Membrane structure and Function

A. Describe the molecular components of cell membranes

and outline the role of each of these components.
The components of cell membrane essentially are Lipids,
Carbohydrates and Proteins.
Lipids: Consist of Phospholipids, Glycolipids and Cholesterol
(steroids)
Phospholipids:
o Are abundant in the cell membrane and form a bilayer.
o Contain a glycerol molecule joined to two fatty acid
molecules though ester bonds
o Are Amphipathic: The head of the phospholipid is
hydrophilic (and contains phosphate, glycerol and polar
groups) and its tail is hydrophobic (comprised of long fatty
acid hydrocarbons).
o Role: They form the Phospholipid membrane that
surrounds the cell and intracellular structures such as
mitochondria. This results to a selectively permeable, fluid
cell membrane. It allows free diffusion of come molecules
such as O2 and CO2 but not polarized ions or large
molecules (i.e. glucose).

Glycolipids
o Are lipids with a carbohydrate attached. They extend from
the bilayer into the aqueous environment.
o Their role is to provide energy and serve as markers for
cellular recognition.

Cholesterol
o Helps prevent the packing of fatty acid tails and thus lowers
the requirement of unsaturated fatty acids.
o This helps maintain the fluid nature of the cell membrane

Proteins: classified into twp major categories, integral

proteins and peripheral proteins.
Integral Proteins:
o Are transmembrane proteins, with hydrophobic regions
which completely span the hydrocarbon interior of the
membrane.
o The parts exposed to the interior and exterior of the cell
are hydrophilic.
 o Serve as pores which selectively allow ions and or
nutrients into the cell.

Peripheral Proteins:
o Reside on only one side of the membrane
o Often attached to integral proteins.
o Some serve as anchor points for the cytoskeleton or
extracellular fibres.

Carbohydrates: Also known as Oligosaccharides

(glycolipids and glycoproteins have carbohydrates attached
to them.)
o Give a cell identity or in other words acts as a
recognition system which controls the entry of
specific chemicals into the cell membrane.

B. Describe the role of the cell membrane in regulating the

composition of intra and extracellular fluids

C. Explain in detail the movement of ions and molecules

(particles actoss the cell membrane in terms of:
i) The properties of the particles (size, shape, charge,
solubility)
ii) The properties of the membrane (permeability, pores)
iii) Transmembrane gradients (pressure, concentration)
D. Describe the mechanisms by which molecules and ions
cross the plasma membrane.
i) Passive diffusion
ii) Facilitated diffusion
iii) Primary active transport
iv) Secondary active transport

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. The role of DNA in cell function
A. Explain what is meant by the term gene and describe the
relationship between a gene, a protein and an enzyme.
 A gene is the fundamental, physical, and functional unit of
heredity. It also specifies the structure of a protein, or an RNA
molecule.
The relationship between a gene, protein and enzyme is that a
gene a segment of a DNA which is transcribed to a piece of m-
RNA, which is used to produce the specific protein, needed in
the ribosome units. This specific function of the specific
protein can also be known as an enzyme

B. Explain what is meant by the term DNA template.

A DNA template is the strand of DNA (made from the
unzipping of the double helix) where it forms to accommodate
for newly synthesized RNA and forms them by joining a
replicated strand with the complimentary bases of the
template.
2. The role of RNA (ribonucleic acid) in cell function
A. Describe the role of the 3 main types of RNA
The three types of RNA include: m-RNA, r-RNA and t-RNA.
mRNA: carries genetic information from the DNA in the
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm for protein
synthesis. Each gene, a segment of DNA, produces a separate
mRNA molecule when a certain protein is needed in a cell, but
then the mRNA is broken down quickly. The size of mRNA
depends on the size of the nucleotides in the particular gene.
Transfer RNA (t-RNA): the smallest of RNA molecules,
interprets the genetic information in mRNA and brings specific
amino acids to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. Only
tRNAs can translate genetic information into amino acids for
proteins. The structures of tRNAs are similar consisting of 70-
90 nucleotides. Hydrogen bonds between some of the
complementary bases in the chain produce loops that give
some double stranded regions.
rRNA (Ribosomal RNA): is the most abundant type of RNA, is
combined in proteins in the ribosomes. Ribosomes, which are
the sites for protein synthesis, consist of two sub units, a large
subunit and a small subunit.
B. Predict the correct base sequence for a strand of RNA given
the base sequence for a DNA strand.
Portion of DNA template
-C-G-A-T-C-A-
-G-C-U-A-G-U-

3. The main Steps involved in protein synthesis

A. Define the terms transcription and translation.
Transcription: In the nucleus, genetic information for the
synthesis of a protein is copied from a gene in DNA to make
mRNA. This process is known as transcription.
Transcription begins when the section of DNA that contains
the gene to be copied unwinds.
Within this unwound DNA, a RNA polymerase enzyme uses
one of the strands as a template to synthesise a mRNA. This
occurs by pairing the bases with complementary bases,
however in RNA there are no T(Thymine) but U(Uracil).
The RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand,
forming bonds between the bases. When the RNA
polymerase reaches the termination point, transcription ends
and the new mRNA is released.
 The unwound section of the DNA returns to its double helix
structure.
Translation: tRNA molecules convert the information in the
mRNA into amino acids, which are placed in the proper
sequence to synthesise a protein.

SUMMARY
transcription translation
DNA mRNA Protein

B. Explain the importance of hydrogen bonding between bases in

transcription and translation.
Hydrogen bonding is important between the bases in
transcription and translation as it stabalises the nucleotides as
the processes are being carried out.
C. Explain the significance of the weak hydrogen bonds between
bases (compared to the stronger covalent bonds) in protein
synthesis.
The bonds of hydrogen must be weak since during the
processes of transcription and translation the DNA need to
unwind and break off to form a template strand DNA in order
to allow transcription of mRNAs.
In comparison to the strong covalent bonds in protein
synthesis however, they need to be strong in order to
stabalise the structure of the protein in order for it to carry out
its specific function (taking into account that proteins are
specific structures and therefore need to firmly maintain their
structure.
D. Describe the role of the enzyme RNA-polymerase in the
formation of messenger-RNA
RNA polymerase is the central mechanism in transcribing the
code in a DNA molecule so it can be used to form the template
to form the protein.
The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to part of the DNA that
corresponds to the beginning of a gene and starts to make a
strand of mRNA.
The RNA polymerase makes an elongated chain of RNA
nucleotides to form an RNA molecule. The completed mRNA is
released from the RNA polymerase.
E. Describe how information required for protein synthesis is
transferred from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
 Information required for protein synthesis is transferred
through the addition of a series of adenine nucleotides
called the poly A which is added to the end of the
transcribed RNA strand.
The tail is vital in that it gives the signal required to allow
the RNA to move out of the nucleus and then bind to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm where proteins are
synthesised. The mRNA is responsible for transferring
them.
F. Describe the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis.
Ribosomes are the site where the mRNA attaches to the ribosome
in order to be read and is the site where tRNA attaches its
anticodons.
The Ribosomes are made up of a light subunit and a heavy
subunit (small and large) and both come together when
converting mRNA into amino acids.
Once combined to form the ribosome, it interacts with tRNA and
mRNA at 3 different regions called sites.
The P site (peptidyl-tRNA site) holds the newly forming
polypeptide chain attached to a tRNA molecule. The A
site(aminoacyl-tRNA site) holds the amino acid about to be added
to the chain and its carrier tRNA molecule.
Once done with its job at a ribosome, a tRNA molecule exits by
means of the E site (exit site). While adding to the growing
polypeptide chain, a ribosome holds the mRNA and tRNA together
in a firm grip so the amino acids can be added correctly
 G. Define:
I. Triplet code: The normal version of the genetic code in
which a sequence of 3 nucleotides codes for the
synthesis of a specific amino acid
II. Codon: A series of three nucleotides (triplet) in mRNA called
codons that specify the amino acids and their sequences in
the protein.
III. Anti-Codon: A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides
located on one end of transfer RNA. It bounds to the
complementary coding triplet of nucleotides in messenger
RNA during translation phase of protein synthesis.

H. Describe the structure of t-RNA in terms of:

ii) Its overall architecture
tRNA molecules have approximately 75 nucleotides and have
a clover-leaf type of structure (due to base paired stems).
The loop on the bottom of the cloverleaf contains the
anticodons, which bind to the complimentary bases of the
mRNA.
Opposite the anticodon (Superior to it) is a three nucleotide
acceptor site that includes a free OH group. A specific tRNA
binds to a specific amino acid through its acceptor stem.
iii) The site for attachment of an amino acid
Refer to above
iv) The unpaired base triplet (anti-codon)
Refer to above.
I. Explain the attraction between t-RNA and specific amino acids
in terms of reactive sites.
The initiator tRNA is the only member of the tRNA family that
can bind directly to the P site. The P site is referred to as the P
site due to its function where it binds to only Peptidyl-tRNA
molecules; i.e. tRNA with a growing peptide bonds (amino acid
attachment)
The A site however only binds to the incoming Aminoacyl-
tRNA; that is the tRNA bringing the next amino acid.

Refer to the diagram in the next dot point for visual

explanation of this dot point.

J. Describe the main steps involved in the translation of the

message contained in m-RNA into a polypeptide chain at the
ribosome.
The steps of translation are as follows
1. Initiation
The small subunit of the ribosome binds to a site "upstream" (on
the 5' side) of the start of the message.
It proceeds downstream (5' -> 3') until it encounters the start codon
AUG.
Here it is joined by the large subunit and a special initiator tRNA.
The initiator tRNA binds to the P site (shown in pink) on the
ribosome.
In eukaryotes, initiator tRNA carries methionine (Met).

2. Elongation
An aminoacyl-tRNA (a tRNA
covalently bound to its amino acid)
able to base pair with the next
codon on the mRNA arrives at the A
site (green) associated with:
an elongation factor
GTP (the source of the
needed energy)
The preceding amino acid (Met at
the start of translation) is covalently
linked to the incoming amino acid
with a peptide bond (shown in red).
The initiator tRNA is released from
the P site.
The ribosome moves one codon
downstream.
This shifts the more recently-arrived
tRNA, with its attached peptide, to
the P site and opens the A site for
the arrival of a new aminoacyl-
tRNA.
This last step is promoted by another protein elongation factor
and the energy of another molecule of GTP.

3. Termination
The end of translation occurs when the ribosome reaches one or
more STOP codons (UAA, UAG, UGA).
There are no tRNA molecules with anticodons for STOP codons.
However, protein release factors (Rf) recognize these codons
when they arrive at the A site.
 Binding of these proteins along with a molecule of GTP releases
the polypeptide from the ribosome.
The ribosome splits into its subunits, which can later be
reassembled for another round of protein synthesis

K. Describe the importance of the polyribosome in the production

of protein molecules.
Polyribosomes are essential as they translate the mRNA
strands into proteins.
What are they; they are simply many ribosomes travelling
along the mRNA strand translating the mRNA to form proteins.
The reason why there are many (poly) is for the purpose of
increasing efficiency in synthesizing proteins rather than
waiting for one ribosome to travel through the mRNA strand
singularly.

L. Construct a diagram showing the cellular location where the

steps of protein synthesis occur.
M. Predict the possible effects on a cell if a mistake is made in
protein synthesis

There are 2 possible effects which occur if a cell makes a mistake

during protein synthesis
A deficit is made of a specific protein (one protein is
defected)
Production of the protein becomes abnormal (Entire process
becomes defected)

N. Describe the possible effects on cellular structure and function

of a change in DNA code for a gene.
The possible effects on cellular structure and function of a
change in DNA code are 3
1. Nothing occurs. This is because a code for a codon may differ for a
specific amino acid (multiple codons). E.g. Alanine could be GCT, GCC,
GCA, GCG
2. The specific protein may appear to be degenerate both in function and
structure (due to error of translation) and may lead to the death of the
protein, or it may be coded as another protein due to the change in
code.
3. Mutation occurs and this is due to change in the DNA sequence. It can
either be beneficial for the cell or the mutation could harm the cell.

4. Control of Protein Synthesis

A. Explain why controlling protein synthesis is crucial to
controlling a cells structure and functions.
It is essential as it increases versatility and adaptability of cell
to synthesize protein when needed.
It also drives the process of cell differentiation where different
cell types exist within the cell and each of these types of cells
possess different gene expression profiles despite carrying the
same genome sequence.
Control of Protein synthesis is also important as creating too
much (especially when not needed) could result to diseases in
the liver and kidney and also uses a lot of the bodys energy.

B. Describe the regulation of protein synthesis in terms of gene

induction and repression by hormones and other messengers.
Gene regulation generally is based on the response to two
systems: inducible and repressive systems
Inducible systems: An inducible system is off unless there
is the presence of some molecule (called an inducer) that
allows for gene expression. The molecule is said to "induce
expression".
Repressible systems - A repressible system is on except in the
presence of some molecule (called a co-repressor) that
suppresses gene expression. The molecule is said to "repress
expression".
Another method carried out in eukaryotic cells which control
gene expression is via the Operons
An Operon is a part of DNA which contains a regulator, a
promoter, operator, and structural genes.
It controls the gene expression.
In the regulator, a regulatory gene is present which
encodes for repressor proteins. These proteins produce
repressors at a slow rate.
 At the operator, some overlap over the promoter occurs,
So if a repressor binds to the operator the promoter is
prevented from being bound with RNA polymerase hence
the structural genes are not formed.
When there is a presence of an inducer molecule in the
cell the inducer induces the repressor (fits into it to
activate it) which is attached to the operator, thus
changing its shape not allowing it to bind to the operator,
allowing RNA polymerase to attach to the promoter and
thus it can repeatedly transcribe the structural genes
and translation of the mRNAs makes the enzymes.

C. Explain the terms gene expression and gene repression

Gene expression: is the process by which information from a
gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product.
Gene repression: A repressor is a DNA-binding protein that
regulates the expression of one or more genes by decreasing
the rate of transcription.
It can also bind to the operator and blocking the attachment of
RNA polymerase to the promoter thus preventing transcription
of genes.
D. Explain why only some genes in a cell are ever expressed.
This is due to the switching on and off of DNA. This is done in
particular parts of the body according to the specific function
of the cells. For example mammary glands produce milk
despite having the same genome sequence as skin cells and
other part of the body. The factor which does not allow skin
cells to form milk however is the switching off and on of DNA
during protein synthesis.