3- Political Participation Democracy should bea clsbraion ofan involved public, Democracy se- ‘quires an active ctaney beau it i through dissusion, popula interest and involvement in polis tha societal goals shouldbe defined and car ried ut in a demecracy. Without public invelverent inthe proses de- smocracy licks both its legitimacy an is guiding fore, When Germans take the ime to ease informed vows, Beth eletors canvas their neigh- bors or Americans write thee president, the democrats procs is at work, “The recent global spread of democratization has brought these democratic fecedoms ro milions of people. The jubiacion that accompanied the frst percent ‘sx have had wale remot levels pus or mings 2 perce), and 100 sw a turnodeinreae of more than 2 percent. The drop-off in voring ats was ‘exceptionally marked in the fst elections ofthe 19908. Thus, voting par ‘eipavon i generally decreasing acres national bounds ‘Conspared to most other nations, voting level he United States ap- pea signcanly lower, moreover, the marked decrease in American tur ft over the past forry years has exacerbate this pater. Some analysts (he thee satis ay evidences of the American electorate’ limited polit {al involvement (and by implication ited politcal blits.Bat« more complex ser of factors is a work (Verba et al. 1978: Rosenstone and Hanmen 1995; Fickiager and Stdlar 19925 Tesi 19925 chap. 1). Voter regitration systems and other clstoral procedures soapy inluece twanstlnte dferences in turnout. Mort Earopeans ae automatically i ‘Sed on the roster of registered voters, and these electoral registers ae ‘pated by the government. ‘Thus, a much lager percentage of the Faro> ‘pean publics repinered eo partipate in elections. ln contra, most Amer Scans mst ake the inate to repistr themselves to vote, and many el sible voters fi to do so. By many estimates, petition in American ‘lesions would increas by atleast ten perensage points ifthe European {yatem of epstration were adopred (WolGnger and Roseastone 1980). The ‘heduling of most Boropen clesons on weekends aso encourages turn- ‘out, Beese more vores can Bnd the time to vst the pall In ation, ‘most ropean electoral ster are based on proportional representation APR) cater than plural based singlemember discs a in the United Sates, Proportional eprsenration stimulates eurnout because any party, large or small cam increase its representation inthe legislature as direct function oft share ofthe poplae vote. . Bingham Powel (oR, 1986) and Mackus Crepar (1990) show tha polical competition is another sg influence on surmout rates, ‘Sharp social or iological cleavages between pastes stimulate turnout ‘The more polarized European party systems geerally encourage higher ‘voting ete than the found in the United States, When Buropesn vers: fo tothe poll they are desing whether thei county wil be ran By pat= fies with soci, geen, conservative, etn, or een eigions programs ‘Most Earopea elesons havea greater potential to make signin pic Political Particpation apn 32 LEVELS OF TURNOUT FROM THE 19508 70 THE 19905 PERCENTAGE Vorise) 190s 196 _sgroe__sytoe__19908 Si fh A nll Phyo» =p viendo Bheninh PBcecmiasMlid 4aald +e ante ery eh ey cs hcueecacaermeectet 1 Adam ating gunn aed eta ee cere eee rere seer erste gsr nape ine aia a A sabre pe rpg Bigg veg hn mnogo a alncinetacr | Geto B4 Bod the og er BO Poca itn ABaipsios BAuapaa ie Shut Laci nsoutBietusatle ceoned Min \pinbsed scab comedic: tile tee aie + were maprast seat gi Gettasris onion siren ire di ym AB ly Hayy oop Gath imag a wagging (0 50 wl 9B iS > $8 gy on ah bil nehdageye nxp4neac Baesine BAe LSB sie Sa debe ganTor 4D OM rurTpscl cag Nace Roe (ie) a calcd y he he, choices than do American cletons, Robert Jackman (1587) has shown the structural incentives for voring also strongly afer curnour ates. finds that the number of party choices and the rue of legatve ina syscem are dec peedictors of turnout “The United Sates also dfers from most other democracies because the typical European voter may cas two or thee ballots in fou ‘etod, many Americans face a dagen or more separate sections‘the space of four year. Furthermore Americans are expscted 20 vote for 3 rach wider ange of policloffces: Only one houte ofthe bicameral na tional legislature is dies elected in Brin, Germany, and Francs the French president ison of the fw dicey elected European beads of sate Local, regional, anderen national elections in Europe nonmally consist of casting a single alloc fora singe ofce; th extensive list of elected oes ‘nd log balls common to American clestions are unknown in Western Europe. Finally iect democracy technics such a the referendum sd Iniative are wed only sparingly in France and Brain and aot at all in (German national pls, “Thus the American politcal sytem places umasual demands on the voters to decide on an anay’of poll fies, goverament bond aed tx propose and other poiy initiatives, Voting i low-information contest, suchas voting for local nonpartisan offices, isa teal challenge for Amer fan votes. I probably no coincidence that the one European county that has a comparable terns level ro the United States —Switerland also presents its ciizens with extensive voting opportanits, calling ‘@ghry-nine national elections ia the period erween 1947 a 1975 (OF ‘other reasons why Svs tumours low, sce Powel 1982, 19) ‘Rather than count only the number of people who vote in national lesions an alteratine measure of participation focuses on the amount of lecting being done by the public (Crewe 1983). When the context of “American elecions is considered, the amount of cling i atl quite ih [No counry can apc the Unie Sate in the requeny and arty of ‘etons, and this inthe amount of clei. Ne cther county elects leer house as oen sehery two year, os president a egy 2 ery four years. No other county popularly lcs its tate governors and tow mayors, or asa wide sway of nonepresetativ cs de, serif, anernys general cy tressters, and 0) subject eeson (Only oe ke county (Svizeland) cam compete inthe umber and tier of lca referendums, and oly two (Belgium and Turkey) bol party “primi” in mot part ofthe Country. Even if iflrens in turnout cates ae aken ito azount, American tens J ae neces ot lems ‘en than other nationale: most probably, they do more voting (Ceone x98, 363) A spl comparison ofthe eleoral experiences ofa piel European and “American voter highlights this difference inthe amount of voting. For ex ample, beween 198s and 1990 a widen of Cambridge, England, could 46 Politica! Rvicpaton fave voted about four rime a resident of lin, Califor “as forty-four votes in jut the sage yea of r993.) Turnout rates in matonal elections thus provide « poor indicator of ‘overall politcal invelement of the public. In addition, the single nity of voting isles imporane than the quality ofthis parca Verba and his collegues (1978, chap, 3) describe venga an act. lof high presure because leaders are being chowe, be there is Kmited fe policy information or influence beste elections involve 4 diverse of faczors. Therefor, the infrequent opportunity of most Europeans eas singe vote for a repackaged party ia limited tool of plier ‘This influence may increase when elections extend toa wide ange political offices and inde eerendums, as inthe United State. ill ical wo treat lection as policy mandates becuse they asses elaine for broad prograns and not specific policies. Even sophisticated inte elesorate cannot be assed that important policy opons eprescited in an electon or thatthe goverment wil fillow these pos fin the period herween elections. Consequently research shows shat people vote because of 1 seme of civic duty, involvement i cnn ‘ras a expcesson of poltieal or party suppor, rather then to policy (Verba and Nie 19735 Conway 19913. “The limits of voring have led some crits to claim that by focusing ariciation on voting, parties and politica lis are seeking to peo her privileged postin inthe policy proces and actually lint cen Even if his skeyicism ie deserved, voting will emai a pers faopectof democratic polis, ae much for its symbol val 4 ore influence on pokey. Voting isthe one activity that binds the ual tothe poical stem and lgcmize the rest ofthe democrat could have Activity ton beyond tet of voting. Thi modelers vary of po Sa working or apy rca anening pan mc Sirs how tw, mene in par or fla and eer forms a party sviy Gung and hereen lor, ss ae roi ace im campaign eet tore de than ery casi wre. Campin work eu ore i 4 here gree nen 0 cordate paraouon nah ee isp. a Asa el ofthe dona core cmpage sctnay cot shor pla nfs othe na cena cnn rane on than vr. Cunpugn atvies re mponam ope aadcandidates, and candidates generally are mote sensitive ty and aware of the policy intrest of activins (Verba and Nie 1973 chaps. 17-19 ‘Carpaign activities can take many forms, depending on the context of| “ecionerng inthe nation. lathe United States, for example, campaigns Se aow largely media events, Poplar involvement in organied campaign tivities is limited table 53) Few Americans ated pasty meetings, work fora party or candidate, ot belong to pary or political chub. Steven Rosensone and John Hansen (993, chap 3) presentational pol data that indicate a decreased attendance a polis mecings over the past dec- fle. The most frequent campsign activites are individualistic forms of po Ta invelvemen: ving money toa campaign or ying ro persuade oth fr Personal involvement in campaign discussions has held steady ox even Increased slighty over the pase hisy years. The simul ofthe ight pres ‘env election andthe Perot candidacy actually pushed politeal discus Sion in 1g9at es highes evel ever “The sratae of Betnh campaigns fers in important ways from American elton. Bris lectins do not follow a regular time schedule; the prime minster may dissolve Parkament and cll for new elections ata Imost anytime during legiative term. Therefore, elections are often ‘Qicklyonganaed and bre, averaping le more than @ month In a tion British partie depend oa pool of formal pay members fo he balk ‘fcampaign work Party members attend polial als, anvass che con- ‘itmeny during the campaign, and go door-to-door contacting porn voretson clecton day. Beyoad the core of parsy members thee i ied Dartcipaton in most campaign actives (able 3.4). Moreover, with de- ‘ns inthe percentage of pary members has come general derese in ‘organized campaign activites. ‘Germany development of = democratic plital sytem during the ps thirty year bs incensed cizen involvement in campaigns and most ‘ther axpects ofthe pltial proces (Ohlinger 198s). Membership in pot ‘eal partis has remeined stale or even sncrested, and participation in ‘campaign actives has grown. For example, 11 percent ofthe public fended a carmpaign meeting inthe 196 eecon: by 1976 this ire had erly doable (20 percent. Similarly, begining inthe 19705, popular di Plays of purty suppore Bese 4 mote visible aspect of campaigns. Citizen {groups display estoal suppor independent of che pary-run campaigns, So campaign activity now extends beyond formal party members oie 2 signifcant proportion of eke publi. Inthe 1989 European Pariment {EP) election, for nstance, German voters closely fllowed the campaign in the media and nearly one out often spoke wih a party worker during the ampaign—although the EP elsions aneace mich less atetion than “ ane 35 (un pexcawraces) ‘Werk fora party orca ‘ite Geto mectings os 5 " ® n = bumper ahr ering oer ow vo ote a sovnct Aen Nal Ein Sacwri ity a cent) ens “auensien acrovery ot cata area, 1964-87 lux 1966 ‘Aig a epee ES 70h, rd al Hes op gh mtn nanny} ae ene iy i itu FLA cin i aaa ae Hi Poltical Participation Bancestag elections (se ble 5.5. Indeed, German involvement ia the 4589 EP election was gencally higher than thar of Bish or Pench le, fors. Thus past stereotype: of an unconcerned and uninvolved German electorate no longer apply The avaiable evidence on party and campaign activity in France is ss fexensie. Formal party membership has increased daring the Fith Repo lc, frst as «cesle ofthe consoldation of « Gauls majority an toy because of Micerand’s development of the wcialit Left At the sane time, there are ongoing debates about the general depoltcaation of French politics Boy and Nayer 1993). Auendance at campaign meeting ‘able displays of pay support, and other campaign ace: probay Ihave decreased during the past two decades, though frm empl ey, ‘ence is ited. Data from the ro EP election show tht many Fesch ots followed the campaign, but campaign involvement lagged slg Ibhind British and German eves (able 35) Ie sifu to abstat a general pattern of campaign atv fom these diverse national expeiences. Overall involvement in campuigas ap, pared has increased in Germany, eld steady in the United Sere and Aeslined in Britain and France. Nevertheless, several common tends ae at {ork in etch nation. The expanding electoral role ofthe mass media i ng the importance of pary-organied activities designed to inform Public: campaign rales canvassing, and formal party mectingn, The las growing importance has aso encouraged the spread of Aerio, ‘lestioneering. to Werte Europe. Brith canst orshestate us" to generate stories for th evening television news, com {focas more anton on candidate personales than inthe pas, televised preclection debates ate the norm in Germany and ance In addition o ches isitatonalehange, the puis increming so- on and interest in politics spurs campaign involvement, Marg uals are sill drawn tothe excitement and competion of eleccons, ‘now campaign participation is mote often individuals, such asd ‘of party support or dcusing the elections wih friends. The eel of pain activity may be chinging les han the mature othe publics a, activity i hid patcpation made. Communal participation take a wide variety of forms thsi one ofthe postive characteris this kindof activity. Much communal activity involres group efforts 2 ‘deal wit socal or community problems, ranging ltr ues of school oe 1st protetng th local environment. Inston, puripation mi tnART ON: POLITICS AND THE PUBLIC se YOR EUROPEAN rar ERIANENT HLRCTION (18 FEREANTAGES) Gat Britsin Germany Fence ued TY pom oon 3 ead newspaper er on cson ae ead apanr pos 5 Lipeed on eon i Rend pary mater Tan dvertucene sot eon 3 Asien coapagn “ated pol abs ion a % Spolstn spare orter : : “ed poms snes on ee : : ‘Needed pe meting soon: chao 314 hn tah ‘cir inde Shee i epee ae cine serena ee pups ame so ceo ey Dan dK ge Se ae ey bes scone aga cue te acer igus et Se ar gucn a sent Wy tect, 2 Pa eal tea eptesdon dilate nel of rok a ate cpt cre ee he om nee esas ne ne i a ne cerca eo mbar duane ore Spit ot dtm sl coo eta pion ah et comma Thay enema ao mv pe ak SE SRS Pinon nog sh he commana Se ete petal ipieas eae eens pla dec: eer erred nnre of communal aves makes flo compare levels across nations. measure participation levels accurately o to comp en Sil, gene imprnsons of anal erences exit. Amecas are noted {orth pours approach epi pariton This rae ‘bed in the American pial elute as far hack asthe ninetecnth een Politica Participation tury, when Tocqueville commented oa the American proclivity to form _10upsto eddcss communi problems: ‘The poli csv dha pervades she United Sates must be sen to be understood. No sooner do you tt foot upon Ameren grouad than you are stuned by a kindof uml .,hee the people af on que of + town ae meccng ro desde upon te building ofa chucy ehere the ele. tion of repecenaie going on ie fate the delegates of di twice hasteing to the town inorder to consult upon some lc i ‘rovements in anote place, the laborers of vile aut thee plows 0 deliberate pon project of 2 oad oe publi cols. To take hand in the regain of soley and o dacs be) ig concen snd, 0 to speak the only peasre an American knows, (Toequvil 1966, 49-50) Reco sis nd that may Amica sl favor organ ros for ig with ola protien. And sdon wo radonl comme, ‘used invoremen, avr of new politcal movements end single ups hare desloge in eet ear the ernment ley, the womens movement, dsamament groups, moralelpeus Beep tnd ster ognizations Sdn Verba and he cleagues that 30 ect of Anes pariated in comma soap in 96, and ts eed 1 34 pen by i987 (Ve Seaman and Rey 95, Wb a ae ope poll norm aoa placed les emphasis on "sce (Almond and Vers #965, chop 9) and te mre of Ea, ess poal ates didnot rouge dc can come ath ell epee, Nevers conmina ces hve slo grown Bs ‘ope in recent yeas (Werle 1993. n the erly 19708 individuals wih im. \ iar se concerns onpanzed it cic action frou (ogra in Germany, patina these roups capa apy rng she tos In 986 pen of Grant had praesent {Pour by 1985 membership ad need oy pet redo Ieee in 198 [Dalton 190), chap. 6; OMingr 1989). Membership Bish en groups bas a prown markedly Te Bets Facipaton Study found thar ro-r4 pest of Bons were involved in grapes Par a 990,445) By most accounts, communal acy re limited in Fane, Toul for example onratedAmercan aa perntion with the ina of the Hench pots! cos he Frech cation of inven contin tote pros (oinune 19745 Bhan and Schuin tagchap 1 a3) The erage rence 38seni seat estan cooper with thers and they saber ‘Bivida meres showe ofthe oo. th gy o1 Worl Vals Sty pes lings ofros-atonal fresh pic involvement ta pou: The suey aed ‘Scr fd were member fs local ommenity-con ou 20 Shee rcs wom Bon, noe oy at Song Ameria [8 pace Bins perce) and western Gea TEES Suny sgh lowe lec of avi, and Fecha aE mec fer thin. Farhermore, amos oboe me Rentip ina tines ous exe formal members a pole foram ts forme pel involve Besoin 2 more com from pec pleal sco in contemporary emosace. ‘The Predictors of Participation “The queton of who pripaes in poli ias important asthe question SP hom many people purse. Fist the characteris of partipants feip un co mere he meaning of poitea acca. For example, Pky {istasoion igh cer ieee or decreas the liibood of plisal See ironeimane, dsnafation mig staat nid fo par {ispue in ordertoredros thee revances in another instance dst ton mighe lead alent and a withdeswal om politics. These evo a ‘Cut cnt uch diferent ligt onthe signicanc of papain. ‘Sind cre prtpaton inflcncs policy eas ten the aterm of arpation sg which eizns ae making thee vies hea by Pa [Eymaker and which incret aren tepreseted. Finally comparing the ‘Rites of paripation sess nasons and partion modes provides ‘Sherine te poli proces in each aston and he diet aspects of pi prec of chro oP Wecan organize potential peicors fpatiavion notre grou ings psa carats, gronp eft 208 poll atts. Under ‘ae ikea, politcal sccarine sea ssa tte ab the personal har ‘Tren thas ost song) rltd to plitcl action. Following plits TERE ihe tne to any informed and the conceptual abiits to nde TERE comer pola uc social satu often 4 surrogate fo hese TRIE faethe al tosh Higherseus individuals, pei the beer ‘Gites ae more li to have the tne he mony, he ces © Poi ‘St'tormaion the knowlege, andthe aby to ocome pial i ‘conventional activy. Aebough protesters often go beyond the no ‘hanpel of democratic plies, they are nevertheless an eset pat of, the democetc process, Toe profes that accompacid the cil rights ‘emonsirations inthe United Sates during the 196s, the environmental protests ofthe pat decide andthe people-power protests that brought de Imocracy to Faster Faropellstrate how the publ can force police {ems to respond, change and grow. ‘rors isnot new to Western democracies, The United States ha ex perienced politcal confi oughou its hetory [Till 1969). The colonial Period sa frequent revols against taxation, property roticions, and ‘ther government police, When ral elements led themselves with the turban poor and the boorpoise, an American revolution against British ‘contol became inevitable. Aer independence, polical confi continued Ith the growth of worker? movements and araran/popalist movements in the roo. Abolconiny sulfeagets, and other potical groups used lange-xle, nonviolent press and demonstrations throughout the past ‘entry. The carly half ofthis century was a period of ofen tenes vi- lent nds confit, “A resolutionary tao i cren more deply ingrained in dhe Fench poll culture (Cerny 1942). Many French Lefts tac che foundations fof French democracy tothe evlations of 1789, 1830, and 1848, a8 well, fs the Pacis Commune of 1871. Between these dramatic polital events, French society displayed a high level of prot and cllecive violence fr most of the past centry (Til tal. 1975, hap. 2), Food nots and sna Confts were widespread inthe mid-180os, and industrial confit devel. (ped during the second haf of the century and the ely 19003. A all 0 the barricades sie the hears of many French izes, coaribuing this torical high levels of unconventional poiical activi. In che words of ‘one exper, profes in Franc 3 national way of ie oes and collective lave action oecuted on a moe limited sae in °