Saliterman, Fundamentals of BioMEMS and Medical Microdevices, Ch.

Sensor Principles
& Microsensors
Erik Johannessen, PhD
MN-BIO4600 Lecture 6
2015
 Sensor

A device that measures a physical parameter and converts it

into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an
instrument.

The signal is converted into a readable format:

electric current, an electric potential, a resistive change, a
capacitive change, an inductive change, or a frequency change

The device that converts a physical parameter into a

readable format is coined a transducer
 Ideal sensor

Continuous operation without effecting the measurand

Appropriate sensitivity and selectivity
Fast and predictable response
Reversible behavior (no hysteresis)
High signal to noise ratio
Compact
Immunity to environment
Easy to calibrate
 Categories

Biosensor
incorporates a biological components that detect a physical parameter and
converts it into a signal that can be used by the transducer

Smart sensor
Integrated support electronics (e.g. Microcontroller)

Passive or active
No additional power (passive), or external power source (active)

Sensor array
Several similarly functional sensor elements

Multisensor
Several different functional sensor elements

Multifunction
Different sensor functions under different conditions
Spesifications
 Transfer function

Relates the ideal or

theoretical output of
a sensor to the
measurand
Linear
Non-linear

An Ideal sensor
follows actual value
without deviation
Real sensors will
deviate

Error is specified in
deviation from the
calibrated input
value

Fig 1: The transfer function (A) and error (B).

 Static characteristic

The relationship between the sensor output signal and the

measurand:

S = the electrical signal produced by the sensor,

= the intercept, or output signal at zero input signal
b = the slope or sensitivity
s = measurand
 Dynamic specifications
Dynamic range
Minimum and maximum
stimulus range
Linearity
The closeness of the
sensor response to a
straight line
Hysteresis
Maximum different in
output when the input
value is approached with
an increasing or
decreasing stimulus.
Dynamic characteristics
Difference between
reported and actual error
Warm-up time
Frequency response
How fast response to
stimulus
Fig 2: Transfer function with hysteresis.
 Basic sensors

Thermal
Radiation
Mechanical
Flow
Magnetic
Optical
Piezoelectric and SAW
Electrochemical
Thermal
 Thermal Sensors

Thermal sensors measure

temperature, heat flow and
thermal conductivity

Resistance thermometers
Platinum resistor
Thermistor

Thermocouples

Thermodiode &
Thermotransistor

Fig 3: Precision temperature controller.

 Resistance thermometers
Platinum
Linear, stable, reproducible.
Temperature range (- 260 to +
1700C)
Reproducibility (0.1 C)

Thermistor
semiconductor device
Sulfides, selenides, oxides of
nickel, molybdenum, copper
and silicon
resistance varies as a function of
temperature (-200 to + 1000C)
Non-linear
NTC: Negative temperature
coefficient resistance decrease
with temp.
PTC: Positive temperature
coefficient resistance increase
with temp.
Fig 4: NTC Thermistors.
 Thermocouple
Thermoelectric effect
discovered by Thomas
Thomas Johan Seebeck
V = electric potential
Seebeck in 1821.
1770-1831
s = Seebeck coefficient expressed
in volts/K Potentiometric devices
T = temperature difference (Ts Tref) fabricated by joining two
dissimilar metals:
a temperature difference
between sensing junction
and reference juncton(s)
creates an electric voltage:
Based on the thermoelectric
Seebeck effect

Temperature range
- 200 to + 1350C

Accuracy of 1- 3%

Fig 5: Thermocouple.
 Thermodiode and Thermotransistor

Temperature sensors
complementary to standard CMOS
processing

When a p-n diode is operated in a

constant current (IO) circuit, the
forward voltage (Vout) is directly
proportional to the absolute
temperature (T).

k BT I
vout ln 1 kb = Boltzmanns constant
T = temperature
q IS q = electron charge
I = operating current

vbe 1.27 K tT
Is = saturation current
Kt = constant

Fig 6: Thermodiode & thermostransistor.

Radiation
 Radiation Sources
Heavy charged particles:
Ions with 1 atomic mass unit or greater
Protons & particles (He ions)
Self-adsorption issue in only thin layers

Fast electrons:
particles
Self adsorption issue if layer > 1 mm

Electromagnetic radiation:
X-rays, Gamma rays
Self adsorption issue if layer > 1 cm

Neutrons:
Slow (thermal) energy < 0.4 eV (2.2 km/s)
easily adsorbed by atomic nuclei primary means by which elements
undergo atomic transmutation.
Fast - energy ~ 1 MeV (14,000 km/s)
Nuclear fission
 Radiation Sources
A radioisotope source is defined by its activity, or radioactive decay:

N = the number of radioactive nuclei

-N = the radioisotope decay constant (ln2 / T1/2)
T1/2 = half life

The number of disintegrations (dN/dt) can be related to the initial number

of disintegrations (dN0/dt) in the following manner:

dN dN 0
et /
dN/dt = radioactive decay
= 1/ = the radioisotope time constant (T1/2 / ln2)
dt decay dt decay t = time

The Curie (Ci) is defined as # disintegrations/second.

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second

The SI equivalent is the Becquerel (Bq):

1 Bq = 2.703 x 10-11 Ci = 1 disintegration per second
 Specific Activity

The specific activity is defined as the activity per unit mass of the
radioisotope sample (in a pure sample):

activity NA
spesific..activity
mass MW
MW = the molecular weight of the sample
NA = Avogadros number (6.02x1023 nuclei/mol)
= the radioisotope decay constant (ln2 / T1/2)
 Energy

The electron volt (eV) is the kinetic energy gained by an electron

by its acceleration through a potential difference of 1 volt:

1eV 1.602x10 19 J

The energy of an X-ray or gamma-ray photon is:

E h
h = plancks constant (6.63x10-34J)
= frequency
 Radiation detection

Pulse mode:
Time integral of individual quantum of radiation electric charge pulse
Low radiation level, amplitude and timing information
Semiconductor devices, ion chamber (ionisation in gas to amplify charge)
Geiger-Muller Tubes (ion chamber).

Current mode:
Detector response is slow relative to events,
Averaging occurs.

Mean square voltage mode:

Mixed radiation environments
Signal is proportional to the square of the charge per event
 Scintillation Counter

Detection of ionizing radiation

X-ray, and particles, -rays

Converted to photoelectrons
by scintillator
Xe gas (xenon)
Halide crystals (sodium
iodine)
Organic (anthracene)
Light recorded by a PM tube
(amplification)
Conventional photodiodes
convert photons directly into
electron-hole charge carriers.

Undesirable emissions include

phosphorescence and delayed
fluorescence

Fig 7: Scintillation counter.

PMT Scintillation Counter

(Dynode)

Fig 8: PMT scintillation counter.

Mechanical
Mechanical sensors

Construction:
a) Cantilever beam
b) Bridge structure
c) Diagram

Detection Methods:
Electric
Current
Potential
Resistive
Capacitive
Inductive
Frequency
Resistive
Magnetic
Optical
Acoustic

Fig 9: Mechanical MEMS sensors.

 Cantilever Beam

The displacement x of the

beam is related to the
applied force and length of
the beam

A simple accelerometer
attaching mass at end of
beam

Em = Youngs modulus
Im = the second moment of inertia (kgm2)
Fx = the force or point load
km = spring constant
l = lenght of beam
x = displacement of beam

Fig 10: Deflection of a cantilever beam by a vertical point source.

 Bridge structure
The sinusoidal solution for
displacement x of a bridge
structure:

A = constant
Em = Youngs modulus
Im = the second moment of inertia
Fy = the force or point load
l = lenght of beam

Fig 11: Deflection of a bridge structure by a vertical point source.

Flow
 Thermal Flow Sensors
The heat transferred per unit time
form a resistive wire heater to a
moving liquid is monitored with a
thermocouple

In a steady state, the mass flow

rate can be determined
* P c Q T T
( )
h m m 2 1 The volumetric flow rate is
dm Ph 1 calculated as follows
Qm
dt cm T2 T1

Qm = the mass flow rate,

Qv = the volume flow rate, m
Ph = the heat transferred per unit time,
cm = the specific heat capacity of the fluid
T1, T2 = temperature upstream/downstream
m = density

Fig 12: Schematic architecture of a thermal flow sensor Ref: G.Meijer, Thermal Sensors. Chapter 5,
Thermal flow sensors (p.134-141)
Magnetic
 Magnetic
Standard bipolar/N-well CMOS
process.

The theoretical Hall voltage is

expressed as follows:

n = the carrier density

e = the electronic charge (1.602x10-19 C)
Ix = the current
Bz = the magnetic flux
d = slab thickness
RH = Hall coefficient (metals - 1x10-4 cm3/C)

Fig 13: Magnetic Hall voltage sensor.

Optical
 Optical Fibre

Solid cylindrical core of

transparent material
surrounded by a cladding
material with a lower refractive
index than the core
The refractive index (n) is the
ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum to the speed of light in
the medium
Snells law defines the
relationship between incident
and refracted light, measured
as an angle from a
perpendicular to the surface:

n1 sin 1 n 2 sin 2
Fig 14: Light guiding in an optical fibre.
 Critical Angle
Limit between refraction and reflection
Reflection when the angle of incidence > than the critical angle (C).
Critical angle for air (n1 = 1) and glass (n2 = 1.5), is defined as:

n1 sin 1 n 2 sin 2

n1 sin 1 n 2 if 2 = 90
n2
sin 1
n1
n2 n2
1 sin arcsin
1
1 = c
n1 n1
 Numerical aperture
Numeric Aperture (NA) light gathering ability of a fiber.
Relates to the refractive indices of the core and cladding:

n0 = the core index

n1 = cladding index
= half the acceptance angle
c = the confinement angle

n1 n0

Fig 15: Light rays that fall within the acceptance angle
will be transmitted inside the optical fibre.
 Modes
Light propagates
through the core in a
series of wave fronts
(modes):

Single mode: one

single ray of light
(8-10 m core)
Long distance
telecommunications

Multi-mode: several
types of light
(50-100 m core)
Short distance
networks in
building
Large data capacity

Fig 16: Optical propagation mode.

Piezoelectric andSAW
 Piezoelectric effect
First demonstrated by Pierre
and Jaques Curie in 1880.
Pierre Curie
1859 -1906
linear phenomenon where
lattice deformation creates an
electric field proportional to a
charge imbalance.

D dT E Direct

S sT dE Converse

D = the displacement (m)

T = mechanical stress (N/m2, Pa)
E = the electric field (V)
S = the mechanical strain (% unit length)
d = piezoelectric coefficient
= permittivity constant (F/m)
s = elasticity constant (N/m)

Fig 17: The piezoelectric effect.

 Surface Acoustic Waves (SAW)
1885 - First described by Lord
Rayleigh.
John William Strutt,
3rd Baron Rayleigh
1842 -1919
1965 - SAW devices made
from interdigitated electrodes
an acoustic wave traveling
along the surface of a material
Decays exponentially with
depth into the substrate.
Longitudinal and a vertical
shear component (Rayleigh
waves) couple with media
in contact with the surface.
Coupling affects the amplitude
and velocity of the wave
allowing SAW sensors to
directly sense mass and
mechanical properties.
Fig 18: Surface Acoustic Waves
Primarily filters & delay lines

VR = the SAW velocity,
k1, k2 = and are the substrate
material constants,
= the SAW frequency,
h = the height of the layer
= the density of the thin film
Fig 19:
SAW Delay-line
Equipped with a sensing film
(eg. Polyimide) deposited on
the surface in the area
between the interdigitated
transducers.
The change in SAW velocity
is related to the mass
adsorption on the sensor
surface (left).
V f
VR f0 0 The change in SAW velocity
can be determined
= the frequency change experimentally by measuring
0 = initial SAW frequency
= the phase shift
the phase shift or the
0 = the total degrees of phase in frequency shift (right).
the sensor delay path
(as measured between the centers
of the IDTs)
Delay-line SAW
 Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM)
= the change in frequency
0 = the resonant frequency of the
quartz resonator
m = the mass change,
A = the active vibrating area
Q = the is the shear modulus of
the quartz, and
Q = the density of quartz
Fig 20: Quartz Crystal Microbalance
Mass-sensitive devices
suitable for detecting a
variety of analytes.
Quartz wafer (d = 0.25-1.0)
sandwiched between two
metal electrodes E-field
Oscillations as function of
crystal/mass thickness
Resonance 5-30 MHz
Mass changes on the QCM
surface result in a frequency
change according to the
Sauerbrey equation
Sensitivity: 100 pg
Electrochemical
 Electrochemical Detection

Potentiometry
measures the potential of a solution between two electrodes,
related to the concentration of one or more analytes.

Voltammetry (Amperometry)
Measures the current from a redox reactions as function of the
electrode potential. Typically consist of a three electrode
system.

Coulometry
determines the amount of matter transformed during an
electrolysis reaction by measuring the amount of electricity (in
coulombs) consumed or produced.

Conductometry
measures the electrical conductance of an electrolyte solution.
Unspesific (all ions in solution contribute to the conductance).
Detection Classification
 Nernst Equation

Formulated by Walther Nernst.

Walther Nernst
The potential difference across the
1864 -1941
phase boundary is determined by the
effective concentration of a common
In base 10 logarithm this becomes: ion in solution.
this is the equilibrium reduction
potential of a half-cell/full cell of an
electrochemical cell.

Expressed in terms of the oxidized and (phi) = the Galvani potential difference
0 = the standard Galvani potential difference
reduced form of the considered ion:
R = the gas constant
T = the absolute temperature
z = the charge number of the ion
F = Faradays constant
s = the potential determining ion (concentration).
k = the Nernst constant

Fig 21: The Nernst Equation.

 Nernst Equation

(phi) = the Galvani potential difference

0 = the standard Galvani potential difference
R = the gas constant
T = the absolute temperature
z = the charge number of the ion
F = Faradays constant
Fig 21: The Nernst Equation.
s = the potential determining ion (concentration).
k = the Nernst constant
 Reference electrode

An electrode with a stable and

well-known electrode potential.

Employing a redox system with
constant (buffered or saturated)
concentrations of components.

AgAgCl
AgCl (s) + e- Ag (s) + Cl-

Electrode potential (SHE)

E0 = 0.222 volts

Fig 22: Reference electrode.

 Potentiometry

A electrochemical cell consists

of two or more electrodes
immersed in an analyte,
allowing measurement of the
electrode potential.

Fig 23: Potentiometry.

 pH Glass Electrode

Fig 24: pH glass electrode, an example of a potentiometric device.

 Field Effect Transistor (FET)

Developed in 1959 by John Atalla

John Atalla
and Dawon Kahng at the Bell Labs
b.1924

A weak electrical signal at the gate

creates an electrical field through the
rest of the transistor.

This field controls a second current

traveling through the rest of the
transistor.

This second current is an

amplification of the smaller current,
following its waveform.

Extremely high input impedance

sample signals with minimal "loading
or interference with the signal source.

Fig 25: The Field Effect Transistor.

 MOSFET

Metal oxide semiconductor field

effect transistor.

Silicon dioxide is deposited on

the semiconductor as a
dielectric

polysilicon deposited as the

gate material (e.g.), creating a
plane capacitor.

Fig 26: The insulated gate field effect transistor.

 ISFET
Ion sensitive field effect
transistor.
Sensor membrane
incorporated on floating gate
eg. silicon dioxide without the
polysilicon gate.
Gate contact replaced by a
reference electrode and
electrolyte solution.
Change in charge density at
solution-membrane interface
Change in electric field

Change in source-drain current

Change in Vg if source-drain
current constant.
Fig 27: The ion sensitive field effect transistor.
 Voltammetry
Used to detect electroactive
spesies that can undergo a redox
electrode reaction.
Measures a current at the redox
(working) electrode as a function
of electrode potential.
Electrode potential measured
against a reference electrode.
A counter electrode serves as a
Reduction potential
second circuit to channel current
through the working electrode.

Overpotential hysteresis
for an ideal system
N = # electrons
Oxidation potential

Fig 28: Three electrode configuration of voltammetric measurements, cyclic voltammetry.

Applications inMedicine
 Blood Glucose Monitoring
Electrochemical biosensor
Glucose oxidase, converts
glucose + O2 to gluconic acid
and H2O2
Option 1: HRP converts H2O2 to
H2O and release electrons to
sensor electrode.
Option 2: Electrode oxidise
H2O2 directly
Current is recorded as function
of glucose.

Fig 29: The One Touch Glucose meter.

 Anticoagulation Monitoring

Electrochemical cell
Contains agents that initiates
coagulation.
Detects impedance change
during coagulation process.
Conductometry
INR = International
Normalized Ratio.

Fig 30: The INRatio coagulation meter.

 Temperature

Fig 31: Pyroelectric radiation sensor (ear thermometer).

 Pressure

Fig 32: Piezoresistive pressure transducer (LHS) with an optional fibre optic recording (RHS).
 Intraocular Pressure

Fig 33: Applanation tonometer. The intraocular pressure is recorded by

gently pressing the sensor against the anesthesised eye.
 Oximetry

Red (660nm) and infrared

(940nm) light is passed
sequentially through tissue (eg
finger) to a photodetector.
Measures ratio of changing
absorbance of the red and
infrared light
caused by the colour difference
between oxygen-bound (bright
red) and oxygen-unbound (dark
red) hemoglobin.
The ratio of absorbance is then
used to calculate blood
oxygenation.
Fig 34: The absorption spectra of hemoglobin
and oxyhemoglobin.
 Spirometry
Airflow sensor
Measurement of lung function:
Capacity (volume)
Speed (flow)
Pneumotachographs
assessing conditions
asthma, pulmonary fibrosis,
cystic fibrosis, and COPD.

Fig 35: Spirometer and pneumotachograph.

 CO2 sensor
Record absorption spectrum of
CO2 by Infrared spectroscopy.
Sensitivity of 20-50 PPM

Alt. 2: MEMS devices based on

sensitive layers of polymer- or
heteropolysiloxane.
Drift and low overall lifetimes

Fig 36: Handheld CO2 measuring instrument and

IR CO2 sensor (insert) by AMS Technologies AG.
 Artificial Pacemaker
Combination of an implantable
sensor and actuator
Heart beat monitoring
Provide auxhilliary stimulus for
contraction

Defibrillator
Restart heart
Resynchronise abnormal heart
rhythm.

Technical data:
Rate: adaptable & bp/min
Lifetime of 10 years (Lithium
Iodine battery, 2.8 V 2000 mAh)
99.6% survival @ 8 years
Fig 37: Cardiac pacemaker. Gun shot and car crash resistant
 Syncope monitoring

Syncope: unexplained loss of

consciousness

Implantable cardiac sensor

Two electrode system
Record subcutaneous electro-
cardiogram (ECG) for up to 14
months.
Symptoms and abnormalities

Recording activated by external

triggering device.

Differentiate between cardiac

and neurological causes for
syncope.

Fig 38: The reveal plus system for syncope monitoring.

 Summary

Biomedical Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems

Topics of study (curriculum):
Introduction to BioMEMS
Principles of Biochemistry
Silicon and Soft Fabrication Techniques
Polymer Materials
Microfluidic Principles
Sensor Principles and Microsensors
Microactuators and Drug Delivery
Clinical Laboratory Medicine
Micro-Total-Analysis Systems
Detection and Measurement Methods
Genomics and DNA Microarrays
Proteomics and Protein Microarrays
Emerging BioMEMS technologies
Packaging, Power, Data, and RF Safety
Biocompatibility, FDA and ISO 10993
 Thank you

Erik Johannessen, tel: 31009385, eaj@hbv.no