axis revolving around the corresponding angle.
These rotation angles of the axes are indicated with A, B, C, whereby A rotates on the X, B on Y and C on Z
axis (see figure 20).
The rotation direction is positive if the rotation is clockwise when seen from the coordinate zero point in the
positive coordinate direction (corresponds to the rotation of a screw with a right-hand thread or the rotation
direction of a corkscrew).
The specification of the angles A, B and C of the polar coordinates can be derived from figure 20. If the point
which is to be approached is located on the X/Y plane of the coordinate system, then the polar coordinate
angle corresponds to the rotation angle on the Z axis, i.e. C. On the Y/Z plane the polar coordinate angle
corresponds to the rotation angle on X axis, i.e. A. In the X/Z plane it corresponds to the rotation angle Y, i.e.
B.
Figure 20
Y Z
M Y
X
W X
Figure 23
Milling part in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system
For an easier calculation of the points needed for programming it is advisable to use the outer edges of the
upper (see figure 24) or the lower area (see figure 25).
Z
Y
Figure 24 Figure 25
Work part zero point in the upper left outer edge Work part zero point in the lower left outer edge
CNC lathes
In the CNC lathes the working spindle (tool carrier) is specified as Z axis. This means the Z axis is identical
to the rotation axis (see figure 26 and 27). The direction of the Z axis is specified so that the tool withdraws
from the work part when moving to the positive axis direction.
The X axis is located in a right angle to the Z axis. However, the direction of the X axis always depends on if
the tool is located in front of (see figure 26) or behind (see figure 27) the rotation center.
+X
W +Z +Z
W
+X
Figure 26 Figure 27
Milling work part in Cartesian coordinate system Milling work part in Cartesian coordinate system
with 2-axis tool in front of the rotation center with 2-axis tool behind the rotation center
CNC-Exercise
Y
Enter the coordinates of the points in the table.
a
b
X Y
a
X
b
d
c
c
d
Y
Enter the following points in the diagram.
X Y
a 10 20
X
b -80 -30
c 40 -70
d -30 50
Z
Enter the Cartesian coordinates of the points a to d in the
Y table.
a X Y Z
c
a
X c
d
b d
X Y
g f a
b
h e
c
a d d
e
b c
f
In a drawing milling work parts are specified by their diameter. Therefore, the diameter is also included for
programming.
Enter the Cartesian coordinates of the points a to g in the table. Determine the corresponding diameter val-
ues of the X coordinates!
X Z
g f a
b
e d
c
c b d
e
a
f
CNC milling machines differ in their design with respect to the layout of the working spindles and the location
of the NC axes (see figure 28 and 29). The Z axis is identical with the rotation axis of the working spindle.
The positive Z direction is specified to run from the work part to the tool. Since a three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system is used, the other two coordinate axes can be determined by the right-hand-rule.
+Z
+Y
-Z
-Y
-X
-X +X
+X
+Z -Y
+Y
-Z
Figure 28 Figure 29
Axis on the vertical milling machine Axis on the horizontal milling machine
In a CNC lathe the working spindle is defined as the Z axis (see figure 30). The positive Z direction runs from
the work part to the tool. The X axis is vertical to the Z axis. The positive direction of the X axis runs here to
the rear (tool behind the rotation center). One rotation axis - the C axis - is available when the working spin-
dle is approached..
C +X
+Z
Figure 30
Axes on the lathe
+Y
+Z
+X
Figure 31
Directions of motion on a milling machine
NC compatible dimensioning
Two different types of dimensioning are used in NC programming:
absolute dimensioning and
incremental dimensioning (incremental values).
Absolute dimensioning always refers to the work part zero point, i.e. reference dimensions are used
(see figure 32). In contrast, incremental dimensioning uses incremental values which are always measured
from the current point to the next point (see figure 33).
When turning, the X values for absolute dimensioning are diameter values, whereas for incremental dimen-
sioning they refer to radius values.
+X +X
-Z
-Z
Figure 32 Figure 33
Example for absolute dimensioning Example for incremental dimensioning
Absolute dimensioning is recommended for programming, because of the following advantages compared
with incremental dimensioning:
NC compatible drawings should therefore avoid incremental values and use coordinate values referring to
one reference point.
Despite these advantages it is not always possible to avoid incremental dimensioning in programming. It is,
for example, an advantage when several identical contour parts, such as recesses, are consecutively ma-
chined.
4. CNC-Demo
Controllable NC axes on the CNC simulator
Similar to a real CNC machine tool, the CNC simulator also permits manual travel along the NC axes. Sub-
sequently, the necessary steps on a CNC simulator are described.
When entering data, only the indicated keys are to be pressed (for example, F5 corresponds to the function
key F5)
CNC milling
Description Entry
CNC-Exercise: With the CNC simulator each student practices moving along the NC axes.
CNC turning
Description Entry
7 8 6 ( + Z - direction )
Pos 1
4 ( - Z - direction )
-Z 4 5 6 +Z
8 ( + X - direction )
2 3 2 ( - X - direction )
Bild
-X
0 ,
Einfg Entf
CNC-Exercise: With the CNC simulator each student practices moving along the NC axes.
Workshop
Using the CNC machines available the students move along the controllable NC axes. Hereby the corre-
sponding operation instructions of the machine have to be followed.
Exercise: With the CNC simulator each student practices moving along the NC machine tool.
2.2 NC Mathematics
Basics of coordinate point calculations
When programming a CNC program the corresponding points of the contour to be machined have to be
entered. In most cases it is possible to directly take these point from the drawing, providing the drawing di-
mensions are NC compatible. In some cases it is however necessary to calculate coordinate points.
Corner points
C A, B and C mark the three corner points of a
triangle.
Angles
, and are the corresponding angles in
the corners of the triangle.
b a Sides
a, b and c mark the sides of the triangle op-
posite to the corners A, B and C.
C
C C
a
b a b a
b
A c B A c B A c B
Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37
Acute-angled triangle Obtuse triangle right-angled triangle
All angles are smaller than 90. One angle is larger than 90. One angle is 90.
For a triangle the relation applies: the sum of the triangle angles , and is always 180.
+ + = 180o
With this formula it is possible to calculate one unknown angle if the other two angles are known.
Right-angled triangle
The right-angled triangle (see figure 38) has a special significance in analytical geometry, since the sides of
such a triangle stand in a certain mathematical relation to each other. The sides of a right-angled triangle
have specific names:
The longest side is located opposite the right angle and is called hypotenuse.
The two sides of the triangle forming the right angle are each called cathetus
or together the legs of the right-angled triangle.
The side which is located opposite the angle is called counter cathetus.
The side located adjacent to the angle is called adjacent cathetus.
In a right-angled triangle the right angle (see figure 38) is described by a quarter circle and a point within the
angle.
counter cathetus
3 adjacent cathetus
1 hypotenuse
right angle
2
Figure 38
Right-angled triangle
In a right-angled triangle it is possible to calculate the length of an unknown side if the other two side lengths
are known. For this, the Pythagorean theorem (see figure 39) is used.
a2 + b2 = c 2
With the corresponding transformation the sides of
the triangle can be calculated as follows:
c
a = c 2 b2
b = c 2 a2
Figure 39
The Pythagorean theorem c = a2 + b2
Trigonometric functions
The trigonometric functions describe the relation between the angle and the sides of the right angle. With
these trigonometric functions it is possible to calculate unknown side lengths if one angle and the length of
one side is known. The choice of the trigonometric function between sine function (see figure 40), cosine
function (see figure 41) or the tangent function (see figure 42) depends on which side and angle are known.
counter cathetus
hypotenuse
2
1
counter cathetus
sin =
hypotenuse
Figure 40
Sine function
adjacent cathetus
hypotenuse
2
adjacent cathetus
cos =
hypotenuse
Figure 41
Cosine function
counter cathetus
adjacent cathetus
1
counter cathetus
tan =
2
adjacent cathetus
Figure 42
Tangent function
When calculating the unknown side the corresponding equations need to be transformed according to the
following example:
known values: the angle and the length of the adjacent cathetus
unknown value: the length of the counter cathetus
Calculation of NC coordinates
Work part drawings are not always dimensioned NC-compatible. In addition to incremental values, angle
values are also frequently given in drawings. Consequently, when programming manually the programmer
has to calculate unknown Cartesian coordinates using the points to be programmed.
In the following drawing the coordinates of the points b, c and f need to be calculated. The other points are
known.
Y X Y
f a 15 15
e
25 b ? 15
g
c ? 35
c d
d 85 35
25
a b e 85 85
X f ? 85
g 15 65
b 25
solution : x = 65 mm - dx
dx = radius of the arc
dx dx = 25 mm
? x = 65 mm - 25 mm
x = 40 mm
25
unknown : x from point c = ?
dx solution : x = 65 mm + dx
equation: dx = r 2 dy 2
dx = ( 25mm ) ( 20mm )
2 2
? dx = 225mm 2
dx = 15mm
x = 65 mm + 15 mm
x = 80 mm
dx = 20 mm * tan 25
25 dx = 20 mm * 0.4663
dx = 9.326 mm
x = 15 mm + 9.326 mm
x = 24.326 mm
CNC exercise
Enter the Cartesian coordinates from the center points of the drillings a to h in the table. Give all values
rounded to three decimal points.
Y
X Y
c b a
b
d a
c
100
d
60
h e
e
50
f
f g
X g
50
h
100
90 85
80 70
50
35
30
85
80
?
R reference point
Reference point R
Figure 44
Location of the zero and reference point for milling
+X
Figure 45
Work part zero point of the turned part
Figure 46
Work part zero point of a milled part.
A further important point in the machine work space is the tool reference point E. The tool reference point E
of a CNC lathe is a fixed point on its tool carrier. On a CNC milling machine the tool reference point E is lo-
cated on the tool spindle.
The CNC control refers first to the tool reference point for all target point coordinates. When programming
the target coordinates either the tool tip of the turning tool or the center of the milling tool is referred to. To be
able to control exactly the tool tip in turning or the tools in milling along the desired machining travel path
they have to be measured precisely. It is possible to measure the tools either outside the machine with a
preset device or directly on the machine using special optics. When using an optic, the measured values are
directly entered into the machine storage. If however the preset device is used the measured values need to
be entered manually for each tool into the corresponding compensation value storage of the control.
Two additional points are needed to preset the tool outside the CNC machine. These are the tool setup point
B and the tool shank point A.
setup point in Z
R cutter radius
R
L
Figure 47
Tool setup point of a turning tool
Figure 48
Tool setup point of a milling tool
A toolholding point
Figure 49
Toolholding point of a turret
If the tool system (tool post with tool) is placed into the tool carrier (i.e. a turret), then the tool setup point B
and the toolholding point A fall together and make up the tool reference point E.
Figure 50
Setting the work part zero point on a CNC lathe
Procedure
Starting situation: All machining tools have been measured and are available on the turret head.
The clamping device is prepared and the work part has been correctly clamped.
3. The CNC control then stores the value of the zero point shift zw.
The work part zero point W is clearly specified since the X coordinate zero is located on the rotation axis.
3. Because of eventual allowance the front side needs to be faced. This needs to be considered when pro-
gramming the NC program.
Starting situation:
The work part is adjusted and firmly clamped in the
machine table. All tools are gauged to each other.
The corresponding compensation values were en-
tered into the CNC control. The zero setting tool is
clamped and the spindle rotation is switched on.
1. Resetting Z direction
Figure 51
Setting the work part zero point on a CNC milling
machine
Y
Z The machine table with the clamped work part is
moved below the work spindle (in X and Y) in which
the reset tool is clamped.
Now the tool is recessed in Z direction to the work
W
part surface (X, Y plane), with the spindle switched
on (see figure 52), until a small marking is made on
the work part (touching the work part) surface.
After this the Z axis is reset and the Z value of the
X work part zero point W is transferred and stored into
the CNC control using the IST key.
2. Resetting in X direction
Figure 52
Resetting in Z
The tool is raised again and taken into the new reset-
Y ting position for the X axis. With the spindle switched
Z
on it is moved along the side surface of the work part
(Y, Z plane) in the X direction (see figure 53) until a
small marking is made on the work part surface
W (touching the work part).
When touching the work part in X axis the radius of
the applied tool has to be considered when confirm-
ing the value with the IST key, since the center point
coordinates of the tool are always used in NC pro-
X
gramming.
If the milling tool of the adjacent figure has, for in-
stance, a radius of 15 mm, then the value X=-15 is
entered into the NC control and confirmed with IST.
Figure 53 .
Resetting in X
3. Resetting in Y direction
Y
Z
The last step is to take the tool to resetting position
for the Y axis. With the spindle switched on, the tool
is taken into Y direction (see figure 54), to the side
W
surface of the work part (X, E Plane) until a small
marking is done on the work part surface (touching
the work part).
When touching the work part in X axis the radius of
X the applied tool has to be considered when confirm-
ing the value with the IST key, since the center point
coordinates of the tool are always used in NC pro-
gramming.
If the tool of the adjacent figure has, for instance, a
Figure 54 radius of 15 mm then the value Y=-15 is entered into
Resetting in Y the CNC control and confirmed with IST.
CNC exercise
Setting the work part zero point W in the CNC simulator Turning
By setting the work part zero point W the relation between the machine based and work part based coordi-
nate system is created. The work part zero point corresponds to the drawing zero point. Consequently, the
drawing dimensions can be used in programming. Using the operation steps described below the distance
between the machine zero point M and the work part zero point W can be specified. This Z value is also
called the zero shift zw.
Starting situation:
zw
Description Entry
5. Move the lathe tool in rapid speed so that it is Using the numeric keyboard press the corre-
located in front of the front plane surface with sponding arrow key simultaneously with the
a distance of approx. 5mm to the front plane shift key:
surface.
+ 4 for rapid speed in -Z direction
+X
+ 2 for rapid speed in -X direction
+Z
7 8 6
Pos 1 ( + Z - direction )
-Z 4 5 6 +Z 4 ( - Z - direction )
8 ( + X - direction )
2 3
Bild 2 ( - X - direction )
-X
0 ,
Einfg Entf
F2 (Increment 0.1)
7 Move the lathe tool in negative Z-direction Press the arrow key on the numeric keyboard.
until it touches the plane surface of the work
4
part . Then press
ESC
and
F8 (Quit).
8. Set the work part zero point in Z. F4 (Tool datum)
F4 (Set datum)
F1 (Set Z coord.)
Type z+1using the keyboard and confirm
F8 with (allowance of 1mm).
The Z value can be checked for the current zero
point using the displayed coordinates.
9. Take the tool off in +Z direction and in Using the numeric keyboard press the arrow
+X direction . key together with the shift key:
F8 (Quit)
F8 (Quit)
Setting the work part zero point W in the CNC simulator milling
In milling, setting the work part zero point W coordinates the work part zero point with the drawing zero point.
Please note that only the tool moves in the MTS simulator!
Using the operation steps described below the distance between the machine zero point M and the work
part zero point W in the three coordinates X, Y and Z is defined.
Starting situation:
Z Y
All machining tools are dimensioned and avail-
able in the magazine.
The work part is adjusted and clamped on the
machine table in the simulator.
W The location of the work part zero point should
X be the left top corner of the work part.
Description Entry
W
X
F2 (Increment 0.1)
7 Move the tool in negative Z direction until it Press the arrow key on the numeric keyboard
touches the surface of the work part.
2
Then press
ESC
and
F8 (Quit).
8. Set the work part zero point in Z. F4 (Tool/ Datum)
F4 (Set Datum)
F3 (set Z coord.)
Type in the data on the keyboard 0 and
F8 confirm it.
Check Z by setting the zero point and using the dis-
played coordinate values.
9. Setting the zero point in X direction Using the numeric keyboard press the arrow
Withdraw the tool in +Z direction.
key together with the shift key:
11. Move the tool in positive X direction until it Press the arrow key on the numeric keyboard.
touches the left side of the work part. 6
Then press
ESC
and
F8 (return).
12. Set the work part zero point in X. F4 (tool, zero point)
Please note the tool radius!
F4 (set datum)
So, enter for the X coordinate the negative
value of the radius of the applied tool, for in- F1 (set X coordinate)
stance -10.
Type -10 using the keyboard and confirm.
F8
Check the X by setting the zero point using the dis-
played coordinate values.
13. Setting the zero point in Y direction Using the numeric keyboard press the arrow
Take off the tool in -X direction and then in +Z key together with the shift key:
direction.
+ 4 for rapid speed in -X direction then
X 3) in -Z direction
15. Take the tool in positive Y direction until it Press the arrow key on the numeric keyboard.
touches the front of the work part.
9
Bild Then press
ESC
and
F8 (Quit).
16. Set the work part zero point in Y. F4 (Tool/Datum)
Please, note the tool radius!
F4 (set Datum)
So, enter for the Y coordinate the negative
value of the radius, for instance -10. F2 (set Y coord.)
Type -10 using the keyboard and confirm
F8 key.
Check the Y by setting the zero point using the dis-
played coordinate values.
17. Withdraw the tool in -Y and then in +Z direc- use the numeric keyboard and press the ar-
tion. row key together with the shift key:
1 for rapid speed in -Y direction, then
+ En de
control path
3
Figure 55
Function principle of a control chain
Since such a control chain generates an incorrect output value it is connected with the control. The control is
a sequence of operations which constantly recalculates and adjusts the actual value to reach the required
value.This closed sequence of operations is called a control loop (see figure 56)..
disturbance value
6
3 control path
measuring equipment
5
output value (actual value)
Figure 56
Function principle of a control loop
In a CNC machine tool the principle of a control loop is applied as a position control for the axis.
CNC Control
The CNC control is designed to decode a NC program and to process it as geometrical and technological
information. Using CNC control it is possible to control or check the corresponding components of the CNC
machine tool so that the desired work part is formed. The functions of the CNC control can be classified as
data entry, data processing or data output (see figure 57).
to have an external data transmission to a computer (DNC operation) via serial interfaces or network input
ports. It is then possible to generate (MTS system) and manage NC programs on this computer.
CNC control
1 technological
Y
processing
geometrical
2 4 X processing
adjustment con-
trol
5
3
X,Y,Z axis control
6 Z
actual position
value
data entry data processing data output
Figure 57
Structure of a CNC control
The data needed by the CNC machine tool to operate and machine the work part is generated out of the NC
data by the data processing of the CNC control.
The technological data is used e.g. for tool selection, for adjusting the spindle rotation speed, for selecting
the spindle direction of rotation or for switching the coolant on and off. They are transmitted through the ad-
justment control to the corresponding component of the CNC machine tool.
The geometrical information of a NC program is translated from the CNC control into set values for the dif-
ferent axial drives under consideration of the infeed values. The travel movements which are so created are
continuously controlled by the position control loop of the feed axis.
In technical applications by far all contour lines can be classified in straight lines and circular elements. This
is the reason why the majority of the CNC controls manufactured today are equipped only with straight line
and circular interpolation. In our CNC controls interpolations of parabolas and cubic parabolas, helical inter-
polations and spline interpolations are also available.
If a tool goes from the starting point to a target point which is not parallel to the axis it is a question of a
straight line interpolation. To achieve a straight tool path the relevant axes have to be correspondingly ad-
justed to each other. The relation of the axis feeds defines then the direction of the straight lines
(see figure 58 and 59).
Y Y
1
1 2
1
2 1
X X
aimed travel movement aimed travel movement
Figure 58 Figure 59
Relation of axial feeds Relation of axial feeds
The best way to demonstrate the principle of tool feed along curves, lines and arcs on a plane is to use a
plotter with a step motor. A step motor is controlled by current pulses. A positive or negative current pulse
rotates the wave of the step motor with a jerk in a certain angle to the right or to the left. As a result, each of
the two plotter axes can reach only a certain axial value. Therefore the plotter can only go to the points of a
tight grid on its drawing area. Just like on a monitor screen an incline is drawn through the axis-parallel
movement of the plotter (see figure 60).
The same principle is used for the interpolator of a CNC control. It calculates the intermediate values needed
for interpolation and transmits them as set values to the position control circles.
In straight line interpolation two or three axes move simultaneously (see figure 61), whereby their travel
movements are adjusted to each other in a certain relation.
If the tool moves in a circular path from the starting point it is a question of a circular interpolation
(see figure 62). The tool moves here either in clockwise or in counterclockwise direction. To achieve a circu-
lar tool path the travel movements of both axes, also depending on the path already traveled, have to be
adjusted to each other. The axis movement corresponds to a sine or cosine curve. The overlay of the two
axis makes out the arc.
X
X
Z
X
X
Figure 61 Figure 62
Straight line interpolation Circular interpolation
Figure 63
Point control
Line control
With the line control only tool travel paths which are
parallel to axes and which have programmed infeed
values can be controlled (see figure 64).
Path control
Path controls are further classified depending on the number of axes which can be simultaneously con-
trolled:
2 D path control
The 2 D path control makes it possible to carry out tool movements on several planes by switching the
interpolation in each case on one of the three main planes. All three axes are controllable in 2 D path con-
trol, however in every plane only two axes simultaneously. The third axes is the so-called infeed axis.
Depending on the selected machining plane different
axis can be controlled simultaneously so that it is
possible to travel in the following directions:
Figure 67
2D path control (X/Y plane)
Figure 68 Figure 69
2D path control (X/Z plane) 2D path control (Y/Z plane
3 D path control
DNC operation
DNC is the abbreviation of direct numerical control. It is the name of an operation mode in which several NC
and CNC machines as well as further devices are connected with each other. These devices can be for in-
stance tool presetting machines, measuring machines, programming seats and a central material and tool
management (see figure 70).
NC-Program-
CAD ming PPS ...
Local area
Network (LAN)
Master
computer
Measuring machines
...
NC
archive
Figure 70
Structure of a DNC system
The connection between the components of a DNC system is realized by a data bus. This direct data trans-
mission makes the conventional data carriers such as punch cards, magnetic stripes, discs as well as the
corresponding recording and read-in instruments unnecessary.
The significant characteristic of the DNC operation is the management and timely disposition of the informa-
tion. To be able to calculate and distribute this information to the right position, interfaces are needed.
Through the interfaces all the integrated parts of the DNC net are connected with the master computer. The
master computer is able to calculate machine and production data, switch operation modes, address, read-in
and record the correct storage location as well as automatically transmit them to the machine upstream com-
puters.
Through the structure of a DNC system (see figure 70) it is possible to enter data into different devices.
These devices can be located far away from each other.
Small NC programs can be written directly on the CNC machine tool. For writing extensive or complicated
NC programs it is better to use an external programming work station.
For this purpose there is a central management of the NC programs in the DNC system. The generated and
optimized NC programs are transmitted to the corresponding computers through data links. In case the CNC
machine tool is not equipped with a special DNC port a DNC terminal controls the organization of the data
transmission between the CNC control and master computer.
Depending on the model of a DNC system the following additional functions can be available:
central tool management and tool compensation data
interface for tool presetting devices
work part management
set time value and definition of working sequences
control of the material flow
central storage of the current data bases
central cooperation data and machine data acquisition (BDE, MDE) with graphical evaluation
NC programming with postprocessor conversion
graphical simulation with representation of the tool, clamping device and work part contour
Workshop
The different CNC control types are demonstrated on the CNC machine tools available.
If no CNC machine tools are available for point or line control these CNC control types can be simulated with
the help of the corresponding work parts.
Example:
point control
milling machine: go to boreholes
line control
milling machine: travel parallel to axis
lathe: travel parallel to axis
2D path control
milling machine: travel linear on two axis
milling machine: travel in a circle
lathe: machine a cone or rounding
2 D path control
milling machine: travel on various planes
milling machine: travel in a circle on various planes
3 D path control
milling machine: travel linear on two axis
Using the tool compensation values it is easy to program a work part without consideration of the actually
applicable tool lengths or tool radii. The available work part drawing data can be directly used for program-
ming. The tool data, lengths as well as radii of the milling machines or indexable inserts are automatically
considered by the CNC control.
A tool length compensationregarding the reference point enables the adjustment between the set and actual
tool length, as in case of tool finishing. This tool length value has to be available for the control. For this it is
necessary to measure the length L, i.e. the distance between the tool setup point B and the cutting tip, and
to enter it into the control (see chapter on tool measuring page 69 ff.).
In case of milling tools the length is defined in Z direction (see figure 71).
Figure 71
Tool compensation values on a cutting tool
In case of lathe tools the length L is defined in Z direction (see figure 72).
R
L
Figure 72
Tool compensation values on a lathe tool
In the CNC control these tool compensation values are stored in the compensation value storage, whereby
in most CNC controls it is possible to describe up to 99 tools. These values have to be activated during ma-
chining. This is done by calling the data within the NC program, e.g. with the address H or by specific places
in the T word.
Tool radius compensations
The CNC controls have an integrated cutter radius compensation for milling machines and tool tip compen-
sation for lathes. Using these aids it is possible to directly program the finished contour of the work part.
To enable the tool to generate the programmed contour with high precision the tool center point has to travel
on a path running parallel to the programmed path. This tool center point path is called equidisant
(see figure 73).
Figure 73
Milling center point paths (equidisants)
One equidisant is the tool center point path running in constant distance to the programmed path (contour) of
the work part. In discontinuous path transitions, i.e. in the inner and outer corners (see figure 74 and 75),
the transitions become equidisants, for instance, through insertion of arcs, in accordance with the control-
specific rules.
1 2 1
The CNC control calculates the contour-parallel milling center point path necessary for machining. The cal-
culations are based on the radius value of the current milling tool, which is stored in the tool compensation
value storage. The radius is not given in the NC program as such, the corresponding compensation switch is
instead called.
Due to the fact that machining can be done in two ways the NC control has to be informed if machining is to
take place on the left or right of the programmed contour (see figure 76).
1 2
left of the contour
3 programmed contours
Figure 76
Machining directions in milling radius correction
The following figures demonstrate the selection of the milling radius compensation which depends on the
position of the tool with reference to the contour to be machined
outside machining (see figure 77) and in
inside machining (see figure 78).
2 1
1 2
3 3
Figure 77 Figure 78
Milling radius compensation in outside machining Milling radius compensation in inside machining
If subsequent travel movements without milling radius compensation are to be done, for instance in borings,
these have to be entered to the CNC control with the corresponding command.
Tool nose compensation (turning)
In milling, milling radius compensation is used and in turning, tool nose correction, due to the fact that the
control calculates the travel paths based on a theoretical tool nose of the lathe tool. This theoretical tool nose
moves along the programmed path.
Since the actual tool dimensions, i.e. tool nose radius of the lathe tool, are not considered errors are un-
avoidable. Consequently, as a rule, roundings remain in inside corners or the contours (see figure 79). In
tool movements which are not parallel to X or Z axis considerable dimension and form deviations are the
result (see figure 80). These errors can be avoided by using tool nose correction, also called tool nose
compensation, in the CNC control.
3
3
4 3
5
5
3
2 1
2 1
Figure 79 Figure 80
Unavoidable error in turning: Error in turning: cone is not true-to-size
contour inside corner remains according to the programmed contour
programmed contour programmed contour
theoretical cutting point theoretical cutting point
theoretical tool tip theoretical tool tip
actual tool tip actual tool tip
contour corner remains unmachined incorrect deviation from the programmed
because of the cutter radius contour
The location of the actually traveled tool paths (equidisant see figure 81) is automatically calculated by the
cutter radius compensation in modern CNC controls.The following three facts have to be considered:
1. The radius of the tool tip has to be available in the compensation value storage of the CNC control.
1. The location of the tool tip (cutter compensation value vector) has to be available for the CNC control.
1. The machining direction of the tool with reference to the contour has to be correspondingly
programmed in NC programming.
Figure 81
Equidisant in turning
To enable the control to correctly calculate the actual cutting point the so-called cutting tip is described for
each tool by the cutter compensation vector (SRK vector). Hereby the SRK vector gives the position of the
cutter tip in I and K (X and Y direction) with reference to the cutter center point (see figure 82). The SRK
vector is defined in advance for each tool in the tool management of the MTS CNC simulator.
4
theoretical cutting edge
R theoretical cutting tip
3 theoretical cutting tip
I
1 cutting radius compensation value vector
R cutting radius
2
Figure 82
Cutting radius compensation value vector
Different cutting radius compensation value vectors have to be entered into the control depending on the fact
in which machining quadrant the applied tools are located (see figure 83). When entering the compensation
values I and K the signs of the resulting value have to be considered.
2. quadrant: K = -R I=R
3. quadrant: K = -R I = -R
5 7
4. quadrant: K=R I = -R
7. quadrant: K = -R I=0
1 2
6 8. quadrant: K=0 I = -R
Figure 83
Values for the cutting radius compensation value vector
which depend on the current machining quadrant of the
tool.
The following example demonstrates how to define the compensation values I and K (see figure 84).
Figure 84
Example: Cutting edge radius compensation value
When calling the cutting edge radius compensation in the program the location of the turning tool in travel
direction has to be entered into the CNC control by using the corresponding command:
turning tool is located left of the contour in travel direction or
turning tool is located right of the contour in travel direction
The following figures demonstrate the programming of the cutting radius compensation in dependence upon
the location of the tool with reference to the contour to be machined in case of
outside machining (see figure 85 and figure 86) and in case of
inside machining (see figure 87 and figure 88).
1 1
2 2
Figure 85 Figure 86
Cutting radius compensation in case of outside ma- Cutting radius compensation in case of outside ma-
chining chining
left of the contour right of the contour
2 2
1 1
Figure 87 Figure 88
Cutting radius correction, inside machining, Cutting radius correction, inside machining,
left of the contour. right of the contour
Just like programming a milling work part it is possible to directly program the contour to be machined using
the work part drawings data without data conversion. In turning as well, the selected cutting edge radius
compensation has to be switched off with the corresponding command.
To guarantee efficient CNC machine capacity utilization the tool measurement (tool set-up) generally takes
place outside the CNC machine. For this a universal tool measuring and setup device is used. The term
universal refers here to the fact that turning and milling tools are measured with different tool holders to
define the corresponding setup values. Modern tool measuring and adjusting devices convey the calculated
data directly to the CNC control or to an other data carrier or a printer via DNC for an output.
A tool setup device is used to define the compensation values of turning or milling tools. It is not possible to
correctly program a work part contour without the tool compensation values (see chapter on the milling ra-
dius compensation p.63 ff. or the tool nose compensation p. 65 ff).
Figure 89
Universal tool measuring and setup device
In addition to this, an electronic measuring device for measuring the tool compensation values and a storage
medium for storing data, e.g. the milling radius R and length L, are available.
The target is to precisely define the length L and the overhang Q (see figure 90) of the turning tool to be
able to give the CNC control the corresponding compensation values in X and Z.
R
L
Figure 90
Measuring a turning tool
Clamp the turning tool to be measured in the tool shank corresponding to the current turret.
Switch on and adjust the tool measuring and setup device.
Measure the lathe tool.
Using the control desk of the tool setup device the compound slide rest is moved with the lathe tool to
be measured in X and Z (see figure 91).
Figure 91
Display crosslines of a tool setup device
with exact positioning of the tip of the turning tool
The aim of the infeed is to adjust the tool cutting edge exactly on the display crosslines of the measur-
ing device.
Now the length L and the overhang Q of the lathe tool on the tool setup device display can be read-in.
These values correspond to the compensation values of the clamped lathe tool in X and Z.
Store the measured compensation values
The compensation values are now either manually listed for a later entry into the CNC machine, or
they are directly carried into the CNC machine through a data link between the tool set-up device and
the CNC control in DNC mode.
Declamp the turning tool
The turning tool can now be declamped from the tool set-up device to allow a further tool to be meas-
ured.
For direct tool measuring the work part is clamped together with the tool in any position (for instance machin-
ing a cylinder). The work part is then measured with reference to the machine zero point M. The measured
values are entered in the tool compensation register of the CNC control.
After that, the second tool is clamped, the tool slide is taken into the same position as it was for the first tool
and the machined work part contour is worked out again. The control then calculates the compensation val-
ues for the second tool based on the new actual position of the tool slide.
Defining the deviation between target and actual value with various aids
Tool measuring using so-called zero tools on the CNC milling machine
A commonly applied method for tool measuring on CNC milling machine uses a zero tool to define the differ-
ent lengths of the milling tools. The radius compensations of all tools have been defined and entered into the
CNC control in advance.
Procedure:
With the first tool, also called zero tool, an area on the clamped work part is machined. For this tool the
measured Z value is set zero.
The next tool is clamped and then moved as far as to touch the work part surface. The current Z position can
now be entered into the compensation register including its sign. Herewith the compensation values of the
tool length become the deviation values of the zero tool length.
In the machining room of some CNC machines there is an optical system installed on a fixed point, whose
position is known to the machine. The coordinates have been stored in the CNC control as parameters.
The tools to be measured are clamped in any position and are taken one after the other to the center of the
crosslines of the optical system using an electronic hand wheel (see figure 92). The control then calculates
without further data entry the value overhang Q as well as the length L and stores these values in the tool
compensation value register.
Figure 92
Advantages Disadvantages
CNC exercise
The MTS software, just like a real CNC machine tool, allows the user to allocate one or several compensa-
tion switches to each tool. With these switches the tool compensation values of the tool are called.
Exercise:
The following work part is to be machined, including rough turning and final turning, using a left corner turn-
ing tool and the set compensation switches. The corner turning tool
T05 LEFT CORNER TOOL CL-SDJCL-2020/L/1204 ISO30
is applied with the setting value for overhang Q and the length L to be entered in the compensation value
register D25.
It is assumed:
Setting-up the MTS simulator according to the following set-up data:
PART
CYLINDER D060.000 L082.000
MATERIAL C 45 W-Nr: 1.0503
DENSITY 007.90
MAIN SPINDLE WITH WORKPART
CHUCK KITAGAWA B-208
STEP JAW KITAGAWA-1
CHUCKING DEPTH E32.000
RIGHT SIDE OF THE PART: Z+209.500
TOOLS
T05 LEFT CORNER TOOL CL-SDJCL-2020/R/1204 ISO30
Procedure:
Description Entry
5. Enter the data for the compensation register Use the keyboard to enter the data by press-
No. 25. ing
or
F8 (Quit)
F8 (Quit)
Now the NC program BOLZEN can be simulated either in single step or in automatic run.
N010 G90
N015 G54 X+000.000 Z+207.500
N020 F000.300 T0101 M04
N025 G96 S0180
N030 G92 S3000
N035 G00 X+062.000 Z+000.000
N040 G01 X-001.000 M08
N045 Z+002.000
N050 G00 X+120.000 Z+040.000 M09
N055 F000.300 T0525 M04
N060 G00 X+050.000 Z+002.000
N065 G01 Z-044.800 M08
N070 X+061.000
N075 G00 Z+002.000
N080 X+040.000
N085 G01 Z-044.800
N090 X+051.000
N095 G00 Z+002.000
N100 X+030.000
N105 G01 Z-014.800
N110 X+042.000
N115 G00 Z+002.000
N120 T0505 M04 F000.160
N125 G00 X+030.000
N130 G01 Z-015.000
N135 X+040.000
N140 Z-045.000
N145 X+062.000
N150 G00 X+120.000 Z+040.000 M05 M09
N155 M30
Workshop
The necessary operation steps can be found in the operating manual of the applied tool setup machine.
The students should individually measure turning and milling tools on the CNC machine tools in workshop.
The details of this procedure are given in the chapter Tool measuring and setup using the CNC machine.
The operation steps on the CNC machine are given in the respective operation.
The exact spatial position of the controllable and moving machine parts has to be constantly fed back to the
CNC control. This is done by the position sensor whose data is fed into the position control loop
(see figure 93).
On the CNC machine tool the position of the tool carriage is constantly measured. Based on the change of
time along the path, the current path position (actual value) as well as the path speed is calculated and com-
pared with the programmed path (set value).
For instance the machining forces as well as friction and play in guidance influence the feedback loop. They
are called disturbance variables and are to be compensated by the control (CNC control).
Approximately every millisecond the control delivers a new position set value to the position feedback loop,
which the control aims for. Considering the high clock rate the control receives a new set value even before
the previous set value has been achieved. This phenomenon of the position feedback loop is based on
physical facts (i.e. too high infeed) and creates the so-called lag error.
7 disturbance variables
3 3
motor
ball screw
6
measuring equipment
Figure 93
Position feedback loop output value (actual position
value)
Path measuring
To define the current position of the tool carriage (actual value of the position feedback loop) there is a path
measuring system available for each travel axis of the CNC machine tool. Depending on the travel path dif-
ferent path measuring methods are applied.
For incremental path measuring (see figure 95) counting pulses result from the constant change of light and
dark fields of the ruled grating during the travel movement. These pulses are constantly added or subtracted
by the CNC control. The current tool slide position is the difference of the new position to the last position.
Therefore, after the CNC control has been switched on, the tool slide has to go once to an absolute point,
the reference point, to enable the CNC control to calculate the absolute coordinates.
1 2 1 2 3 4
012345678
In general, only incremental path measuring is applied in CNC machine tools due to the fact that the refer-
ence point can be gone to at any time.
In case of welding line robots, however, collisions can occur with the work parts when going to the reference
point. Therefore, absolute path measuring is required here.
CNC exercise
CNC turning
Procedure:
Description Entry
CNC milling
Procedure:
Description Entry
Procedure:
Description Entry
5. Move the lathe tool in rapid speed so that it is Use the numeric keyboard to press the arrow
located in front of the front plane surface with key together with the shift key:
a distance of approx. 5mm to the front plane
surface. + 4 for rapid speed in -Z direction
+Z
7 8 6
Pos 1 ( + Z direction )
-Z 4 5 6 +Z 4 ( - Z direction )
8 ( + X direction )
2 3
Bild 2 ( - X direction )
-X
0 ,
Einfg Entf
F2 (increment 0.1)
7 Move the lathe tool in negative Z direction Now first press the arrow key on the numeric
until it touches the plane surface of the work keyboard.
4
part.
ESC
and then
F8
press (Quit).
Procedure:
Description Entry
W
X
F2 (increment 0.1)
7 Move the tool in negative Z direction until it Now press the arrow key on the numeric key-
touches the surface of the work part. board,
2
then press
ESC
and
F8
(Quit).
Procedure:
Description Entry
F2 (increment 0.1)
7. Move the tool in positive X direction until it Now press the arrow key on the numeric key-
touches the left side of the work part. 6 board,
and
F8
(return) key.
Procedure:
Description Entry
1 Y 1) in +X direction
2 2) in -Y direction
1 for rapid speed in -Y direction
3 + En de
W 3) in -Z direction
X + 2 for rapid speed in -Z
F2 (Increment 0.1)
7. Take the tool in positive Y direction until it Press the arrow key on the numeric keyboard.
touches the front of the work part.
9
Bild Then press
ESC
and
F8 (Quit) key.
8. Quit the Setup mode. F8 (Quit)
1. For which applications is it reasonable to use the polar coordinate system in milling?
1. Explain the zero and reference point on numerically controlled machine tools.
1. Where should the work part zero point, which is set by the user, be positioned?
1. Incrementally dimension the sketched milling work part with absolute dimensions:
12. What is the main difference between the principle of a control chain and a feedback loop?
12. What is the significance of the working quadrants of the turning tool edge?
Tool carriers
Special forms have been stablished for tool carriers. They differ from each other in their machining method.
For turning tools a straight shank with toothing (see figure 96) is mostly used and for cutting tools a steep-
angle taper (see figure 97). Both tool shanks can be used with automatic and/or quick manual tool change.
Figure 96 Figure 97
Straight shank with toothing Steep-angle taper
Tool holder
Many lathe and milling tools are a combination of several components. Indexable inserts are used which are
attached, for example with clamping devices (see figure 98).
1
Clamping finger
2
indexable insert
3
pin
4
Insert
5
indexable insert carrier
Figure 98
Example of a clamping system
The main components of a modern lathe tool are the clamping holder or indexable insert holder, the index-
able insert and the clamping device. The indexable inserts are placed in the holder which has two supporting
edges and an insert. The insert serves to convey larger cutting forces and to protect the holder from damage
in case of an eventual breach in the indexable insert.
Since the indexable inserts are exposed to the cutting forces of the lathe and to the centrifugal forces of the
milling machine, there is the danger of loosening supports or slipping tools. Clamping and screw clamping
fixtures are therefore used to accurately fix and position the indexable inserts.
The clamping fixtures and the indexable inserts are standardized to a large extent.
Indexable inserts are made either of tungsten carbide or cutting ceramics (see chapter cutting materials
pp. 88 ff.).They are sintered. This production method, in which metal powder is first pressed and then heat
treated, enables economical indexable inserts to be manufactured in various designs (see figure 99).
S B E T P H R
Figure 99
Forms of indexable inserts
Indexable inserts are classified according to their basic form, angles, cutting edges, tolerance class as well
as their clamping system and main dimensions. Based on a norm sheet ISO 1832 / DIN-4987 the following
example (see figure 100) shows the norm title of an indexable insert.
The lathe tools, also called cutting tools, can be classified according to the following criteria:
according to the cutting material:
cutting tool edges out of high-speed steel,
cutting tool edges out of tungsten carbide,
cutting tool edges out of ceramics or
cutting tool edges out of diamond;
according to the location of the application area:
cutting tool for outer machining or
cutting tool for inner machining;
according to their form:
straight cutting tool,
offset cutting tool,
cranked cutting tool,
sharp cutting tool or
wide cutting tool;
according to the location of the major cutting edge
left cutting tool,
right cutting tool or
neutral cutting tool;
according to the application purpose e.g.:
recessing tool,
corner cutting tool or
tapping tool.
Details of the cutting tools are described in the corresponding norms (ISO 243, 504 or 514).
A selection of commonly used cutting tools is listed in the below table 101 according to their application area.
These cutting tools are stored with all their dimensions in the tool management of the MTS turning simulator.
They can be called from there for simulaton on the MTS turning simulator.
Cutting materials
Hard metals are primarily used as the cutting material for lathe tools. For certain types of cutting high-speed
steels (HSS steels) are used. Their cutting surface is usually coated. In special cases ceramic materials
(cutting ceramics) are used as indexable inserts and in some cases industrial diamonds as well.
High-speed steels
High-speed steel is a high-alloyed tool steel (HSS = high-speed steel). It is highly durable and can therefore
easily take impact loads. The cutting speed is considerable lower compared with hard metals and cutting
ceramics.
It is used for tools whose form, for instance boring and reaming tools, do not allow the use of indexable in-
serts or machining of thermoplastic plastics and light alloys. HSS tools are frequently coated with a hard coat
of titanium nitrid TiN. This extremely hard, golden colored coating increases the abrasion resistance and
allows higher cutting speeds.
Hard metals
Hard metals are materials which are cintered as indexable inserts using hardening materials and a binding
agent. In most cases the hardening materials are tungsten, titanium or tantalum carbide. Cobalt is used as a
binding agent.
Hard metals are considerably harder than HSS steels. They are extremely abrasion-resistent and allow very
high working temperatures. They do, however, tolerate far less temperature fluctuation and impact exposure
than the HSS steels.
Hard metals can be classified according to the main cutting groups and cutting application groups.
precision machining,
P10 high cutting speed
P P20 steel
blue P30 cast steel medium cutting speed
P40 malleable cast iron short
shipping
P50 rough cutting high hardness
interrupted cutting high infeeds
precision machining high abrasion resistance
M10 steel high cutting speed high cutting speed
The abrasion resistance of hard metals can be increased with a corresponding coating. As coating materials
titanium nitrid, titanium carbide and aluminium oxide are applied in several layers in vacuum in a tempera-
ture of 1000C
Cutting ceramics
Ceramic materials which are even harder than hard metals are used as cutting ceramics. Cutting ceramics
allow a working temperature up to 1200C. They are very brittle and sensitive to fluctuating cutting forces.
Cutting ceramics are manufactured as indexable inserts and are clamped in the tool holder just like hard
metals.
Cutting ceramics are applied for cutting with constant cutting conditions, without coolant application. The
cutting speed is higher than that of hard metals. They are ideal for cutting iron materials since they do not
create built-up edges. They, however, cannot be used for aluminium alloys.
The applicable cutting ceramics can be classified in the three following groups:
oxide ceramics
mixed ceramics
nitrid ceramics
Cutting ceramics alloys of pure Al2O3 are called oxide ceramics. They have no metallic binding agent. They
are especially ideal for cutting iron alloys since they are highly abrasion resistant to them.
In case of mixed ceramics hard materials are added to the Al2O3 such as titanium carbide. Mixed ceramics
are used for finishing gray-cast iron or steel as well as for cutting hardened iron materials.
Nitrid ceramics are based on silicium nitrid Si3N4. This non-oxide cutting material is extremely brittle and
sensitive to temperature fluctuations. High abrasion in cutting steel is a disadvantage. The nitrid ceramics is
applied for machining gray cast iron.
Diamond
Diamands are harder than all other materials. They are extremely sensitive to impact, however create no
built-up edges during machining.
They are used for cutting non-iron materials and their alloys as well as for composite materials (GRP), hard
metal, gas and ceramics.
Diamands cannot be applied for machining steel. Here they have very high abrasion since the carbon atoms
of diamonds are given off to the iron (diffusion abrasion).
0 clearance angle
0 0 0 wedge angle
0 0 angle of rake
r angle of point
s angle of inclination
r s r adjustment angle
Figure 103
Cutting geometries in turning
Clearance angle : The clearance angle reduces friction and heating up of the tool edge and the work
part.
Wedge angle : The size of the wedge angle depends on the hardness and toughness of the work
part. The smaller the wedge angle the lighter the cutting, however, the larger the edge
abrasion and the shorter the cutting edge life.
Angle of rake : The angle of rake has an influence on chip building and cutting forces. The larger the
angle of rake the smaller the cutting force, however, cutting edge breach and abrasion
are increased because of total decarburization. Solid, medium hard materials require
an angle of rake of approx. 10. Hard and brittle materials require a small or even a
negative angle of rake.
Adjustment angle : In the first place the entering angle has an influence on infeed force, on the forces
against the work part clamping and work part as well as on the cutting width and
thickness. In case of solid clamping situation an entering angle of 30 to 60 is se-
lected. Only for thin shafts or right angled offsets 90 is selected for the adjustment
angle.
Inclination angle : For finishing a positive, for roughing a negative inclination angle is frequently selected.
When negative angles of rake are used the cutting edge tip is exposed to less stress.
When positive inclination angle is used the chip flow is directed away from the work
part.
Angle of point : The larger the angle of point the better the stability of the tool edge and the better the
heat removal.
Due to the high temperature of the tool cutting edge small work part particles can be welded on to the tool
face. A built-up edge can be created (see figure 105).
During the cutting process material particles continuously break off from the lathe tool. Correspondingly, the
geometry of the tool cutting edge changes with the time. Depending on the choice of the tool cutting edge
angle the abrasion can take different forms (see figure 106 to 109).
Due to tool wear the surface quality of the machining as well as the dimensional stability of the work part are
reduced. As soon as the required surface quality or dimensional stability are not maintained any more the
cutting-edge life of the tool has been reached.
Cutting-edge life is the time during which the cutting edge is in operation and the following requirements are
met:
Generation of required surface quality
Dimensional stability within the required tolerances
When cutting-edge life has been reached it is necessary to change the tool or to resharpen it. When using
indexable inserts the insert can be turned or changed. Prior to using the tool again tool dimensioning has to
be done.
Cutting value
Turning is a cutting operation with a circular cutting movement and an infeed which can be in any relation to
the cutting direction. In most cases the cutting movement is made by the rotation of the work part and the
infeed of the tool (see figure 110). The
cutting speed vc and the
infeed speed vf
overlap and result in a continuous cutting process.
Cutting speed vc
Cutting speed is the movement between the tool and the work part causing only a single chip removal during
one rotation without infeed. The symbol for cutting speed is vc and is indicated in m/min.
In general the speed indicates the traversed path s within a certain period of time t. It is calculated as fol-
lows:
s
v= in path/time
t
The traversed path s for a work part rotation can be generated in turning using the work part diameter d on
the cutting edge tip and the constant :
s = *d in m
The starting point for the calculation of the cutting speed is now a time unit t = 1 min. The result is herewith
cutting speed vc :
*d
vc = in m/min
t
The number or work part rotations in one minute is indicated as a number of rotations n (in rotations per
minute):
1
t= in min
n
As a result the following formula is achieved for the calculation of the cutting speed vc:
vc = * d * n in m/min
vc
n n number of rotations in U/min
vc =*d*n
Figure 110
Cutting values in turning
Infeed speed vf
Together with the cutting movement Infeed allows a continuous chip removal during several rotations. The
infeed speed vf is indicated in mm/min.
Often the infeed f is given in mm per rotation as well. The infeed f is the path the lathe tool makes in the in-
feed fixture during one spindle rotation. The following relation exists between these two forms:
vf = n *f in mm / min
For each cutting process a certain infeed is required. Together with the spindle number of rotations n it de-
fines the machining time for each travel path. Its value has a decisive influence on an ideal cutting force and
on the sufrace quality of the machined surface.
Chip size
The chip diameter A describes the material diameter, which is cut in one cut (see figure 111). Its size largely
defines the cutting force created.
Without considering the cutting edge radius, the chip diameter A is the product of the cutting depth a and
infeed f. It is given in mm2. The cutting depth a, i.e. the depth of the tool cutting, is the value to be fed in step
by step.
A = a *f in mm2
Using the entering angle it is possible to calculate the width b and the thickness h of the chip.
h = f *sin in mm
a
b= in mm
sin
f
f
b
h
a cutting depth adjustment angle
f infeed per rotation b chipping width
h chipping thickness
Figure 111
Chipping sizes
The following cutting values have to be selected always considering the specific appliction, and the lathe is
to be correspondigly set up.
cutting speed vc
infeed f
cutting depth a
This requires extensive experience. As a support standard value tables are therefore available indicating the
cutting values regarding the material to be cut and the cutting edge material.
Cutting speed vc
vc = * d * n in m/min
1. Example:
What is the cutting speed in plain turning if the cutting is done with a 60 mm diameter and num-
ber of rotations of 1500 1/mm.
datum: d = 60 mm
n = 1500 1/min
unknown: vc in m/min
valid : vc = * d * n
solution: m
vc = 283
min
2. Example:
How many number of rotations are required if the smallest diameter to be machined on the same work
part with this cutting speed is 12mm?
unknown: n in 1/min
valid : vc = *d * n , or
vc
n=
*d
283m
n=
* min* 0,012m
n = 7511 1 min
solution:
Figure 112
Milling
Milling operations are classified according to the position of the milling axis towards the work part, i.e. be-
tween face milling and peripheral milling.
In case of face milling the milling axis is located vertically to the machining area (see figure 113). The work
part surface is machined by the main cutting edges. Also, the work part surface is further finished with auxil-
iary cutting edges.
In case of peripheral milling the milling axis is located parallel to the machining axis (see figure 114). The
milling tool machines the work part surface with the main cutting edges (the peripheral cutting edges). Fur-
thermore, a difference is made between synchronous and conventional milling.
Additionally, synchronous and conventional milling (see figure 115 and 116) are differentiated.
In case of conventional milling the rotation direction of the milling tool is opposite to the feed direction of
the work part (see figure 115).
The milling tool chamfer edge starts with chip thickness zero. The milling tool cutting edge slides in front of
the chip chamfer edge until the required minimum chip thickness has been achieved for chip building.
The friction created by sliding results in high abrasion of the tool flanks and in hardening of the work part
surface. This leads to a shorter cutting edge life of the tool compared with synchronous milling.
Conventional milling is recommended to be used for machining work parts with hard surfaces (cast material)
since the hard surface is cut through from inside.
For synchronous milling the rotation direction of the milling tool and the feed movement of the work part
are parallel (see figure 116).
The tooth of the milling cutter immediately penetrates into the work part. Since the milling tool cutting edge is
exposed to impact forces the feed drive needs to be playfree. Several cutters should always be in operation.
The surface quality is flatter and duller when synchronous milling is used. Compared with conventional mill-
ing higher feed movements and cutting speeds within the same cutting edge life can be achieved.
1
1
The tool cutting edge is subject to constant cutting interruptions in all milling operations. Due to the cutting
path comma-form chips are cut with a changing chip thickness (see figure 117).
cutting chip
Figure 117
Milling plan
A selection of common milling tools are shown below, classified according to their application field:
end mill
standard types plain milling cutter
face milling cutter
counterbore drill screw tap
drills indexable insert drill reamer
stepped drill
radius form cutter angle cutter (form A) concave cutter
special forms T slot mill angle cutter (form B) side mill
Figure 118
Classification of milling tools
The above milling tools including all their data are included in the MTS CNC milling simulator and can be
called by the user. These tools can be modified or extended to meet the users demand.
Today, mostly indexable inserts made of hardmetal are used as milling tools. Only in case of small milling
machines soldered hardmetal cutting edges made of high-speed steel or coated high-speed steel tools are
used.
High-speed steel
High-speed steel is a high-alloyed tool steel. Due to its high toughness it is able to withstand impact forces.
The cutting speed is considerably lower compared with hardmetals or cutting ceramics.
It is used for drills, small milling tools and tools with a complicated form (profile cutter). Cutting tools made of
high-speed steel are used for cutting less tough materials, for profile cutting and for cutting with low cutting
speed.
Hardmetals
Hardmetals are materials which are sintered in form of indexable inserts by using hardening materials and
a binding agent. By increasing the binding agent proportion in hardmetal production it is possible to increase
the hardness of the material as required. The abrasion resistance of hardmetals can be increased by a tita-
nium nitrid, titanium carbide or aluminium oxide coat.
Hardmetal cutting plates are soldered on the milling tool or screwed on it in form of indexable inserts.
Cutting ceramics
Cutting ceramics are rarely used for milling because of their brittleness and sensitivity to fluctuating cutting
forces. However, because of the high hardness aluminium oxide is used for machining hardcast materials
and hardened steel as well as silicon nitrid for grey cast. Both of these materials are used for cutting without
coolant application.
Like hardmetal, cutting ceramics are manufactured to be used in form of indexable inserts.
Diamond
Cutting plates made of polycrystalline diamonds are used to cut non-iron metals and plastics. The extraordi-
nary hardness of the diamonds enables double as high cutting speeds with ten times longer cutting edge
lifes are achieved as compared with hardmetals.
Diamonds cannot be used for cutting steel. Here they are exposed to high abrasion since the carbon atoms
of the diamond are given off to iron atoms (diffusion abrasion).
Cutting geometry
Unlike lathe tools milling tools have several cutting edges (see figure 119). Typical of milling is the discon-
tinuous cut as each cutting edge works only for a time.
z: number of teeth
fz
d
s S: entering angle
ae
0 0:
0
clearance angle
0: wedge angle
0 0: angle of rake
s
Figure 119
Cutting geometry milling
Clearance angle : The clearance angle is to reduce the friction and consequently the heating of the cut-
ting edge and of the work part.
Wedge angle : The size of the wedge angle depends on the hardness of the work part. The smaller
the wedge angle the lighter the cutting, however the greater the cutting abrasion and
the shorter the cutting edge life.
Angle of rake : The angle of rake influences cutting chip formation and cutting forces. The larger the
angle of rake of the chip the smaller the cutting force, however the risk to breach as
well as abrasion of the cutting edge are increased due to erosion.
Entering angle S: The entering angle indicates the machining path of the tool with reference to the cir-
cumference. It depend on the size of the entering point.
Inclination angle : The size of the inclination angle influences the process of chamfering and cutting-out.
Since the inclined cutting edges are consecutively engaged the milling tool runs with
increased quietness.
The configuration of the adjustment angle (see figure 120) is very important in milling. The adjustment angle
is the angle between the main cutting edge and the surface to be cut.
: adjustment angle
Figure 120
Adjustment angle of milling tools
If the adjustment angle is 90, the highest radial forces are exposed. This angle value is therefore only rec-
ommended for right-angled contours. For most milling works an adjustment angle of 75 or 60 is ideal. For
long cutting materials the adjustment angle of = 45 is ideal.
If hardmetal indexable inserts are mostly used, then two cutting angles are available. They can be measured
using the reference lines:
radial cutting angle (reference line through the centerof the milling tool)
axial cutting angle (reference line parallel to milling axis)
In case of plain milling with a plain milling cutter the following combinations are mostly used (see figure 121):
double positive geometry
double negative geometry
positive-negative geometry
2 2 2
+ - +
1 + - -
1 1
double positive geometry double negative geometry positive-negative geometry
Cutting values
Milling is a cutting operation with a rotating tool, whereby the cutting edges are not in operation all the time.
The cutting movement is caused by the rotation of the tool. Feed direction and cutting direction do not de-
pend on each other. It is realized either by the tool or by the work part or by both of them (see figure 122).
The
cutting speed vc and the
feed speed vf
overlap each other and results in a continuous cutting operation.
Cutting speed vc
The cutting movement is the movement between the tool and the work part, generating only one non-
recurrent chip cut during one rotation without a feed movement. Cutting speed corresponds to circumferen-
tial speed of the milling tool on the current cutting edge. It is expressed as vc and m/min. Under considera-
tion of the number of rotations of the spindle n the following formula is received
vc = * d * n in m/min
The cutting speed of a cutting tool depends on the number of the rotations. The direction constantly changes
however during cutting operation (see figure 122
vc vc
n number of rotation
vc vf feed speed
n vc cutting speed
d
Feed speed vf
The feed movement together with the cutting movement enable a constant chip removal during several rota-
tions. In milling, the feed can be indicated in three ways:
feed speed vf in mm / min
feed per tooth fz in mm
feed per milling rotation f in mm
The calculation of the feed speed vf is based on the feed fz , i.e. the feed path per milling tooth. Under con-
sideration ot the number of rotations n and the number or teeth z the formula is as follows:
v f = fz * n * z in mm / min
The feed speed can be expressed with the following formula as well with reference to the feed per milling
rotation.
vf = f *n in mm / min
v f = f * n = fz * n * z in mm / min
Cutting width
Unlike in turning, a nonuniform chip is cut in milling (see figure 123). The average cutting thickness hm is
used as reference.
actual chip
fz
fz: feed per tooth
hm
Figure 123
Cutting thickness
In plain milling, the cutting width ap is the penetration width of the tool into the work part. The working en-
gagement ae is measured on an imagined plane of the working plane. The cutting and feed direction are
located on the working plane (see figure 124).
1
1
ap
ae
ae
ap working plane
The following cutting values must be selected case by case depending on the application and then entered
into the milling machine:
number of rotations n
feed f
working engagement ae
cutting depth or cutting width ap
This requires extensive experience. As a support standard value tables are therefore available containing
cutting values regarding the material to be cut and to the cutting edge material.
Calculation examples of technological values for CNC machining
Cutting speed vc
vc = * d * n in m/min
Feed speed vf
v f = f * n = fz * n * z in mm / min
1. Example:
Calculate the cutting speed for milling if the milling tool diameter d = 50 mm and the
number of rotations n = 520 1/min.
known: d = 50 mm
n = 520 1/min
unknown: vc in m/min
it applies : vc = *d * n
solution: m
vc 82
min
2. Example:
Calculate the number of rotations n of an end mill with a diameter of = 12 mm and cutting
speed of vc = 120m/min.
known: d = 12 mm
vc = 120 m/min
unknown: n in 1/min
it applies : vc = *d * n , or
vc
n=
*d
120m
n=
* min* 0,012m
n = 3183 1 min
solution:
3. Example:
In plain milling with a face milling cutter a cutting speed of vc = 180 m/min has been scheduled
and the number of rotations should not exceed 400 1/min. What is the maximum diameter d of
the face milling cutter so that these values are not exceeded?
unknown: d in mm
it applies : vc = *d * n , or
vc
d=
*n
180000mm * min
d=
* min* 400
Solution: d = 143mm
70
45
25
for finishing vcf = 400 m/min.
20
50
60
Calculating the number of rotations for roughing (Cut 1-4) and for finishing (Cut 5-6)
unknown: n in 1/min
valid : vc
n=
*d
1. Cut 2. Cut
= 58mm vcv = 280 m/min = 46mm vcv = 280 m/min
280m 280m
n1 = n2 =
* min* 0,058m * min* 0,046m
n1 = 1537 1 min n2 = 1938 1min
3. Cut 4. Cut
= 36mm vcv = 280 m/min = 26mm vcv = 280 m/min
280m 280m
n3 = n4 =
* min* 0,036m * min* 0,026m
n 3 = 2476 1 min n4 = 3428 1min
5. Cut 6. Cut
= 25 mm vcf = 400 m/min = 45 mm vcf = 400 m/min
400m 400m
n5 = n6 =
* min* 0,025m * min* 0,045m
n5 = 5393 1 min n6 = 2830 1min
2. Example:
70
45
25
other surfaces with a feed of ff2 = 0.12 mm.
Calculating the machining time for roughing thuv and for finishing thuf
The machining time for turning is calculated with the following formula:
L *i
th = in min
n *f
The variables are:
L Feed Path
i Number of Cuts
n Number of Rotations
f Feed per Rotation
The feed path L is calculated from the path in which the cutting edge is operating (length l = feed mo-
tion in Z and X !) and possible approach / withdrawal paths (length la or lu) that are traveled in the feed.
The following feed paths result for each cut with consideration to 2mm for the approach / withdrawal
paths:
unknown: th in min
valid : L *i
th =
n *f
1. Cut 2. Cut
L = 60mm fv= 0.2 mm n= 1537 1/min L = 66mm fv= 0.2 mm n= 1938 1/min
L *i L *i
th = th =
n *f n *f
60mm * 1 min 66mm * 1 min
th = th =
1537 * 0,2mm 1938 * 0,2mm
t h = 0,195 min t h = 0,172 min
3. Cut 4. Cut
L = 29mm fv= 0.2 mm n= 2476 1/min L = 34mm fv= 0.2 mm n= 3428 1/min
L *i L *i
th = th =
n *f n *f
29mm * 1 min 34mm * 1 min
th = th =
2476 * 0,2mm 3428 * 0,2mm
t h = 0,059 min t h = 0,050 min
t huv = 0,195 min+ 0,172 min+ 0,059 min+ 0,050 min
t huv = 0,476 min
5. Cut 6. Cut
L = 25mm fv= 0.12 mm n= 5393 1/min L = 46mm fv= 0.07 mm n= 2830 1/min
L *i L *i
th = th =
n *f n *f
25mm *1 min 46mm * 1 min
th = th =
5393 * 0,12mm 2830 * 0,07mm
t h = 0,039 min t h = 0,232 min
t huf = 0,039 min+ 0,232 min
t huf = 0,271 min
3. Example:
70
45
25
and all other surfaces with a feed of ff2 = 0.12 mm.
The roughness height reached by turning is calculated with the following formula:
f2
Rt = in mm
8* r
The variables are:
f Feed per Rotation
r Cutting Edge Radius
unknown: Rt in mm unknown: Rt in mm
1. Calculating the roughness height Rt1.6 for 2. Calculating the roughness height Rt 6.3 for
the surface 45 the other surfaces
f 2 mm2 f2 mm2
Rt1.6 = = mm Rt 6.3 =
8r 1 mm = mm
8 r 1 mm
0. 07 2
0.12 2
Rt1.6 = Rt 6.3 =
8 0. 4 8 0.8
0. 0049 0. 0144
Rt1.6 = Rt 6.3 =
3. 2 8 0. 8
0. 0144
Rt 6.3 = mm
6. 4
Rt1.6 = 0,00153 mm Rt 6.3 = 0,00225 mm
For operating a CNC-machine it is important that the skilled worker understands the relevant mechanisms of
the cutting force as well as the machining performance and the drive motor's rated power and actual output..
The multitude of variables influencing the cutting forces do not allow precise calculation with a formula.
Some of these factors can only be determined in tests. This has shown, for example, that every material to
be machined has a specific cutting force value which varies according to e.g consistency (hard or soft) or
machining duration (short or long). Moreover, the tool, its cutting material and its characteristics should be
considered. Also important are the programmed operation values, such as feed, number of rotations, cutting
speed, chip thickness, chip diameter, machining mechanisms as well as the cutting edge geometry, whereby
the angle of rake and the adjustment angle are especially relevant. The cutting edge wear also plays a role.
Example:
From a 60 mm shaft the sketched peg out of Ck 45 is to be preturned and then finish turned in one
cut.
Hard-metal corner cutting tools with indexable inserts are available (0=90, r=90).
The feeds are f v = 0. 2 mm and f f = 0.1mm ,
cutting speeds are vcv=200m/min and vcf=300m/min.
Allowance after preturning is 0.5 mm.
The output of the main drive motor is =0,8.
To be calculated:
1. the cutting force Fcv,
1. the cutting performance Pcv and
1. the required power output from the drive Pab .
a
h aus h = f sin r und
k N
kc = cm11c ,
h mm2
where kcl-1 is the kc-value based on the test conditions and mc
is a chip thickness index; kcl-1 and mc can be taken from the
following table.
2
Materials Specific Cutting Force kc in N/mm by thickness of cut h in mm
However, the formula mentioned above is not sufficient for calculating the cutting force. Various compensa-
tion factors must first be taken into account. After these compensation factors are considered, the applicable
formula is as follows:
Fc = a p f v k c K o K v K sch K ver [N ]
The compensation factors in the formula are:
Kv is the cutting speed variation factor. The tabular values are only for the area between vc=90...125 m/min.
It is taken from the following Kv-vc-Diagram.
Kv- vc - diagram:
The identificated Kv - values are valid for:
Kv
v c in m/min
Example:
Ksch is the cutting edge variation factor for hard-metal to cutting ceramic, whereby hard-metal is 1 and cutting
ceramic is set between 0.9....0.95.
Kver is the cutting edge abrasion factor. It has to be estimated since the kc-values from the table only apply to
working sharp tools. For this reason a Kver-value of 1.3...1.5 is used.
Solution:
The compensation value Ksch conform with the table provisions and can be set with 1. aP and f v are given.
All other values must be determined:
kc11 N o ok
kc = K o = 1
h mc mm2 66.7
2220 10 6
kc = K o == 1
0.20.14 66.7
N K o = 0,94
kc = 2781
mm2
Selected as the compensation values:
Kver=1,3 and taken from the diagram
Kv=0,96. For the desired cutting force this yields:
Fc = a p f k c K 0 Kv Ksch Kver
Fcv = 4.5mm 0. 2 mm 2781 N / mm 2 0. 96 0. 94 1 1. 3
Fcv = 2936 N
m 1 min Nm
Pc = Fc v c N = , using the values from the examples yields
min 60s 60s
m
Pcv = 2936 N 200
min
Nm
Pcv = 9786, 7 , da 1Nm/s = 1W (Watt) ist, sind 9786,7 Nm/s = 9,787 KW
s
Pcv = 9. 787 KW
With known cutting performacne the power output of the drive motor Pab is calculated with the formula:
Pcv KW
Pab = = KW
1
9.787
Pab =
0.8
Pab = 12.23KW
For milling the infeed speed vf is usually calculated in mm per min. However, the feed per tooth fz is just as
important, since the skilled worker foremostly knows what feed a cutting edge can endure. This feed must be
distinguished from a feed attained in a milling cutter rotation.
infeed speed vf vf in mm / min
feed per tooth fz in mm
feed per rotation f in mm
v f = fz * n * z in mm / min
vf = f *n in mm / min
v f = f * n = fz * n * z in mm / min
1. Example:
A plate made from C15 is to be milled in one cut using an end-face mill with indexable inserts.
The step is 10 mm high. The cutting speed vc is 160 m/min and the feed per cutter edge fz is
0,18 mm. The end-face mill with = 63 mm has four cutting edges.
How high is the infeed speed vf?
valid : v f = fz * n * z ,
vc = * d * n or
vc
n= , it follows:
*d
v
v f = c * fz * z
*d
160000mm
vf = * 0,18mm * 4
* min* 63mm
solution: v f = 582mm / min
2. Example:
On a CNC-vertical milling cutter the slot of the sketched work part is to be milled in one cut with a two-edged
slot boring cutter of 12mm , n = 1800 1/min number of rotations and a feed f z of 0.12 mm. How high is the
infeed speed?
datum: 1
n = 1800
min
f z = 0.12 mm
z=2
unknown: vf in mm/min
valid : v f = fz * n * z ,
1
v f = 0,12mm * 1800 *2
min
solution: v f = 432mm / min
3. Example
How high must the number of rotations be when the slot is machined with a boring feed of 0.1 mm per edge
and a longitudinal feed of 0.15 mm and with an infeed speed of 200 mm/min ?
f b = 0.10mm 1
datum: datum: n = 1800
min
f z = 0.15mm
mm f z = 0.12 mm
v f = 200
min z=2
unknown: 1 unknown: 1
nb in nl in
min min
valid : v mm valid : vf mm
nb = f nl =
fb z min mm fzl z min mm
200 1
200 nf =
nb = . 2 min
015
0.1 2 1
nf = 667
1 min
nb = 1000
min
For calculating the cutting force, the same compensation factors are used for milling as in for turning..
ap cutting depth
ae entering point
b chip width
Fcz cutting force per edge (mean)
s entering angle
hm middle chip thickness
fz feed per edge
s
z number of cutter edges
ze number of edges in operation
D diameter of milling cutter
angle of twist of edges
adjustment angle of edges
kc specific cutting force
kc1-1 specific cutting force related to chip diame-
ter b hm =1 mm
mc chip thickness index
These are either taken from a book of specifications or, as in the case of the angle of rake variation factor,
o ok
calculated with the formula K o = 1 . For milling, the cutting force is:
66. 7
Fc = Fcz ze N 1 = N . In this formula
z s
ze = and
360
Fcz = b hm k c . Herewith are
ae
b= mm and
cos
360ae
hm = f z sin mm .
d s
=90- for milling cutters with angle of twist.
Taking into account the compensation factors, the cutting force can be calculated with the formula:
N
Fc = ze b h m kc K o K v K ver mm mm 2
= N and with ze , b , hm yields the formula
mm
z s ae 360a p
Fc = f z sin k c K o Kv Kver
360 cos s d
Example:
As shown in the figure, a guide recess should be milled with a 4-edged end-face mill =40 mm into a guide
plate made of C35.
data : miller diameter d = 40mm
milled width ae = 40mm
milled depth ap = 6mm
feed f z = 0.12 mm
angle of rake 0 = 10
angle of twist = 30
adjustment angle = 90
material C35
machine output M = 0.82
cutting speed vc=140mm/min
z s a e 360a p mm mm N
Fc = f z sin k c K o K v K ver 1 mm 1 = N
360 cos s d 1 mm mm 2
4 1 40 3606
Fc = 0.12 sin 90k c K o Kv Kver ;
360 cos 30 1 40
the kc-value can not be taken directly from the table. It is calculated as follows:
k c11
kc = ,
h mc
kc11 with 1860 can be taken from the table as well as mc with 0.2. The hm-value is calculated as follows:
360a p
hm = f z sin
s d
Consequently,
360 6
hm = = 3. 87 mm and
44. 4 40
1860 N
kc = 0.2
= 1420 .
3. 87 mm 2
ok 10 6
K o = 1 o = 1 = 0. 94
66. 7 66. 7
Kv with 0.97 is taken from the diagram. 1.3 is selected for the edge abrasion compensation value Kver. All
values for the cutting force are therefore established and can be calculated:
4 40 6 0.12 1
Fc = 1420 0. 94 0. 97 1. 3
0. 866 40
Fc = 1782 N
The following formula is used for calculating the motor output Pab:
Pc
Pab =
M c
0,45KW
Pab =
0,82
Pab = 055KW
In one cut the sketched base sheet made from ST50 (see fig. 1) is to be milled in 12 mm gradations with a
three-edged end mill of 32 mm and 16 mm cutting edge lengths. How long is the machining time of the
CNC-machine when milled with a feed of 0.12 mm per cutter edge and cutting speed of 120 mm/min? The
lenghth of the approach and retreat movements are 22 mm.
The following formula is used for calculating the machining time tnu:
Lges i mm 1 mm min
t nu = = = = min
f vc mm mm
min
(2L + 2L
l b + 2 A )
t nu = ;; with
f vc
vc . 3 140
012 mm
f v= fz z = f vc = = f v = 501 yields:
c d 0.032 c min
2 110 + 2 70 + 2 22
t nu =
501
t nu = 0.81 min
In order to keep the costs for the clamping system as well as for production low, further requirements are
made on the clamping system:
simple and quick handling
versatile usage
easy exchangeability of the clamping elements
high accuracy with repeated clamping
Manual clamping is usually used on conventional machine tools. This requires a high energy exertion by the
worker. Special clamping systems for individual clamping equipment has been developed to reduce auxiliary
times and ease clamping for the worker. Various methods are used for generating clamping power:
mechanical clamping power generators
hydraulic clamping power generators
pneumatic clamping power generators
electric clamping systems
Mechanical clamping power generators are usually in the form of wedge lever-type or bellcrank lever-type
power chucks. These types of force chucks are usually used for turning machines.
1
4
chuck chuck
drawbar drawbar
wedge lever bellcrank lever
jaws jaws
Figure 125 figure 126
wedge lever-type power chuck (mechanical) Bellcrank lever-type power chuck (mechanical)
Hydraulic clamping fixtures generate the movement and power needed for clamping with hydraulically
powered pistons. These are usually manually controlled by the operator with valves. The clamping power
can be accurately controlled and is monitored on a display. Although hydraulic systems require high techni-
cal effort, they are quite reliable.
Figure 127
Hydraulic actuating cylinders with through-hole Rhm SZ
Pneumatic clamping fixtures are operated with air pressure and function similiarly to hydraulic clamps.
Compressors are used for generating air pressure (compression).
Figure 128
Air actuating cylinders with through hole Rhm LHS
Electric clamps which rotate are used for force chucks with geared scroll systems. They enable a quick
adjustment to various work part diameters.
An electromagnetic clutch in the clamp blocks the spindle during the clamping and declamping process, so
that the full clamp torque is transmitted to the chuck.
Furthermore, there are electric clamps with stroke movements for operating clamping devices and force
chucks.
: thread nut
: thread spindle
: tie bar
: clutch
: epicyclic gears
: motor
Figure 129
Electric clamp with stroke movement
The different clamping devices for turning will be introduced in this section. In general, the following clamping
variations can be distinguished:
clamping in chucks
clamping with collets
clamping between centers
clamping on mandrels
clamping on faceplates
clamping with turning fixtures
clamping using steady rests
Clamping in chucks
Chucks are differentiated according to the number of jaws, i.e. two-, three- and four-jaw chucks. Self-
centering three-jaw chucks are most commonly used. They guarantee a quick, secure and centered mount-
ing of round blanks. With a four-jaw chuck, four-, eight- or twelve sided blanks as well as round blanks can
be clamped.
The jaws are usually hardened and have increments. The jaws can be adjusted so that they can clamp parts
with various diameters. By exchanging jaws the turned parts can be either clamped from the inside or out-
side.
Clamping power transmission is usually based on the principal of geared scrolls or key bars.
Chucks with geared scrolls are for lower clamping power. Only low force can be transmitted since the area
between the geared scroll and the jaw is so small.
The disadvantage of chucks with geared scrolls is that changing requires the chucks to be fully dismounted.
Figure 134
Geared scroll chuck Rhm EG-ES
Operation:
The rotation of the pinion (4) causes the scroll (5) to turn. The base jaw (3) consequently moves towards the
turning axis and clamps the work part.
The key bar chuck enables a quick change of jaws and generates higher clamping power than chucks with
geared scrolls.
Components:
22 cover 33 indicator pin 51 body
23 drive ring 34 bearing 56 key bar with inner thread
24GB base jaw 35 thrust ring 57 press pin
24EB one-piece jaw 36 pressure spring 58 locking slide
25 reversible top jaw 37 pressure spring 76 chip guard
27 operating screw 38 taper key 90 key with toggle
28 slide 39-42 socket head cap screw
29 jaw retaining pin 44 straight pin
Figure 135
Chuck with thrust ring and key bars Rhm Duro
Operation
The tangentially arranged operating screw (27) engages the internal thread of the actuating key bar (56) to
move a slide (28) which in turn moves the drive ring (23). Two further slides in the drive ring (23) transmit the
force to the other key bars. The key bars are provided witch helical teeth which engages the teeth of the
base jaws (24GB) so that the work part is gripped accurately and concentrically.
Collets enable cylindrical work parts to be quickly and accurately clamped. The collet clamps the work part
from the outside. Collets are usually only applicable for one work part diameter or a component group since
it only has a minimal, radial range of adjustment.
: work part
: clamping bocy
: spindle
: clamping tube
Figure 136
Collet
Clamping between centers is applied for longer parts. The work parts must be cut to length and centered on
both sides.
Figure 137
Clamping between centers
The following possibilities for clamping between centers can be distinguished based on the maching specifi-
cations:
face drivers with revolving or fixed centers
driver with a vise chuck with clamping ring revolving or fixed centers
Face drivers are generally contained by the main spindle. They are used when the entire surface is to be
machined. The work part is clamped between the face driver and the tailstock. A disadvantage is that only
low torques are transmitted.
Figure 138
Face driver Rhm 681
The revolving tailstock center is inserted into the tail spindle of the tailstock. Since the center can revolve on
its own, higher cutting speeds during turning operation are possible.
Figure 139
Revolving tailstock center Rhm 601
The application area of dead centers is very limited. They only enable minor cutting depths because they
warm up and wear too quickly.
Figure 140
Dead center Rhm 667
Figure 141
Dead center with half point Rhm 670
A vise chuck with clamping ring centers the work part and additionally radially clamps it with a clamping bolt.
Consequently, larger torques can be transmitted and a higher machining performance is reached.
: driving disk
: work part
Figure 142
vise chuck with clamping ring
Clamping on mandrels
Work parts that have a bore hole, which can be very small, are clamped from the inside with clamping man-
drels. Two types can be distinguished: fixed mandrels and expanding mandrels.
Fixed mandrels are minimally conical (cone 1:2000) and are clamped between centers. They are only used
for finish turning since only low cutting depths are possible. The rotary accuracy of the centers must be
checked before being used.
Expanding mandrels are inserted into the inner cone of the main spindle. Clamping is established by the
slotted clamping part of the mandrel according to the rotary accuracy as well as by an even grip on the work
part. Clamping is enabled by pressing in the taper plug.
Figure 143
Cartridge mandrels Rhm
: clamping ring
: clamping sleeve
Figure 144
Cartridge mandrel Rhm MZB
Expanding mandrels are clamped between centers and only have a minor clamping area. They operate by
expanding a thin-walled, non-slotted sleeve made from a plastic for elastic deformation.
Face plates enable irregularly formed parts to be clamped. The four or more clamping pistons can individu-
ally be adjusted as well as be turned. The clamping areas are constructed so that outer and inner clamping
is possible. Attaching fixtures and compensating weights is possible with the available clamping slots.
Figure 145
Hydraulically operated 6-jaw pull-down finger chuck Rhm
: work part
: clamping body
: clamping bridge
Figure 146
Turning fixture
Steady rests are used for clamping long, slim work parts in order to withstand work part bending caused by
cutting force and own weight.
Figure 147
Self-centering steady rests Rhm SLZ
The work part is clamped between centers and additionally supported by steady rests.
Figure 148
Fixed steady rest
Jaw Chucking
Magnetic Chucking
Modular Chucking
The milling cutter machine table with its T-slots is the basis for work part clamping. Depending on how the
work part is to be clamped, the following clamping devices can be distinguished:
mechanical clamping devices
hydraulic clamping devices
pneumatic clamping devices
electric clamping devices
: work part
: clamping iron
: clamping board
1 2 3
: machine table
4
Figure 149
Clamping iron and clamping bard
For bedding with heavy work parts, alignment and support elements are used.
: support element
1 : work part
2 3 4 : clamping iron
: clamping board
: machine table
Figure 150
Clamping iron, clamping board and support element
Shallow clamps are used for flat work parts whose surfaces need to be kept free for machining.
: work part
: shallow clamp
Figure 151
shallow clamp
A dividing apparatus with circular table enables work parts to be quickly and symmetrically machined from
both sides. It is also possible to flange a chuck to a dividing apparatus which then can be used for accurately
dividing and machining round work parts.
Figure 152
Dividing apparatus with circular table
Machine vises
Machine vises are easy to use and reliable. They are used for clamping smaller work parts. Alignment is
achieved with a measuring gauge.
Figure 153
Machine vise Rhm UZ
The clamping force transmission of machine vises is illustrated in the following figure.
Figure 154
Power transmission
Universal machine vises can be horizontally as well as vertically turned. Furthermore, there are also vises
that pneumatically generate clamping power.
Figure 155
Precision sine vise Rhm PS-SV
High precision NC vises, that are operated by pneumatic and hydraulic clamping cylinders, are used for
CNC-machine tools. Pneumatically operated high precision NC vises allow short opening and closing times.
However, the low operating pressure impedes high clamping power. On the other hand, depending on the
pressure adjustment, hydraulic clamping elements can exert high clamping power.
Figure 156
High precision NC vice Rhm RBA
The construction of a high precision NC vises is illustrated in the following figure.
Work parts made of iron can be clamped with electromagnetic devices. The work part is drawn to the clamp-
ing plate after a current is switched on. It can be easily removed after the current is switched off.
Figure 158
Electromagnetic clamping plate
1. Why are hard-metal indexable inserts primarily used for tools for CNC-machine tools?
1. What are the advantages of a larger angle of rake for the machining process?
1. What are the disadvantages of a larger angle of rake for the machining process?
1. What is the significance of the adjustment angle for the machining process?
CNC-manufacturing has advantages over manufacturing with conventional machine tools, e.g. shorter pro-
duction times and a higher manufacturing capacity. In order to effectively use these advantages, the work
preparation must be accordingly adapted.
The objective of manufacturing is to keep the machining time on the machine tool as high as possible. How-
ever, to achieve this extensive planning must be done.
On conventional machine tools, the skilled worker can only produce or plan. However, on a CNC-machine
tool, the worker can concentrate on planning in parallel to the autonomous execution of the NC-program.
This consequently leads to much higher machining times on the CNC-machine tool.
Using conventional machine tools for production, the workshop drawing, a work plan and work order are
available to the worker. Furthermore, the worker must thoroughly plan the work steps and select the tools.
Since tool measuring is not possible on conventional machine tools, following each operation the tools must
be marked (touched) and then be measured. These steps are redundant when using a CNC-machine tool.
However, this does require the tools to be precedingly measured.
Many prepatory tasks can be transferred to the machine for CNC-work preparation. The objective is to allo-
cate all documents, tools and clamping devices as well as the blanks so that setting-up and production can
immediately begin. The tasks of work preparation can be divided into the following categories:
creating the required documents,
tool measuring,
managing tools and clamping devices, and
allocating all documents and accessories.
The documents required for CNC-manufacturing are much more defined compared with those for manufac-
turing on conventional machine tools. Creating these documents takes more time, however they are then
immediately accessible for repeated orders.
In addition to the NC-program, a set-up form is created for setting-up the CNC-machine tool. All information
on the used tools and the tool parts clamping situation is documented in this form.
Tool measuring enables the autonomous operation of the CNC-machine tool and easy application of tools on
various machines.
Tool and clamping device management is more extensive in CNC-work preparation, since they are generally
more varied than those for conventional machine tools and accordingly their description is more detailed.
The data is stored in tool and clamping device indices.
A complete allocation of all documents, preset tools and accessories enables the quick set-up of the CNC-
machine tool. The objective is to avoid machining delays and therefore, increase machining time
figure 159
Organizational classification of NC-programming
The NC-programs are written by staffmembers who are specifically trained in NC-programming. They usually
work at a programming terminal and create the programs on a computer. Programs are not only generated
here but managed as well. The connection to the CNC-machine tool is over a DNC-system.
Generating NC-programs in the workshop is known as machine-based programming. The NC-programs can
either be directly created on a machine or at a programming terminal near the machines.
The NC-programs written in the workshop and in production planning are directly controlled and optimized
on the CNC-machine tool by the operator during set-up.
For manual programming, the programmer formulates the NC-program so that it can be directly understood
by the CNC-control. Every step that a CNC-machine tool is to execute must be individually programmed.
Extensive geometric calculations must be made with respect to the CNC-control efficiency and the geometric
complexity of the work part. Possible errors or collisions with e.g. clamping devices can not be automatically
detected. Simulations, which illustrate the tool movements, are integrated into most CNC-controls for testing
the NC-program.
For computer-aided (automatic) programming, the programmer is supported by a programming system. This
system takes over routine work that is susceptible to error when programming manually, such as calculating
coordinates and cutting data.
The fundamental difference to manual programming is that not the tool path is defined step-by-step, but
rather how the tool part is meant to look after machining. The geometric and technological data is herewith
strictly separated.
For automatic programming the sequence of operations for generating a NC-program is as follows:
1. First the work part must be geometrically defined. A representation of the finished part as
well as the blank is necessary.
1. Subsequently, the individual machining operations are specified. The programming system
assists the programmer in selecting the appropriate tool and automatically calculates the
necessary cutting data.
1. Finally a NC-program for a specific CNC-machine tool with a specific CNC-control is gen-
erated and can then be transferred to the machine.
CNC-programming can be done with different procedures and at different places. An overview of these pos-
sibilities is given in the following figure.
figure 160
Overview of NC-programming procedures and systems
In manual NC-programming, the programmer formulates the machining task in an NC-program without as-
sistance from a programming system. The subsequent steps are herewith followed:
1. definition of machining steps
1. definition of necessary tools
1. calculation of technological data
1. calculation of geometric data
1. generating NC programs for individual machining processes
1. control of NC programs
The partial tasks to be executed are illustrated in fig. 3 and are subsequently explained.
figure 161
NC Programming Phases
Control of NC programs
The travel movements are simulated on a CNC-machine tool in order to detect and control programming
errors.
The following factors can affect the quality of the manufactured work part:
the created NC-program,
tool abrasion (cutting-edge life of the tool edge),
the work part material (characteristics and form),
the CNC-machine (precision and non-oscillating installation),
environmental factors (temperature effects) and
the operators behavior (error recognition with respect to quality).
1
probe
tool
turret
3
Figure 162
Internal tool measuring
Calibrated measurement and test techniques for precise measuring and verification.
Operator training.
Air-conditioning the workshop rooms.
Observing quality when purchasing and installing a machine.
Workshop
The different programming procedures, the NC-program management as well as the clamp and tool indices
should be demonstrated.
A NC-program comprises a series of commands with which the CNC-machine tool is instructed to manufac-
ture a certain tool.
For each machining process on a CNC-machine tool, the NC-program has a command with relevant infor-
mation. These commands are alphanumerically coded, i.e. they consist of letters, numbers and characters.
The ISO-Norm 6983 strives for standardizing the NC-programming of machines in the production area. This
is however limited to standardizing certain commands as well the general structure of a NC-program. CNC-
control manufacturers have considerable liberty for incorporating their own NC-commands in their controls.
Subsequently, the general structure of an NC-program according to ISO 6983 is illustrated.
Structure of an NC program
Structure of an NC program:
A complete NC-program consists of the following elements:
...
The program beginning consists of a character or a command (ex. %) which informs the CNC-control that
a NC-program will follow. Additionally, the first line of the NC-program also contains the program name (ex.
TP0147). Furthermore, both characteristics are also important for the NC-program manager as well as for
calling the NC-programs in the CNC-control.
NC-program names can contain alphanumerical or numerical characters. For most CNC-controls 2-6 digit
character sequences are used for identification.
An NC-program consists of a chronological sequence of blocks. They contain the relevant geometric and
technical information that the CNC-control requires for each machining step.
Everything that stands before the character % for commenting the program is ignored by the control. This
enables any explanations on the program or tool to be attached preceding the actual program. Comments
are also allowed within a program, e.g. for identifying particular blocks. These, however, must be set in
brackets.
Every NC-block consists of a block number, a number of words as well as a specific control character which
informs the CNC-control that the NC-block has ended. This control character is called LF for line feed. It is
automatically generated in NC-programming when the enter-key of the CNC-control or the enter-key on the
PC-keyboard is pressed.
A word consists of address letters and a number with a plus/minus sign. The definition and sequence are
designated in the programming instructions of the CNC-control systems. Depending on the address letter,
the number either pertains to a code or a value.
Z-10.75 Z -10.75 For the address Z, -10.75 is a value. Corresponding to the NC-
command G01 of the preceding NC-block example, this means that
the tool is to be moved to the position Z=-10.75 in the current tool co-
ordinate system.
figure 165
Structure of a program word
The form of numerical entry depends on the CNC-control: Z-35.5 is equivalent to e.g. the same target coor-
dinates as Z-035.500. For most CNC-controls the positive sign "+" can be excluded in the NC-program.
G00 X F
G01 Y S
G02 Z T
G54 M
figure 166
Groups of program words
Address Definition
1. N block number
2. G G-functions
3. X, Y, Z coordinates
4. I, J, K interpolation parameter
5. F feed
6. S speed
7. T tool position
8. M additional functions
figure 167
Sequence of program words
Block number N
The block number is the first word in a block and designates it. It can only be conferred once. The block
number has no influence on the execution of the individual blocks since they are invoked following the order
in which they were entered into the control.
G-function
Together with the words for the coordinates, this word essentially determines the geometric part of the NC-
program. It consists of the address letter G and a two-digit code.
Coordinates X, Y, Z
The coordinates X, Y, Z define the target points that are needed for travel.
Interpolation parameters I, J, K
The interpolation parameters I, J, K are e.g. used to define the center of a circle for circular movements.
They are usually entered incrementally.
Feed F
The speed at which the tool is to be moved is programmed with the function F. The infeed speed is usually
entered in mm/min. For turning, the unit mm/U pertaining to spindle rotation can also be used.
Spindle speed S
The function S is for entering the spindle speed. It can be directly programmed in rotations per minute.
Tool position T
The address T together with a numerical code designates a specific tool. The definition of this address dif-
fers according to the control and can have the following functions:
Saving the tool dimensions in the tool offset table
Loading the tool from the tool magazine.
Additional functions M
The additional functions, also known as auxiliary functions, primarily contain technical data that is not pro-
grammed in the words with address letters F, S, T. These functions are entered with the address letter M
and a two-digit code.
CNC Exercise
In the following NC-program, the contour of a pre-turned part is finished. For each command give the corre-
sponding definition.
CNC Exercise
In the following NC-program, the contour of a work part is milled. For each command, give the corresponding
definition.
Workshop
On the CNC-machine tools, available NC-programs are to be loaded and be executed step-by-step.
Special attention should be paid to the respective control panels with the manufacturer-specific pictograms.
study study
work order workshop drawing
program sheet
figure 168
Procedure for manual programming
Basic type No..: 4711 Standard work plan No.: 007 Date 13.03.91
Sketch for basic type: Gear wheel Maximum ratings: Work piece material:
90 <= Da < 150 Round bar
35 <= Di < 80 Dr = 1.05 x Da
10 <= NB < 20 Lr = L + 5
2 <= Z < 20 Material: C45
N. Machining description Production Machining alternatives Machine Cost tr [min] Calculation formula for time per piece te
aids group center [min/piece]
Decision criteria
02 turning and main drilling sketch 120 <= Da < 240 and 66/1 1212 12 te = 1,5 x (Dr - Da) + 0,1 x Lr
30 <= L < 80
figure 171
Work order
This sequence is then registered in a work plan. The clamping situation must already be considered at this
time. Clamping must be sketched for complicated situations or reclamping.
figure 172
Work plan
figure 173
Set-up form
All data that is needed for setting up the CNC-machine tool is listed in the set-up form (see fig. 15). Espe-
cially the information on the program number and drawing number as well as the work part name identifies
all documents required for the order. For repeated orders, information on the position of the work part en-
ables an easier set-up of the clamping situation.
Generating the NC program
The programmer creates the NC-program based on the workshop drawing and work plan, and enters the
individual program blocks into a program sheet (see fig. 16). This program sheet supplements the docu-
ments at hand. For a repeated order, the machine can then immediately be set-up.
Program Sheet
Programming
N G X Z I K F M T
figure 174
Program Sheet
CNC exercise
Task:
An NC-program is to be generated for manufacturing the following part.
figure 175
After start, the MTS-simulator is automatically set-up with blank, clamping and turret allocation. If the follow-
ing set-up data does not conform with the current set-up data, then it must be changed in the set-up opera-
tion.
The work part is clamped after the first side is machined. The current form is defined in part GEOMETRY.
CONFIGURATION
MACHINE MTS01 TM-016_-R1_-060x0646x0920
CONTROL MTS TM01
PART
GEOMETRY X+071.331 Z+0165.500
G01 X+075.000 Z+0165.500
G01 X+075.000 Z+0191.000
G01 X+014.000 Z+0191.000
G01 X+014.000 Z+0093.000
G01 X+020.000 Z+0093.000
G02 X+028.000 Z+0097.000 I+000.000 K+004.000
G01 X+028.000 Z+0121.000
G03 X+034.000 Z+0124.000 I+003.000 K+000.000
G01 X+034.000 Z+0145.600
G03 X+034.800 Z+0146.000 I+000.400 K+000.000
G01 X+044.000 Z+0146.000
G02 X+050.000 Z+0149.000 I+000.000 K+003.000
G01 X+050.000 Z+0157.000
G03 X+062.000 Z+0163.000 I+006.000 K+000.000
G01 X+066.000 Z+0163.000
G01 X+070.766 Z+0165.383
G03 X+071.331 Z+0165.500 I+000.283 K-000.283
M30
MAIN SPINDLE WITH CHUCK "Chuck Turning\Jaw chuck\KFD-HS 160"
WORKPART
STEP JAW "Jaw\Step jaw\HM-160_200-02.001"
CHUCKING DEPTH E53.000
Right side of the part: Z+0191.000
CHUCK "Chuck Turning\Jaw chuck\KFD-HS 160"
NC programming
4) Plandrehen
N010 G54 Z+226.000 G54 set absolute zero
Z+226.000 Z- coodinate of the current workpart zero
N015 G96 S0140 T0404 M03 G96 Constant speed cutting ON
S140 Spindle speed
T0404 Selection of the tool from turret position 4
M3 activate the spindle in clockwise rotation
N020 G92 S3000 G92 Speed limit
S3000 Spindle speed
N025 G00 X+078.000 Z+000.200 G00 Rapid traverse
X+078.000 X- Coordinate of the target point
Z+000.200 Z- Coordinate of the target point
N030 G01 X-001.000 F000.150 M08 G01 Linear interpolation in slow speed motion
X-001.000 X- Coordinate of the target point
F000.150 feedrate in mm per revolution
M8 activate coolant
N035 G00 Z+002.000 G00 Rapid traverse
Z+002.000Z- Coordinate of the target point
N040 X+200.000 Y+200.000 M5 M9 X200.000 X- Coordinate of the target point
Z200.000 Z- Coordinate of the target point
M5 deactivate spindle
M9 deactivate coolant
4) Face Turning
N005 G54 Z+188.000 G54 set absolute zero
Z+188.000 Z-Coordinate of the current workpart zero
N010 G96 S0140 T0404 M03 G96 Constant Speed Cutting ON
S140 Cutting Speed
T0404 Selection of the tool from turret position 4
M3 activate the spindle in clockwise rotation
M42 Select the higher spindle speed range
N015 G92 S3000 G92 Spindle speed limitation
S3000 Maximum spindle speed
N020 G00 X+078.000 Z+001.5 0 G00 Rapid traverse
X+078.000 X-Coordinate of the target point
Z+001.500 Z-Coordinae of the target point
N025 G01 X-001.000 F000.280 M08 G01 linear interpolation in slow feed motion
X-001.000 X-Coordinate of the target point
F000.280 feedrate in mm per revolution
M8 activate coolant
In automatic mode, the generated NC-programs are simulated in real-time and with respect to possible colli-
sions.
1. As a first step after starting Automatic Mode, the main menu is loaded, allowing you to enter the
name of the NC program (par example: %200) to be simulated.
Accept program: Use F1 or to confirm the program name appearing in the information line. If
the program is available, it is subsequently loaded into program memory; if not, an appropriate er-
ror message is displayed.
1. Continue by selecting the desired simulation mode for program execution
Automatic: Select F1 to execute the program specified in the dialogue line under continuous auto-
matic control.
Single NC block: Use F2 to activate single block operation.
A work part can be measured after machining (automatic mode) or during machining after every operation
(single block) and can be compared with the values in the drawing.
Procedure:
Description Entry
F2 (previous point)
For the selected point the data are shown
on the screen
F8 (Quit)
CNC Exercise
Task:
An NC-program is to be generated for manufacturing the following part:
figure 184
Work plan
3
X
After start, the MTS-simulator is automatically set-up with blank, clamping and turret allocation. If the follow-
ing set-up data does not conform with the current set-up data, then it must be changed in the set-up opera-
tion
CONFIGURATION
MACHINE MTS VMC-024_ISO30_-0500-0400x0450
CONTROL FANUC SERIE 16M
BLANK DIMENSIONS
X+100.000 Y+100.000 Z+025.000
VISE "Chuck Milling\Vise\RS 110"
CHUCKING DEPTH E+010.000
SHIFT V+000.000
ORIENTATION A0
PART POSITION X+150.000 Y+150.000
left corner of the part: X+150.000 Y+150.000 Z+105.000
CURRENT TOOL
T01
TOOLS
T01 "ISO SK 30\ Slot Milling tool\MS-20.0 038K HSS ISO 1641"
T02 "ISO SK 30\ Slot Milling tool\MS-20.0 038K HSS ISO 1641"
T03 "ISO SK 30\ Core drill\DC-08.0 090 HSS ISO 3294"
T04 "ISO SK 30\ Drill\DR-05.00 052 HSS ISO 235
T05 "ISO SK 30\ Tap\TA-M06.0 1.00 HSS ISO 2857"
TOOL COMPENSATION
D01 T01 R010.000 Z+119.000 N01
D02 T02 R010.000 Z+119.000 N01
D03 T03 R000.000 Z+065.000 N01
D04 T04 R002.500 Z+097.900 N01
D05 T01 R010.000 Z+119.000 N01
WORKPART ZEROPOINTS
G54 X150.000 Y+150.000 Z+105.000
NC programming
N405 G90 G49 G80 G40 M30 M30 program end and backspacing
NC subprogram
In automatic mode, the generated NC-programs are simulated in real-time and with respect to possible colli-
sions.
1. As a first step after starting Automatic Mode, the main menu is loaded, allowing you to enter the
name of the NC program (par example: 1909) to be simulated.
Accept program: Use F1 or to confirm the program name appearing in the information Line. If
the program is available, it is subsequently loaded into program memory; if not, an appropriate er-
ror message is displayed.
1. Continue by selecting the desired simulation mode for program execution
Automatic: Select F1 to execute the program specified in the dialogue line under continuous
automatic control.
Single NC block: Use F2 to activate single block operation.
Workshop
The students are to manufacture the programmed part on the CNC-milling machine.
11. Define the following functions with the corresponding program words
(G-command or M-command)
clockwise circular interpolation
activate coolant
activate spindle in clockwise rotation
12. For which cases are constant cutting speeds required? Explain why.
1. - Turning :
C +X
+Z
2. - Milling :
3. - If points are dimensioned using an angle and a distance, example: drilling hole circle.
4. - Point control
- Line control
- Path control
5. - 2 D path control on the X/Y plane
- 2 D path control on the X/Z plane
- 2 D path control on the Y/Z plane
6. - In case of a 2 D path control all three axes can be traveled to one by one, only two at one time
however. Therefore, the plane on which the travel movement is to take place has to be selected first.
7. - The machine zero point M is the origin of the machine coordinate system.
- The work part zero point W is the origin of the work part referenced coordinate system. It is set so
as to enable the drawing dimensions to be taken directly from it.
- The reference point R is required for machines with incremental path measuring system to indicate
the control first an absolute position.
- The tool reference point E is used to measure the applied tools.
8. - The work part zero point W should be positioned so that the drawing dimensions can be directly
taken over for programming.
- In turning, in the rotation axis and in most cases on the front face of the work part.
- In milling, in most cases on the left lower corner point of the work part surface.
9. - Dimension tolerances do not cumulate.
- Single incorrect dimensions do not lead to subsequent errors.
- In turning work parts the diameter values can be directly entered as X value.
15
20
30
20
15
15 20 30 20 15
12. - A control chain is open - a feedback loop is closed!
- In case of a control chain machines are affected without controlling the consequences. Resulting
from internal or external influences deviations from the desired set values are possible.
- In case of a feedback loop these deviations are corrected by measuring the actual values and ad-
justing them to the set values by the feedback loop.
13. - Example: Position feedback loop:
When the tool moves, the desired position is transferred to the position feedback loop as a set
value.The path measuring system measures the actual position and returns the value to the feed-
back control. If these values are not identical, also as a result of internal and external influences
(disturbance entities), the corresponding movement is initiated until the desired position (set value)
has been reached.
14. - As milling tools with various diameters are eventually used. If only the milling machine center point
path were considered deviations would appear on the work part.
15. - The length of the milling tool L.
- The radius of the milling tool R.
16. - In travel movements, which do not run parallel to the X and Z axis, dimension deviations are cre-
ated.
17. - The length of the turning tool L.
- The measurement of Q.
- The tool tip radius R.
18. - To enable the control to calculate the tool tip radius in the correct direction.
19. - Measuring with a tool setup device.
- Measuring with zero tools.
- Direct measuring when machining a work part.
- Optical measuring on a CNC machine tool.
1. - Tool carriers
- Tool holders
- Indexable inserts
2. - higher cutting speeds and higher cutting-edge life compared with high-speed steels
4. - The clearance angle influences friction on the work part and consequently, the heating-up of the
cutting edge.
7. - Negative angles of rake are necessary for machining hard and brittle material.
8. - The adjustment angle influences the feed power, the forces against the work part, the cutting width
and the cutting depth.
9. vc = *d * n , or
vc
n=
*d
120m
n=
* min* 0,08m
n = 477 1 min
10. vc = * d * n
m
vc = 78
min
three-jaw chucks
four-jaw chucks
- machine vises
- fixtures
1. The programmer must determine all necessary information required for the NC-program. The steps
are:
2. The work plan contains all machining operations, clamping devices and technological data that was
calculated in the production drawing.
3. Switching information relates to commands that switch machining functions on or off. Example:
spindle rotation
coolant
tool change
5. An NC-program consists of a beginning (Ex. %), an end (Ex. M30) and a chronological sequence of
NC-blocks.
8. F feed
S speed
T tool position in tool storage or turret
M additional or switching information
X target coordinates in X-direction
Y target coordinates in Y-direction
Z target coordinates in Z-direction
10. The address letters I, J, K are interpolation parameters. For example, when programming circular
movements they incrementally define the coordinates of the circle center with respect to the starting
point of the circular movement.
12. A constant cutting speed is used for face and form turning. A constant surface quality is obtained
since the number of rotations adapts to the changing diameters.