Saliterman, Fundamentals of BioMEMS and Medical Microdevices, Ch.

Microfluidic Principles,
Part 2
Erik Johannessen, PhD
MN-BIO4600 Lecture 5
2015
 Surface Charge
Ionization of surface groups:
Dissociation of any acidic
groups on a particle surface
will give a negatively
charged surface

Dissociation of any basic

groups on a particle surface
will give a positively
charged surface

The magnitude of the

surface charge depends on
the acidic or basic strengths
of the surface groups and
on the pH of the solution.
Charged crystal surfaces:

Initial loss of ions from the

crystal lattice

If a crystal of Agl is placed

in water, it starts to dissolve

If equal amounts of Ag+ and

l- ions were to dissolve, the
surface would be uncharged

In fact Ag+ ions dissolve

preferentially leaving a
negatively charged surface.
Adsorption of charged species:

Surfactant ions may be

specifically adsorbed onto a
solid surface.

Cationic surfactants would

lead to a positively charged
surface.

Anionic surfactants would

lead to a negatively charged
surface.
 Electric Double Layer (EDL)
Surface charge (1)
Ionisation of surface groups
charged crystal surfaces
adsorption of charged
species
Balancing charge (2)
Ions attracted to the surface
charge via the coulomb force
electrically screening the first
layer
a) Compact layer
Immobile ions (Stern layer)
Several thick
b) Diffuse layer
Mobile ions
nm to m thick

Shear plane
Boundary between mobile
and immobile ions
Liquid velocity is zero
Fig 1: The electric double layer.
Electric Double Layer Potential

Fig 2: The potential field of the electric double layer.

 Electrokinetic Phenomena
Electro-osmosis
Fluid movement relative to a stationary charged or conducting surface
through application of an electric field.

Electrophoresis
In the presence of an electric field the particle can be induced to move
relative to the stationary or moving liquid.

Streaming potential
Flow of a charged solution through a capillary or microchannel under
an applied hydrostatic pressure. Creating a current opposing the flow
direction increased flow resistance (electroviscous effect).

Dielectrophoresis
Movement of dielectric particles in a spatially nonuniform electric field.

Electrowetting
Electrostatic manipulation of surface tension/energies
Electro-osmosis
 Electro Osmotic Flow (EOF)
The electrostatic
surface charge
Attract counter ions
closer to surface
(diffuse layer)

Excess counter ions

in the diffuse layer
Move under the
applied electric
force

The moving ions

drag the
surrounding fluid
with them
Due to viscous
effect.

Fig 3: The potential field of the electric double layer.

 Calculation Assumptions

Uniform zeta potential

Potential at the shear plane of the electric double layer
Approximation of the surface potential

Electric double layer is thin compared to the channel dimensions

3 orders of magnitude: nm versus m

Electrically insulated channel walls

Low Reynolds numbers

Parallel flow at inlets and outlets

Uniform fluid properties

Constant viscosity and electrical permittivity

 Poisson Equation

E Published in 1813 by Simon-Denis Poisson
r 0 Describes the electrical field potential in a
Simon-Denis Poisson,
1781-1840
E dielectric medium
Ion and potential distribution in the diffuse layer

High ionic strength (1-2 nm), DI water (1-2 m)

r 0
2 increase (F) - vector.
r 0
E = electric field (V/m)
(psi) = electric field potential (V)
(rho) = free charge density (C/m3)
r = dielectric constant of medium
0 = permittivity of vacuum
(8.85x10-12 F/m)
Unit = V/m2
Vector differential operator Del = :
Gradient: vector field pointing in direction of greatest
Divergence: spreading/contracting nature of a vector field
(F) number (scalar).
Curl: rotation of a vector field where F is the vector field
(xF) - vector.
Laplacian (=2)
The divergence of the gradient of a scalar/vector function
(2nd order derivative).
The flux density of the gradient flow of a function
The net rate of movement in free charge is proportional to
the electric field potential at a given point.

Fig 4: The Poisson Equation.

 Boltzmann Equation

Devised by Ludwig Boltzmann

Ludwig Eduard
Boltzmann, 1844 -1906 Describe the distribution of ions near a
charged surface
ze
ni ni exp
Assumptions
kbT Ions have no macroscopic motion
System subjected only to surface EDL
ni = the concentration of type i ion at a
given position (electric double layer) field

ni = the concentration of type i ion infinitely Charged surface in contact with infinitely
away from a charged surface
zi = the value of the ionic valence (electric charge) large liquid medium
e = electron charge (1.602x10-19C) Flow rates (Re < 10)
(psi) = the electrical field potential (V)
at a given position
kB = Boltzmann constant (1.38x10-23 J/K)
T = absolute temperature

Fig 5: The Boltzmann Equation.

 Poisson-Boltzmann Equation

Consider arbitrary electrolytes with asymmetric ions, the free

charge density can be written as:
zi = ionic valence

z en e
zi e e = 1.60x10-19C
zi ni exp ni = bulk ion concentration
kbT
i i

Substituting into the Poisson Equation yields the general
Poisson-Boltzmann Equation:
r = dielectric constant of
medium
0 = permittivity of vacuum
(8.85x10-12 F/m)

2 e zi e kb = 1.38x10-23 J/K
zi ni exp T = abs temp (K)
r 0 kbT (psi) = the electrical field
potential (V)
at a given position
 Poisson-Boltzmann Equation
considering symmetrical ions (zi = z = constant), z = ionic valence (1,2,3,..)
e = 1.60x10-19C
the equation reduces to: n = bulk ionic concentration
number of molecules per m3
or (NA*moles/m3)

2 2 zen ze NA = 6.023x1023 mol-1

sinh

r = dielectric constant of medium
0 = permittivity of vacuum
r o k bT (8.85x10-12 F/m)
kb = 1.38x10-23 J/K
T = abs temp (K)
consider the non-dimensional electric potential: = the electrical field potential
(V)
ze = Non dimentional electric
potential
kbT
the Poisson-Boltzmann equation can be rewritten as:

2 2
2 2 z e n
2 2 sinh where
r 0 kbT
Debye-Huckel Parameter
 Debye-Huckel Parameter
1 r 0 kbT
The characteristic thickness of the EDL is defined as:
2 z 2 e 2 n

Peter Debye, 1884 -1966

Fig 6: The thickness of the EDL as defined by the inverse of the Debye-Huckel
Parameter (also known as the Debye length).
 Thickness of the EDL (H2O)

Temperature: T = 298K
Dielectric constant: r = 78.5
Permittivity of a vacuum: 0 = 8.8510-12 F/m
Charge of an electron: e = 1.60210-19 C
Boltzmann's constant: kb = 1.38110-23 J/K
Avogadro's number: NA = 6.0221023 /mol

1 r 0 kbT 3.04
x10 10 (m)
2 z 2 e 2 n z M
 Thickness of the Diffuse Layer

Debye length (1/)

scale over which mobile charge carriers screen out electric fields.
the distance over which significant charge separation can occur.

At 10-6 M the ionic concentration is practically water

The thickness of the diffuse layer may be larger than a micron for pure
water and pure organic liquids.
Material/Medium Dielectric constant (25C)

Air 1.0

Oil (petroleum) 2.1

Methanol 33

Acetonitrile 36

Glycerol 47

Water 78.5

Ethylene carbonate 90

Formamide 111

N-methylacetamide 179

N-methylformamide 189
 Electro-Osmotic Flow Velocity

Derived by Smoluchowski in 1903

Marian Smoluchowski,
1872 -1917
A slit microchannel (formed
between two parallel plates)
E z r 0 width is much larger than the
vav height of the channel,

The electro-osmotic flow velocity
may be determined by the
Smoluchowski equation
vav = the average electroosmotic flow velocity (m/s),
Ez = the applied electrical field (V/m),
r = the dielectric constant of the medium
v
0 = the permitivity of vacuum (free space), 8.85x10-12 F/m
= (zeta) is the zeta potential at the shear plane (V), E z av
= (mu) is the dynamic viscosity (kg/(ms)). r 0

Fig 7: The Smoluchowski Equation.

Electrophoresis
 Electrophoresis
Electrokinetic phenomenon first
observed by F. Reuss in 1807.

Movement of charged species in a

fluid relative to fluid molecules

Electric surface charge on particle

The electrophoretic velocity

1/
Electrical force (Eel, field strength)
Frictional force (FF, viscosity)
Electrophoretic retardation force (FR)
EDL: Compact & Diffuse layer
same absolute charge but
opposite sign with respect to
that of the surface charge.
FF Smaller with thicker EDL
point of retardation force further away
FR
from the particle surface

Fig 8: Charge distribution around an electrophoretic particle.

 Electrophoresis

Fig 9: Point of retardation force vs. thickness of the electric double layer around the particle.
 Electrophoretic Velocity /Motility

Electrophoretic Velocity
Marian Smoluchowski, 1872 -
1917 Smoluchowski equation
Valid for thin EDL ( >> 1)

E z r 0 p
vep
vep = particles electrophoretic velocity (m/s),
Ez = the applied electrical field (V/m),
r = the dielectric constant of the medium
0 = the permitivity of vacuum (free space), 8.85x10-12 F/m
p = (zeta) is the zeta potential of the particle (V),
= (mu) is the dynamic viscosity (kg/(ms)).
vep r 0 p
vE Electrophoretic motility
Ez electrophoretic velocity per unit of
applied electrical field strength
characterizing how fast a particle moves
q vep
in an electrical field.
vE
E z 6 rst q = particle charge (C)
rst = stokes radius (m) rst
k BT
D = diffusion coefficient (m2/s) 6 D

Fig 10: The Smoluchowski Equation.

 Henrys Equation
General formulation for the
electrophoretic velocity
Cover a wider range of EDL
Erich Hckel
1896 - 1980
() = Henrys function
Smoluchowski approximation
() 3/2, >> 1
2 r 0 E z p Hckel approximation
vep f () 1, 1
3

vep = particles electrophoretic velocity (m/s),

Ez = the applied electrical field (V/m),
r = the dielectric constant of the medium
0 = the permitivity of vacuum (free space)
p = (zeta) is the zeta potential of the particle (V),
= (mu) is the dynamic viscosity (kg/(ms)).

Fig 11: Henrys Equation.

 Gel electrophoresis
Separate DNA/proteins by charge
and size
Separation medium/matrix
Agarose (macromolecules)
Polyacrylamide (smaller fragments)

Move through matrix at different

speed as function of mass
Charge : mass ratio constant

Fluorescent marker
Ethidium bromide

Ladder
Markers of known molecular weight

Distance a band travels

inversely proportional to the
logarithm of the molecular size
Fig 12: Gel electrophoresis.
Capillary electrophoresis

Fig 12: Capillary Electrophoresis.

Streaming potential
 Streaming potential
Flow of a conducting solution
through a channel by pressure
Used to measure (zeta potential)
Streaming current:
movement of the counterions in
the diffuse layer with flow
field Streaming potential:
_ Potential difference due to
+
movement of counterions
Conduction current:
Drive counterions (diffuse layer)
U in opposite directions of flow
(electroviscous effect)
U = streaming potential (V),
r = the dielectric constant of the medium
r 0 0 = the permitivity of vacuum (free space)
U P = (zeta) is the zeta potential (V)

K L = (mu) is the dynamic viscosity (kg/(ms)).

KL = electrical conductivity of medium (S/m)
P = pressure difference across capillary/channel (Pa, N/m2)

Ref: Electrokinetic and Colloid Transport

Fig 13: Illustration of the flow-induced electrokinetic Phenomena, by Jacob H. Masliyah, 2005,
field in a microchannel. ISBN: 9780471788829
Dielectrophoresis
 Dielectrophoresis
Polarisation of dielectric particles
Spatially non-uniform electric field
Net force directed toward locations
with increasing or decreasing field
intensity
Positive: towards increasing field
Negative: towards decreasing field
Physical properties of particle and
medium.
Particle shape and size
Frequency of applied field
Fields of a particular frequency can
manipulate particles with great
selectivity.
separation of cells
orientation and manipulation of
nanoparticles

Fig 14: Dielectrophoresis.

Electrowetting
 Electrowetting
Thomas Young,
1773 -1829
LG = the liguid-gas interfacial tension,
SL = the solid-liquid interfacial tension,
SG = the solid-gas inter facial tension,
(theta) = the contact angle.
Fig 15: Principles of electrowetting.
Surface tension (molecular attractions)
Theory by Thomas Young in 1805
Youngs Equation
Balance of interfacial surface energies
Liquid-gas + solid-liquid = solid gas
Contact angle at 3 phase solid-liquid-gas
junction: 0 180
= 0, thin layer on surface
180, droplet as sphere on surface
External electrostatic charge
Modification of the surface tension at the
fluid-surface interface
Assymetric fields
Cutting, merging, creation, transport
 Electrowetting

= (theta) the contact angle,

0 = the equilibrium contact angle at 0,
V = the electric potential across the interface
r = dielectric constant of the dielectric layer,
0 = permittivity of vacuum (8.8510-12 F/m),
t = thickness of dielectric layer (m).
LG = the liguid-gas interfacial tension,

Fig 16: The effect of an applied potential on the contact angle.

Digital microfluidics

Fig 17: A digital microfluidic circuit.

Part II: Microvalves
 Microvalves
Passive Valves
Flow/pressure controlled
Check Valves
Directional, like a diode.
Smart polymers, external stimuli.
Stop Valves
Surface modifications of hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties
Change in contact angle controls fluid flow

Active Valves
Actuator controlled (air, fluid, electrical)
Pneumatic, Thermopneumatic, Thermomechanical, Piezoelectric,
Electrostatic, Electromagnetic, Electrochemical, Capillary force
 Passive Valves
Unidirectional check valves

Hydrophobic valves
integrated in CD based microfluidic
devices

Expandable pH sensitive hydrogel

Basic solutions expand
Acidic solutions - contract

Fig 18: Selection of passive valves.

 Active Valves
Electrostatic valves
Based on the attractive force between
two oppositely charged plates

A = the overlapping plate area Electromagnetic valves

d = the distance between plates
di = an insulator layer thickness Offer the advantage of large deflection
V = the applied voltage and disadvantage of size, low
r = the relative dielectric coefficient of the medium efficiency, and heat generation.
i = the relative dielectric coefficient of the insulator
0 = the permittivity of free space (vacuum)
Capillary-force valves
Based on active and passive control of
surface tension and capillary forces.
Electrocapillary
Electrowetting
F = the vertical force of a magnetic field Electroosmosis (counteracting capillary
Mm = the magnetization (A/m) action)
V = the volume of the magnet Thermocapillary
B = the magnetic field (Tesla)
z = direction of the force Temperature dependent surface tension

Fig 19: Types of active valves.

Thermocapillary valves

Fig 20: Lower surface tension drives bubble

towards the hot end.
Part III: Micromixers
 Micromixers

Passive mixers
have no moving parts, but instead
rely on diffusion and geometry of the
device.

Active mixing
increases the interfacial area
between fluids and can be
accomplished by piezoelectric
devices, electrokinetic mixers,
chaotic advection.

Fig 21: Microfluidic mixing regimes.

Part IV: Micropumps
 Non-mechanical pumping
Electrokinetic methods

Surface tension and capillary effects.

Based on the attractive force between
two oppositely charged plates

The energy balance in the liquid

column and driving pressure is given
by LHS equation.

2 ro SG SL ro2 h Can be specified in terms of surface

tension and specific weight (below).

SG , SL , and LG are interfacial tensions (N/m)

2 LG cos r0 = the capillary radius (m)

h
h = the height of the column (m)
= the specific weight of the fluid (N/m3)
ro

Fig 22: Capillary force driven pump.

 Mechanical pumping
Classification:
Displacement or dynamic

Types:
Check-valve pumps (displacement)
Check valves opens when significant pressure added
(unidirectional)
Peristaltic pumps (displacement)
Sequenced compression of multiple flexible chambers
(displacement)
Rotary pumps (dynamic)
Continuous feed from external actuator (spinning disk, screw,
dynamic)
Ultrasonic pumps (dynamic)
Acoustic streaming by a mechanical travelling wave (SAW)
Magnetic pumping
Pumping by a ferrofluid colloidal suspension
 Pump parameters

Maximum flow rate:

Volume of liquid per unit of time delivered by the pump at
zero back pressure (Qmax).

Maximum back pressure:

Maximum pressure the pump can work against,
At this pressure the flow rate becomes zero.

Pump head:
Bernoulli equation,
Extended Bernoulli equation.

Efficiency
 Bernoullis Equation
Published in 1738 by Daniel Bernoulli

The total pressure (static, dynamic,

Daniel Bernoulli and hydrostatic) remains constant
along a streamline
1700-1782

= Static pressure
= Dynamic pressure
= Hydrostatic pressure

pTotal = total pressure (N/m2)

p = static pressure (N/m2)
= (rho) fluid density (kg/m3)
= spesific weight of fluid (N/m3)
V = velocity (m/s)

= Pressure head
= Velocity head
= Elevation head

Fig 24: The Bernoullis Equation.

 Hydraulic and energy grade lines
Pitot stagnation-velocity tube
Piezometer tube
Energy grade line (EGL) height of the
total Bernoullis constant:
p V2 Velocity
h0 z head
2g
Elevation head Pressure head

Measured by the pitot stagnation

velocity tube

Hydraulic grade line (HGL) shows the

height corresponding to elevation and
pressure:
Height liquid would rise in piezometer
tube
Open channel flow this is the height of
the free surface of water

In figure 9 HGL rises due to a drop in

velocity
Always consider point 1 upstream and
point 2 downstream
Fig 9: Hydraulic and energy grade lines
for frictionless flow in a duct.
 Extended Bernoullis Equation

Energy equation for a 1D incompressible, steady flow between

two sections, such as an inlet and outlet:

Dividing by g puts the relationship in terms of energy per unit

weight or head:
 where hs is defined as:

. .
wactuator W actuator W actuator
hs
g m g Q
wactuator = work per unit mass (J/kg)
actuator = the power delivered to the actuator (J/s)
= the mass flowrate = AV = Q
V = velocity (m/s)
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

For a pump in control volume, the pump head equals hs and the
head loss is hL.
 Efficiency

The efficiency is the ratio of amount or work that produces a

useful effect:

wactuator lossfriction

wactuator

The loss factor (lossfriction) includes viscosity driven friction

against flow boundaries and internal viscous dissipation of the
fluid
Summary
 Microfluidics

Microfluidic devices, components and LOC.

Silicon and polymer materials and fabrication.

Volumes required for detection of analytes.

Fluid dynamics based on the continuum assumption:

Newtonian fluids, Reynolds number and laminar flow;
Fluid kinematics, including field representation of flow, and the velocity
field;
Poiseuille flow, including streamlines and Poiseuilles law.

Surface area to volume

Diffusion
 Electro-osmosis
Fluid movement relative to a stationary charged or conducting
surface through application of an electric field.

Electrophoresis
In the presence of an electric field the particle can be induced to
move relative to the stationary or moving liquid.

Streaming potential
Occurs when an aqueous ion containing solution is forced to
flow through a capillary or microchannel under an applied
hydrostatic pressure in the absence of an applied electric field.
An electroviscous effect occurs, or resistant to flow.

Dielectrophoresis
Movement of dielectric particles in a spatially nonuniform
electric field.

Electrowetting
Electrostatic manipulation of surface tension/energies
 The Poisson equation describes the electrical field potential in a
dielectric medium.

The Boltzmann equation describes the distribution of ions near a

charged surface.

The Poisson-Boltzmann equation is used to describe the ion and

potential distributions in the diffuse layer

The Debye-Huckel parameter is used to define the characteristic

thickness of the diffuse layer.

The Smoluchowski equation is used to determine both electro-

osmotic flow velocity and electrophoretic velocity.
 Youngs equation describes the simple balance of force between
the liquid-solid, liquid-vapor, and solidvapor interfacial surface
energies of a droplet on a solid surface.

The Bernoulli equation shows that total pressure (static, dynamic,

and hydrostatic) remains constant along a streamline (for a steady,
inviscid, and incompressible flow).

The extended Bernoulli equation may be used to describe the

energy equation for a 1D incompressible, steady flow between two
sections, such as an inlet and outlet.
 Summary
Biomedical Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems
Topics of study (curriculum):
Introduction to BioMEMS
Principles of Biochemistry
Silicon and Soft Fabrication Techniques
Polymer Materials
Microfluidic Principles
Sensor Principles and Microsensors
Microactuators and Drug Delivery
Clinical Laboratory Medicine
Micro-Total-Analysis Systems
Detection and Measurement Methods
Genomics and DNA Microarrays
Proteomics and Protein Microarrays
Emerging BioMEMS technologies
Packaging, Power, Data, and RF Safety
Biocompatibility, FDA and ISO 10993
 Thank you

Erik Johannessen, tel: 31009385, eaj@hbv.no