Saptarshi

Implementation of Base Station Coordinated Dynamic
Scheduling Algorithm in Hardware Test

Bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface) to Mitigate Interference
in Downlink
Thesis submitted to
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
for the award of the degree
of
Master of Technology
in
Telecommunication Systems Engineering
by
Saptarshi Ray
11EC64R14
under the guidance of
Dr. Suvra Sekhar Das
Department of Electronics and Electrical Communication

Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Kharagpur-721302, West Bengal, India
April, 2013
Implementation of Base Station Coordinated Dynamic
Scheduling Algorithm in Hardware Test
Bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface) to Mitigate Interference
in Downlink
Saptarshi Ray
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur
Certificate
This is to certify that the M.Tech thesis titled Implementation of Base Station Coordinated
Dynamic Scheduling Algorithm in Hardware Test Bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface) to Mit-
igate Interference in Downlink submitted by Saptarshi Ray (11EC64R14) to the Depart-
ment of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur, India, during the academic session 2012-2013 for the award of the postgraduate
degree of Master of Technology (M.Tech.) in Telecommunication Systems Engineering, is a
bonafide record of work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance. The the-
sis has fulfilled all the requirements as per the regulations of this institute and in my opinion
reached the standard for submission.
Dr. Suvra Sekhar Das

Asst. Professor
Department of Electronics & Electrical Com-
munication Engineering,
Place: I.I.T. Kharagpur Indian Institute of Technology - Kharagpur,
Date: April 2013 Kharagpur, India-721302.
i
Declaration
I, Saptarshi Ray, declare that the M.Tech thesis titled, Implementation of Base Station
Coordinated Dynamic Scheduling Algorithm in Hardware Test Bed(Matlab-Hardware In-
terface) to Mitigate Interference in Downlink and the work presented in it are my own. I
confirm that:
The work contained in this thesis is original and has been done by me under the guidance
of my supervisor.
The work has not been submitted to any other Institute for any degree or diploma.
I have followed the guidelines provided by the Institute in preparing the thesis.
Whenever I have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, figures, and text) from other
sources, I have given due credit to them by citing them in the text of the thesis and giving
their details in the references.
Saptarshi Ray
i
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my project supervisor Dr. Suvra
Sekhar Das for his invaluable guidance, continual encouragement and for giving me the free-
dom to carry out work in my areas of interest. I sincerely thank him for his cooperation and
support in both academic and other aspects throughout the year.
I am also thankful to all faculty members, staff and administration of E&ECE department and
G.S.Sanyal School of Telecommunications for their kind co-operation in all spheres during my
project and course work.
I take this opportunity to express my indebtedness to my family, who have been a constant
source of inspiration, support and strength in every walk of my life.
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to all my friends here at IIT Kharagpur, specially
Mainak Sen, Arnab Dey, Navin Menon, Bigi Varghese Philip, Dumpala Karthik, Yogita P. Nir-
male, Meenu Tyagi and Prachi Agarwal, who have being constant sources of help, motivation
and support in both academic and non-academic activities.
I sincerely thank Priyabrata Parida and Prabhu Chandar,M.S and Ph.D students respectively at
GSSST, for their guidance on Coordinated scheduling and Sandip Das, Sabarinath Srinivasan
and Avishek Chatterjee, M.S student, ex-SPO and JPO respectively at G.S.Sanyal School of
Telecommunications, for their help in implementing some the algorithms developed in the
hardware test-bed.
I express my gratitude towards all those unseen and unknown people associated with Internet,
IEEE,Wikipedia who have helped me with the study material for my project work.
Saptarshi Ray
ii
Dedicated to My Family
iii
Abstract
Broadband wireless access networks (Fourth Generation(4G) and onwards, including Mobile
WiMAX and Long Term Evolution (LTE)) that require employment of dense range of spectrum
are based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and orthogonal frequency
division multiple access (OFDMA). Link Adaptation techniques exploit the variations in the
channel to maintain good throughput. Multi-user diversity benefit is utilised by employing
proper Radio Resource Allocation schemes. The dense reuse of frequency results in high inter-
cell interference making proper Interference Management a key issue in designing such sys-
tems. Interference Management is done through Coordinated Scheduling.
The project deals with developing a setup in Hardware test-bed(Matlab-Hardware inter-
face) which allows evaluation of the algorithms developed for over-the-air channel transmis-
sion. A two-level dynamic scheduling scheme for transmission in downlink was implemented
and analysed in which the users being serviced by different base stations are allocated re-
sources so as to ensure reasonably high performance in terms of data-rate and bit error rate
while maintaining a certain amount of fairness among them in terms of resource allocation.
The main advantage of the test-bed is evaluation of the algorithms developed for over-the-air
channel transmission. The aim was to maintain the parameters as close as possible to Long
Term Evolution(LTE) specified standards,though some parameters have been relaxed in the
setup developed due to practical issues in implementing them.
To implement the scheme, the entire setup was developed in the hardware test-bed starting
with a OFDM-based transmitter-receiver chain. Link Adaptation(time-domain and frequency-
domain) was implemented in this system to improve throughput while maintaining the bit
error rate performance within tolerable limits.
A cell consisting of a base station and the user equipments (UEs) being serviced was im-
plemented next, with resources being divided using three Radio Resource Allocation (RRA)
algorithms. The RRA schemes utilised the channel condition experienced by each user for allo-
cating resources to them. The rate at which data was transmitted to each user over its allocated
resources was influenced by the Link Adaptation algorithms.
To implement the Base Station Coordinated Dynamic Scheduling algorithms, the afore-
mentioned cells were used. The resources were divided among the different cells by a central-
ized scheduler using some coordination algorithms. The base station in the individual cells
iv
could allocate the resources allocated to it among the user equipments being serviced by it by
some suitable RRA technique. The proposed scheme necessarily is a two-level algorithm-one
at the base station level and the other at the centralized scheduler level.
Key Words: Interference Management, Hardware test-bed, Link Adaptation, Radio Resource
Allocation, Coordinated Scheduling
v
List of Abbreviations
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
1G First Generation
2G Second Generation
3G Third Generation
4G Fourth Generation
AMC Adaptive Modulation and Coding
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
BER Bit Error Rate
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function
CP Cyclic Prefix
CQI Channel Quality Indicator
DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
EPC Evolved Packet Core
EPS Evolved Packet System
E-UTRAN Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
EV-DO Evolution-Data Optimized
FEC Forward Error Correction
FFR Fractional Frequency Reuse
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
ICI Inter Cell Interference
ITU International Telecommunication Union
ISI Inter Symbol Interference
ISM Industrial,Scientific and Medical
KPI Key Performance Indicator
LoS Line of Sight
LTE Long Term Evolution
LTE-A Long Term evolution Advanced
MME Mobility Management Entity
MRC Maximal Ratio Combining
vi
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
PDN-GW Packet Data Network Gateway
PF Proportional Fair
QoS Quality of Service
RE Resource Element
RR Round Robin
RRA Radio Resource Allocation
RRM Radio Resource Management
SAE System Architecture Evolution
SFN Single Frequency Networks
S-GW Serving Gateway
SINR Signal to Interference plus Noise Ratio
SISO Single-Input and Single-Output
SNR Signal to Noise ratio
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
UE User Equipment
TTI Transmit Time Interval
WARP Wireless Open-Access Research Platform
vii
Contents
Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Goal and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 List of Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Organisation of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 System Model and Hardware Test-bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface) Design 8

2.1 OFDM and OFDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 OFDMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 A Brief Overview of LTE(A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Key Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Key Technologies and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Architectural Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.4 OFDMA and LTE(A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.5 Frame Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Introduction to Hardware Test-bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 WARP FPGA Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 WARPLab:Hardware test-bed framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Overview of System Model Implemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 Model of the System Implemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Block Diagram of Transmitter and Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 System Parameters Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Practical Issues of the Hardware Test-bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 Link Adaptation 26
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
viii
CONTENTS
3.3.1 Time Domain Link Adaptataion(TDLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.3.2 Frequency Domain Link Adaptation(FDLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4.1 BER Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4.2 Data-rate Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5 Analysis and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4 Radio Resource Allocation 35

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.1 Radio Resource Scheduler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.2 RRA Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.1 Round Robin: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.2 Max C/I: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.3 Proportional Fair: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4.3 Allocation Fairness Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5 Co-ordinated Scheduling 46
5.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1.1 Scheduling Architectures: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.1 Random Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.2 Static Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.3 Dynamic Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6 Scope of Future Work 56
Bibliography 58
ix
List of Figures
2.1 The spectrum of an OFDM signal consisting of four orthogonal subcarriers (shown
over the duration of one OFDM symbol) [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 OFDM Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Overview of LTE Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 LTE(A) Time-Frequency Resource Structure (Extended CP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 WARP FPGA Board [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 WARPLab Setup [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Logical representation of the system implemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Physical view of the system implemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Block Diagram of the Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.10 Block Diagram of the Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.11 Variation of Avg SNR with Tx. RF Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1 Difference between TDLA and FDLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.2 Logical representation of TDLA algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 Logical representation of FDLA algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 CDF Plot Comparison between TDLA and FDLA (BER Performance) . . . . . . . 33
3.5 CDF Plot Comparison between TDLA and FDLA (Data-rate Performance) . . . . 33
4.1 Overview of the eNodeB user plane and control plane protocol architecture [3] . 36
4.2 Generic view of Radio Resource Scheduler [4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3 Comparison of working of a Round Robin and Max C/I Scheduler . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 CDF Plot Comparison of BER Performance of different RRA Schemes . . . . . . . 43
4.5 CDF Plot Comparison of Data-rate Performance of different RRA Schemes . . . . 43
4.6 CDF Plot Comparison of Allocation Fairness Metric of different RRA Schemes . . 44
5.1 Logical representation of Centralised Scheduling Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.2 Logical representation of Distributed Scheduling Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 Logical representation of Hybrid Scheduling Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.4 CDF plot comparison of Data-rate performances of all two-level Scheduling Al-
gorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.5 CDF plot comparison of Data-rate performances of all Centralised Scheduling
Algorithms with reference to same RRA algorithm(RR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.6 CDF plot comparison of Data-rate performances of all RRA Algorithms with
reference to same Centralised Scheduler algorithm(Dynamic Scheduling) . . . . 52
5.7 CDF plot comparison of BER performances of all two-level Scheduling Algorithms 52
5.8 CDF plot comparison of BER performances of all Centralised Scheduling Algo-
rithms with reference to same RRA algorithm(RR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
x
LIST OF FIGURES
5.9 CDF plot comparison of BER performances of all RRA Algorithms with refer-
ence to same Centralised Scheduler algorithm(Dynamic Scheduling) . . . . . . . 53
xi
List of Tables
2.1 Performance comparision of various 3GPP technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Number of PRBs available at different Bandwidths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 System Parameters Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1 Performance Comparison of different Link Adaptation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1 Performance Comparison of different RRA Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.1 Performance Comparison of different two-level Scheduling schemes . . . . . . . 54
xii
Introduction
1
1.1 Background
As mobile wireless systems around the world evolve to those that can support increased
throughputs, the underlying technology is changing from ones based on direct sequence spread
spectrum(DSSS) to ones based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing(OFDM) and
orthogonal frequency division multiple access(OFDMA). Third-generation(3G) systems are
based mostly on direct sequence spread spectrum(DSSS) techniques, such as Evolution-Data
Optimized(EV-DO) and High Speed Packet Access(HSPA). Most fourth-generation(4G) sys-
tems use OFDM and OFDMA, including Mobile WiMAX and Long Term Evolution(LTE). [3]
One primary reason for such a shift is that OFDM offers some intrinsic advantages in deliv-
ering high-speed data, especially over a multipath, frequency-selective fading channel, which
is common for urban macro-cellular environments. OFDM has an inherent ability to combat
inter-symbol interference(ISI) resulting from frequency selective fading because of the orthog-
onality of the subcarriers used. [1] An extremely advantageous feature of OFDM and OFDMA
based systems is their capability of exploiting the so-called network/multiuser diversity by
avoiding the null traffic channels(due to deep fading and narrowband interference). Since
different users perceive different channel qualities, a null traffic channel for one user may still
be favourable to other users. Thus,judicious radio resource allocation schemes can play a very
important role in optimizing the performance of OFDM-based systems. [5]
This project deals in implementing a two-level algorithm of Base Station coordination in
Hardware test-bed to mitigate interference in downlink. The parameters maintained while
setting up the test-bed were kept as close as possible to LTE-specific standards.
1
Introduction
1.2 Motivation
OFDM and OFDMA based systems offer flexibilty in Radio Resource Allocation granularity as
each sub-carrier can be allocated, modulated, and coded adaptively to exploit frequency diver-
sity gains. In order to meet the high target data-rates in these fourth-generation(4G) and be-
yond cellular systems (including LTE,LTE-Advanced and Wi-MAX), dense reuse of frequency
is required with the obvious pitfall of high inter-cell interference. Therefore, in order to realize
full potential of the OFDMA in a dense reuse environment,employing appropriate interfer-
ence mitigation techniques is essential. [6] Existing single cell Packet scheduling strategies for
OFDMA networks are based on utility function that maximises system throughput and main-
tains fairness among the users. However, in multi-cell scenario fairness between the users in
the entire network can not be obtained due to lack of coordination between interfereing cells.
To that end, interference mitigation in multi-cellular environment, has been identified as one of
the major issues currently being investigated by different standardization bodies and forums
focusing on forthcoming cellular systems.
Interference mitigation techniques are classified into three major categories: interference
cancellation through receiver processing, interference randomization by frequency hopping
and interference aviodance achieved by restrictions imposed in resource usage. Traditionally,
inter-cell interference mitigation by interference avoidance is handled by the classical clus-
tering technique. While this technique reduces the interference for the cell-edge user equip-
ments,it compromises system throughput due to resource partitioning. [7] Such partitioning
schemes were good enough for early networks focussing mainly on voice service (low data-
rate application). However, they are inapplicable to future systems meant to support high
data-rate applications. In recent times, the fractional frequency reuse(FFR) has been devised,
which is based on the fact that user equipments in the central region of a cell are more robust
against interference due to low path-loss and hence, can tolerate higher reuse compared to
those at the cell border suffering from high interference as well as higher path losses. There-
fore, it uses different degrees of reuse factor for user equipments in the cell-centre and cell-edge
areas. Most proposals on FFR rely on static or semi-static coordination among Base Stations:it
has been seen that such FFR schemes do not provide much gain as cell-edge throughput can
only be improved with severe penalty to cell throughput. [6] Dynamic coordination schemes,
do not require prior frequency planning and operate based on dynamic interference infor-
mation from surrounding transmitters. They are not only effective to avoid interference in
macrocell-macrocell scenario, but also from macrocells if applied to femtocell base stations.
2
Introduction
1.3 Goal and Scope

The goal of the project is to develop Interference Mitigation Techniques through Base Sta-
tion Cooperation in Next Generation Wireless Broadband Mobile Communications Networks
based on fourth generation (4G) and beyond cellular systems. The method includes devel-
oping a setup based on an interface between FPGA-based Hardware Board (Rice Universitys
Wireless Open-Access Research Platform (WARP) Board) and Matlab (WARPLab) that can also
be used to investigate various aspects of OFDM based systems. [2] The driving force behind
this undertaking has been the need for a real time platform wherein new algorithms, that could
earlier only be simulated, are subject to real time testing and analysis.
The setup will focus on Data Link Layer and Physical Layer and shall look forward to
realize the parameters set by LTE specifications [8]. The WARP Board is not designed specific
to the needs of LTE and hence at times it might not be able to meet the specifications exactly.
These deviations will be considered acceptable.
The project relies on communication between the board and an application running on a
computer. The various application shall be developed in MATLAB and shall be responsible for
sending/receiving data to/from the board. Processing done at layer higher than the Physical
Layer (especially,Data Link Layer) shall happen at this application. Since MATLAB provides a
number of tools for baseband processing, it provides an ideal interface to the FPGA Design.
The setup is to be developed at G. S. Sanyal School of Telecommunication, IIT Kharagpur
and shall provide an ideal support to the other LTE based projects here.
1.4 State of the Art

In this section, a brief review of literature done in the area of Coordinated scheduling is pre-
sented. The literature survey done in this area is broadly classified into three categories based
on the approach taken towards Coordinated scheduling:
1. Literature related to Centralized Scheduling Architecture
2. Literature related to Distributed Scheduling Architecture
3. Literature related to Hybrid Scheduling Architecture
1. Literature related to Centralized Scheduling Architecture
Xu Kai 2007 [9]
Proposed optimal and sub-optimal inter-cell scheduling strategies based on the coordi-
nated transmission from the interfering cells
3
Introduction
This paper extends the utility function based multi-user packet scheduling strategies de-
rived for single cell scenario to multi-cell scenario
Kyuho 2009 [10]
Authors have formulated utility maximization problem with network wide Proportional
Fair (PF) as an objective in a multi-cell network with Partial Frequency Reuse (PFR)
Proposed online algorithms are based on the inter/intra-handover and cell-site selection
in which a metric is changed from the signal strength to the average throughput.
Abrardo 2007 [11]
The objective is to minimise total transmit power considering uniform rate requirement
among all users.
The Key Performance Indicator (KPI) is total transmitted power per cell throughput.
The algorithm is very complex to implement in real world scenario
No differentiation between cell edge and cell centered users
Drop in total cell throughput
2. Literature related to Distributed Scheduling Architecture
Sergio 2011 [12]
The objective is to maximize the networks total throughput
Power constraint for each cell and Minimum average rate requirement for each user are
considered
Key Performance Indicators are total system throughput and fairness index
The centralized scheme is difficult to solve using optimization techniques
The Distributed scheme is semi-static
Fraimis 2011 [13]
The objective is to maximize the networks total throughput
Maximum power constraint is considered for each Base Station
Key Performance Indicators are cell edge users fairness index and data rates
The drop in total systems throughput has not been considered
4
Introduction
3. Literature related to Hybrid Scheduling Architecture
Li 2006 [5]
The objective is maximization of total system throughput
Key Performance Indicators are System utilization v/s traffic load and throughput v/s
dropping probability
Moretti 2011 [14]
The objective is maximization of total throughput
The constraint is satisfying the minimum rate requirements for all the users
Key Performance Indicators are average cell throughput and average end to end delay
The utility function can be improved even further
Fodor 2009 [15]
The objective is maximization of total system throughput
The constraint is that the number of resource blocks assigned to a user should lie in
between a maximum and minimum value
Key Performance Indicators are:for narrowband traffic, gain in 5% throughput and for
TCP/IP traffic:reduction in end-to-end delay
The performance of the proposed schemes are compared against naive no-ICIC (Inter-cell
Interference Coordination) schemes.
1.5 Problem Statement

The main objective of the thesis is to develop a two-level Base Station Coordinated Dynamic
Scheduling algorithm in Hardware test-bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface) to mitigate interfer-
ence in the Downlink. To develop this scheme,the thesis was broken down into the following
objectives:
1. Developing an OFDM-based transmitter-receiver chain in Hardware test-bed (Matlab-

Hardware interface).
5
Introduction
2. Implementing time-domain link adaptation (TDLA) and frequency-domain link adapta-

tion (FDLA) in an OFDM-based system in Hardware test-bed (Matlab-Hardware Inter-
face) and analysing their performances in terms of their data-rate and BER performance.
3. Implementing three radio resource allocation (RRA) algorithms:Round Robin(RR),Max

C/I and Proportional Fair(PF) in an OFDMA-based multi-user system in Hardware test-
bed (Matlab-Hardware Interface) and analysing their performances in terms of their
data-rate, bit error rate and allocation fairness performance.
4. Implementing a two-level Base Station Coordinated Dynamic Scheduling algorithm for a

multi-cellular environment in Hardware test-bed (Matlab-Hardware Interface) and analysing
its performance in comparison with static and random scheduling algorithms.
The FPGA-based hardware used was Rice Universitys Wireless Open-Access Research Plat-
form (WARP) Board, which was programmed via the WARP Lab software (a Matlab frame-
work). This board was operated in the 2.4GHz ISM band and had a bandwidthh of 40 MHz. [2]
1.6 List of Contributions

An OFDM-based setup was developed in the Hardware test-bed consisting of Transmitter-
Receiver chain with 1 Tx.-1 Rx.
Link Adaptation(time-domain and frequency-domain) was implemented in the Transmitter-

Receiver chain to improve throughput of the system while maintaining the BER within
tolerable limits and the performances of the two schemes were analysed in terms of data-
rate and bit error rate performance.Parameters noted were 10% outage and mean values.
A Cell consisting of a Base Station and two user equipments(UEs) being serviced by
it, was implemented in the Hardware test-bed, with resources being dynamically di-
vided among the user equipments using three Radio Resource Allocation(RRA) algo-
rithms:Round Robin, Max C/I and Proportional Fair, based on the the bit error rate(BER)
performance or channel condition indicated by Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) for each
user. The information data rate used for each user over its allocated resources was de-
termined using Link Adaptation algorithms. Their performances were also analysed in
terms of the data-rate, bit error rate and allocation fairness of the system.
Two-level Base Station Coordinated Dynamic Scheduling algorithms were implemented

in two of the Cells developed in the Hardware test-bed, each cell having 1 Tx. and 2
Rx. The resources were first divided among the different cells by a Centralized Sched-
uler (first level of scheduler) using three algorithms:static allocation,random allocation
and dynamic allocation. The Base Stations(second level of scheduler) in the individual
6
Introduction
cells then allocated the resources that had been allocated to it among the user equip-
ments being serviced by it by some suitable Radio Resource Allocation technique. Link
Adaptation was been done in individual links to maximize throughput while maintain-
ing acceptable bit error rates.
1.7 Organisation of the Thesis

The rest of the thesis is organized as follows:
Chapter 2: Overview of the System model and Hardware test-bed design.
Chapter 3: Theoritical backdrop of Link Adaptation, implementation details, perfor-

mance evaluation and conclusions.
Chapter 4: Theoritical backdrop of Radio Resource Allocation, implementation details,

performance evaluation and conclusions.
Chapter 5: Theoritical backdrop of Coordinated Scheduling, implementation details, per-

formance evaluation and conclusions.
Chapter 6: Possible scope of future work and enhancements.
7
System Model and Hardware
2
Test-bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface)
Design
2.1 OFDM and OFDMA
2.1.1 OFDM
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a method of multiplexing by which

a high data-rate stream is broken down into a number of low data-rate streams which are
then simultaneously transmitted over multiple sub-carriers at the same time, and data sent
over different subcarriers are sent in such a way that they do not interfere with each other in
frequency. [1]
Figure 2.1: The spectrum of an OFDM signal consisting of four orthogonal subcarriers (shown over the
duration of one OFDM symbol) [1]
8
System Model and Hardware Test-bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface) Design
To generate the subcarriers, OFDM uses a mathematical technique called Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT). The subcarriers so generated do not need additional guard bands and can be
placed closer together in the frequency domain. The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other
over the duration of an OFDM symbol. This has been shown in Fig. 2.1. Also, DFT and its
inverse(IDFT) can be efficiently computed, eliminating the need for separate RF components
for separate subcarriers. This makes implementation of OFDM easier and more efficient.
Fig. 2.2 shows a simplified OFDM transmitter. The high data-rate stream of data symbols
is still running at a rate of Rs sps, and each data symbol lasts 1/Rs s. This high data-rate
stream of data symbols consists of blocks of complex data symbols, and each block contains K
complex data symbols. Since K subcarriers are to be generated, the serial-to-parallel converter
converts the high data-rate stream into K separate low data-rate substreams; each low data-
rate substream has a rate of Rs /K sps. In doing so, the serial-to-parallel converter assigns
successive data symbols (at its input) to K separate substreams (at its outputs). So at any given
time at the output of the serial-to-parallel converter, there is a set of K data symbols in parallel.
Figure 2.2: OFDM Transmitter
The set of K data symbols in parallel at the output of the serial-to-parallel converter pass
through the IDFT function, which transforms the K data symbols from frequency to time do-
main. After IDFT, the K transformed symbols in the K substreams then pass through the
parallel-to-serial converter that puts the K transformed symbols in series. This block of K
transformed symbols in series constitutes an OFDM symbol. Successive OFDM symbols at the
output of the parallel-to-serial converter are running at a rate of Rs /K OFDM symbols per sec-
ond, and each OFDM symbol lasts K/Rs s.It is to be noted that in OFDM, all the K subcarriers
in an OFDM symbol are assigned to only one user. In other words, only one user transmits in
an OFDM symbol. [1]
9
Advantages and Disadvantages of OFDM
Advantages
1. Robust against Intersymbol Interference(ISI)and Multipath Fading

2. Modulation and Coding can be adjusted for each subcarrier
3. Simple Equalization
4. Low complexity modulation with the help of digital IDFT function
5. Higher spectral efficiency because guard bands are not neeed between adjacent sub-
carriers
Disadvantage
1. Strict Synchronization Requirement

2. Large Peak-to-Average Power Ratio(PAPR) due to sub-carrier adds up coherently
so implementation of DAC and ADC is difficult
2.1.2 OFDMA
Whereas OFDM assigns one OFDM symbol (in time) to one user, OFDMA is a multiple-access
method that assigns different groups of subcarriers of the same OFDM symbol to different
users. This way, more than one user can access the air interface at the same time. If mul-
tiple users want to transmit using OFDM, then those users have to take their turns in time.
In OFDMA, instead of sequentially assigning OFDM symbols in time to different users, the
system directly assigns subcarriers in frequency to different users. There are two ways to as-
sign users data symbols to subcarriers: distributed and contiguous. In a distributed subcarriers
assignment, subcarriers are assigned pseudorandomly to users. In a contiguous subcarriers as-
signment, subcarriers are assigned to users in continuous sets.
Advantages of OFDMA
Other than providing all the advantages associated with OFDM, OFDMA affords two further
advantages:
1. Frequency Diversity: This is utilised through distributed subcarrier allocation for a sin-
gle user. Distributing a users subcarriers pseudorandomly in frequency in a frequency
selective channel would mean that some of the users subcarriers would not experience
fades while some others likely would
2. Multiuser Diversity: This is utilised through contiguous subcarrier allocation for a sin-
gle user. Multiuser diversity occurs because different users at different locations would
likely experience different channel conditions, thus the system can improve a particu-
lar users link condition by assigning to that user a set of contiguous subcarriers that
experience the best channel condition.
10
2.2 A Brief Overview of LTE(A)

2.2.1 Key Targets
The 3GPP Release 8 standardized the targets for LTE and 3GPP Release 10 gives the targets for
the next phase of LTE called LTE-Advanced (LTE-A). Some of them include: [16]
Increased data rates to the users
Supporting higher mobility in users
Improvement in spectral efficiency or effective bandwidth utilization
Improvment in cell-edge user throughput
Flatter all IP based network architecture, making it simpler
Backward compatability with earlier 3GPP and non-3GPP technologies and support for
mobility between differnt radio access technologies
Ability to support scalable bandwidth usage and spectrum aggregation where non-contiguous
spectrum needs to be used.
Reduced latency in both connection establishment and transmission
Reduction in mobile terminals power consumption
End to End QoS provisioning for supporting various real time and interactive applica-
tions
Table 2.1 gives the targets for LTE(A) comparing them with that of LTE, 3G and its next ver-
sions.
Table 2.1: Performance comparision of various 3GPP technologies
WCDMA HSPA HSPA LTE LTE(A)

Max Downlink Speed(bps) 284k 14M 28M 100M 1G
Max Uplink Speed(bps) 128k 5.7M 11M 50M 500M
Latency(msec) 150 100 50 10 <5
3GPP Release Rel 99/4 Rel 5/6 Rel 7 Rel 8 Rel 10
Access Methodology CDMA CDMA CDMA OFDMA/ OFDMA/
SC-FDMA SC-FDMA
11
2.2.2 Key Technologies and Techniques
Some of the key technologies and techniques used in LTE and LTE(A) air interface, which help
in meeting the targets mentioned above are -
Multicarrier Technology: OFDMA is used in downlink and SC-FDMA is used in up-

link. This gives the freedom to allocate variable bandwidth to different users and OFDM
provides robustness to frequency-selective radio channels.
Multiple Antenna Technology: Multiple Antennas help in exploiting spatial diversity

for improved performance. Diversity gain, Array gain and Spatial Multiplexing gain are
various benefits from using multiple antennas.
Link Adaptation:Modes of fast channel reporting and link adaptation of modulation and
coding rate to adapt to varying channel conditions.
Efficient Scheduling:Flexibility in time and frequency domains to schedule users de-

pending on their instantaneous channel conditions.
SAE (System Architecture Evolution): With the very high data rate and low latency
requirements for LTE and LTE(A), it is necessary to evolve the system architecture to
enable the improved performance to be achieved. One change is that a number of the
functions previously handled by the core network have been transferred out to the pe-
riphery. In this way latency times can be reduced and data can be routed more directly
to its destination.
2.2.3 Architectural Overview
The network elements can be grouped broadly into two categories: the core network and the
access network. LTE(A) is the evolution of radio access technology towards E-UTRAN. On
the other hand, the evolution of core network towards Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is known
as System Architecture Evolution (SAE). The combination of E-UTRAN and EPC is referred
to as Evolved Packet System (EPS). E-UTRAN takes care of radio access related functions, the
core network routes the messages to external networks and UE acts as an interface between the
users and the radio interface. Fig. 2.3 gives an abstract view of the LTE(A) architecture. [3, 4]
12
Figure 2.3: Overview of LTE Architecture
E-UTRAN, which consists of eNodeB, is responsible for radio resource management, call
admission, user mobility, scheduling and allocation of resources to users in uplink and
downlink.
Serving Gateway (S-GW): The S-GW, located physically at the operators premises,
routes and forwards user data packets and during mobility between eNBs, it also acts
as the local mobility anchor.
Packet Data Network Gateway (PDN-GW): The PDN-GW, also located at the opera-
tors premises, is the edge router between the EPS and external packet data networks.
It allocates the Internet Protocol (IP) address to the UEs and also performs service level
charging, QoS and rate enforcement and packet filtering for each user.
Mobility Management Entity (MME): The MME handles control plane functionalities
like authenticating the UEs, idle mode UE monitoring, bearer management, Non-Access
Stratum (NAS) signaling, S-GW and PDN-GW selection for the UEs.
2.2.4 OFDMA and LTE(A)
LTE(A) employs OFDMA for downlink. OFDMA is a special variant of FDMA with the car-
riers orthogonal to each other. Since, the carriers are orthogonal to each other, it saves on
bandwidth. The entire bandwidth is divided into narrow sub-bands such that the channel
is flat in each sub-band i.e. the channel impulse response is less than symbol duration. So,
simple one tap filters can be used for equilization. A sub-carrier spacing of 15kHz is used in
13
LTE. Groups of sub-carriers are allocated to users, and depending on channel conditions, the
modulation scheme used for modulating the sub-carriers can be switched between QPSK, 16
QAM, 64 QAM. A cost effective OFDM implementation is done using Fast Fourier Transform.
2.2.5 Frame Structure
The LTE(A) air interface is based on a frame structure and the concept of Subframes, Slots and
Resource Blocks.
Figure 2.4: LTE(A) Time-Frequency Resource Structure (Extended CP)
Fig. 2.4 gives the LTE(A) Time-Frequency Resource Structure. The LTE frame is 10 msec
long and is divided into sub-frames of 1 msec. The sub-frame duration is called Transmit Time
Interval (TTI) and typically scheduling of users is done every TTI. Each sub-frame consists of
14 OFDM symbols when normal Cyclic-Prefix (CP) is used or 12 OFDM symbols when Ex-
tended Cyclic-Prefix (CP) is used. Adjacent 12 subcarriers (consisting 180kHz bandwidth) are
grouped into one unit in frequency domain. 12 such subcarriers for a duration of 1 msec (TTI)
constitutes one Physical Resource Block(PRB). Resource allocation is done to users in integral
multiple of PRBs. One subcarrier for a duration of one OFDM symbol is called Resource El-
ement (RE). In a PRB, some REs carry the actual data to be sent to a user and some REs are
14
reserved for special purposes like synchronization signals, reference signals, control signaling
and critical broadcast system information. Out of the 14 OFDM symbols in a PRB, 11 are used
for data and 3 for control purposes. [17]
LTE(A) can operate at different Bandwidths and the number of PRBs available in the system
depends directly on the Bandwidth of operation. Table 2.2 summarizes the number of PRBs
available at different Bandwidths of operation.
Table 2.2: Number of PRBs available at different Bandwidths
Transmission BW (MHz) 1.4 3 5 10 15 20

Effective BW (MHz) 1.08 2.70 4.5 9 13.5 18
Number of PRBs Available 6 15 25 50 75 100
2.3 Introduction to Hardware Test-bed
2.3.1 WARP FPGA Board
Figure 2.5: WARP FPGA Board [2]
Rice Universitys Wireless Open-Access Research Platform (WARP) is described as a scalable

and extensible programmable wireless platform, built up from the scratch, for the advance pro-
totype wireless networks. In addition, WARP can be expressed in brief as a C programmable
interrupt driven embedded system. The ongoing research and development of WARP by Rice
University and several research industries also working on WARP (Ericsson Research, Xilinx,
15
Nokia Siemens Networks, and Motorola Research) also invovled work by the research uni-
versities ( University of California, San Diego; University of California, Irvine; WINLAB at
Rutgers University) who were also using the WARP test platform. The WARP project has two
important goals. The first one is in relation to open-access research, since so far the commer-
cial chipsets based on the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard had been locked. It thus enabled the
WARP hardware and software, required for the research into the next generation of wireless
networks to be used. The open-access research involved a community of researchers who pool
their different aspects so as to create new prototype wireless networks.The second goal was to
place the wireless in wireless curriculams, which means that both academics and research
students would be able to perform hands-on wireless real time (WARP Workshop) and non-
real time (WARPLab) communications. [2]
Instead of microcontrollers, the WARP test node platform used Xilinxs Virtex IV Pro FPGA
for processing and storage. The FPGA WARP board supports up to four daughtercard slots.
The FPGA board specifications can be described as a 4 Mbytes onboard SRAM as the instruc-
tions and/or data memory. [18]
The radio boards are using a WARP board Maxims Single/Dual-Band 802.11 a/b/g World-
Band Transceiver chipset. The operating frequencies of the radio board can be set to operate at
either 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz with 40 MHz of bandwidth. The antennas used with the Radio Cards
are omnidirectional.
2.3.2 WARPLab:Hardware test-bed framework
WARPLab is a framework which brings together WARP Board and MATLAB. With WARPLab,
one can interact with the radio ports in the WARP boards directly from the MATLAB workspace
and signals generated in MATLAB can be transmitted in real-time over the air using WARP ra-
dio ports.
The design flow for WARPLab physical layer is as follows: [2]
Samples (real and complex values) to be transmitted are created in MATLAB the as part
of the custom PHY.
Buffers in the WARP nodes assigned to transmitters are filled by downloading samples
to be transmitted.
Trigger is sent to transmitter and receiver nodes. Upon reception of this trigger, samples
are transmitted over-the-air and captured in real-time.
Captured samples from the receiver nodes are read to the MATLAB workspace.
Received samples are processed offline in MATLAB
16
Figure 2.6: WARPLab Setup [2]
WARPLab Specifications
1. Transmitter/Receiver I/Q Buffers:

There are independent I/Q buffers for transmitter and receiver. Maximum storing ca-
pacity of each buffer is 214 samples. From transmitter buffer and receiver buffer, samples
are read and written at 40MHz frequency.
2. Transmit signal Requirements:

It is necessary condition that both the amplitude of real part(Inphase component I) and
imaginary part(Quadrature component Q) should be in [-1 1]. Sampling frequency for
signal to be transmitted is 40MHz. Lowest frequency of transmit signal is 30KHz, while
highest frequency varies based on transmitter-receiver low pass filter(LPF) corner filter
settings, these settings are as given below:
Transmitter LPF corner frequency settings:

Mode 0: Undefined
Mode 1: 12 MHz (Nominal Mode)
Mode 2: 18 MHz (Turbo Mode 1)
Receiver LPF corner frequency settings:
Mode 0: 7.5 MHz
Mode 1: 9.5 MHz (Nominal Mode)
By default, Tx and Rx LPF are set to nominal mode.
3. I/Q ADC/DAC:
Both I/Q ADC and DAC are always clocked at 40MHz. Fixed Point 16 15 representation
is used for DAC I/Q input signal while Fixed Point 14 13 representation is used for ADC
I/Q output signal.
17
4. Transmitter/Receiver Amplfiers:
Tx Base Band (Tx BB), Tx RF, and Tx RF PA are the three amplifiers applied by transmit
path. The Tx RF PA is always fixed at 30 dB gain. The range of other two gains is the
following:
Tx BB: In [0, 3] applies 1.5 dB/step

Tx RF: In [0, 63] applies 0.5 dB/step
Rx Base Band (Rx BB) and Rx RF are the two amplifiers applied by receive path. The
range of these two gains is the following:
Rx BB: In [0, 31] applies 2 dB/step

Rx RF: In [1, 3] applies 15 dB/step
18
2.4 Overview of System Model Implemented

2.4.1 Model of the System Implemented
The Fig. 2.7 shows the logical representation of the OFDMA-based multi-cellular system being
implemented in the Hardware test-bed which will be used to implement and analyse the Dy-
namic Scheduling algorithm proposed. This system model has been implemented as a frame-
work and can also be utilised to implement and analyse the performance of other related algo-
rithms in the Physical and Data Link layers.
Figure 2.7: Logical representation of the system implemented
The setup consists of a computer running the Matlab code, two WARP Boards connected
to it, each of them simulating the downlink operations of a Cell with a transmitter and two
receivers (implemented by configuring one antenna as a transmitter and two antennas as re-
ceivers). The two Boards are connected to the computer via a Switch. According to specifica-
tions, atmost fifteen WARP Boards can be similarly connected to a computer using a switch,
each board identified by a different IP address. This setup can be extended to include more
number of Cells for further analysis. The Converter clock and Radio clock of the two boards
have been connected to produce the effect of hard synchronization. This removed the need
of implementing a synchronising algorithm to synchronise the clocks used in the boards. The
boards were made to operate in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. The Harware provided the option
of using 12 channels in this band,each of around 40 MHz bandwidth. The experiments were
mostly done using channel number 12. The effective subcarrier spacing was more than that
specified by LTE standards, though the number of Resource Elements in a Physical Resource
Block/TTI was maintained in accordance to LTE standards.
19
The Fig. 2.8 shows a snapshot of the physical implementation of the setup. The figure does
not faithfully represent the positioning of transmitters and receivers in a cell during imple-
menting and analysing the algorithms. Usually reflectors are placed in between them and the
surroundings to simulate the environment faced by User Equipments in a urban macro-cellular
environment more faithfully.
Figure 2.8: Physical view of the system implemented
20
2.4.2 Block Diagram of Transmitter and Receiver
Transmitter
Figure 2.9: Block Diagram of the Transmitter
The system shown in Fig. 2.9 shows the structure of an OFDM-based systems Transmitter.The
stream of information bits from one user are generated from a source image (used to generate
visual representation of received data quality) and are first fed into the scrambler.The scram-
bler XORs the data bits with a random sequence of 1s and 0s.It scrambles the bits so that a
casual eavesdropping receiver cannot easily intercept the data bits and any continuous runs
of 1s and 0s are avoided,which my cause some subcarriers to become unmodulated,or cause
synchronization problems.After data scrambling, the scrambled bits go into the FEC Encoder,
which uses an convolutional error-correcting code to add redundancy bits for error correc-
tion.The convolutional encoders generator sequences are as per LTE specifications.After FEC,
the coded bits are operated by the interleaver. The purpose of the interleaver is to ensure that
the coded bits become sufficiently separated in frequency space and constellation space.After
interleaving, the bits are organized into slots.The Symbol Mapper maps the (interleaved) bits to
data symbols based on the constellation used at the time (i.e., QPSK, 16-QAM, or 64-QAM).
Note that each data symbol (later carried by a corresponding subcarrier) can be a QPSK, 16-
QAM, or 64-QAM data symbol depending on the channel condition experienced by that sub-
carrier. The serial-to-parallel converter converts the serial stream of data symbols into parallel
streams. Then the data symbols go into the subcarrier mapper, which assigns the individual data
symbols to the individual subcarriers.The subcarrier mapper is necessary because all the sub-
carriers will not be utilised for sending useful data.and the null subcarriers include the guard
21
subcarriers(higher frequency subcarriers) and the DC subcarrier.The input to the K-point IFFT
block consists a total of K parallel symbols, including data symbols, and null symbols. The K-
point IFFT transforms data and null symbols from the frequency domain to the time domain.
The K transformed symbols, along with g cyclic prefix symbols, go into the parallel-to-serial
converter, which produces a serial output of transformed symbols in the time domain. At the
output of the parallel-to-serial converter, the block of K transformed symbols constitutes an
OFDM symbol, and the g CP symbols(obtained from the initial portion of the OFDM symbol)
constitute the cyclic prefix.The cyclic prefix has been considered to be one-fourth the length of
an OFDM symbol. The last two blocks, marked in bold (D-A Converter and RF Gain (Power
Amplifier)) are implemented in the FPGA itself, the rest are implemented in Matlab.
Receiver
Figure 2.10: Block Diagram of the Receiver
Fig. 2.10 shows the basic structure of the receiver. At the receiver, the reverse of the process
of Fig. 2.9 takes place. After the receiver antenna intercepts the signal over the radio chan-
nel, some processing is done in the FPGA level itself befor forwarding the baseband data to
Matlab for further processing. The blocks shown in bold represent the blocks implemented
in the FPGA itself. These include the RF Stage, Automatic Gain Control(AGC) block meant
for adjusting the signal strength depending on the Received Signal Strength Indicator(RSSI)
values,A-D Converter and the Clock and Packet Synchronising blocks. After receiving the
discrete time symbols at baseband from the FPGA,they are passed into the CP Removal Block
which removes the cyclic prefix symbols.Then they move into the serial-to-parallel converter,
22
which converts the serial stream of received symbols into parallel streams.The K symbols go
into the K-point FFT function. The K-point FFT function transforms the K symbols in the time
domain to the K data (and null) symbols in the frequency domain.The Channel Estimation and
Equalizer blocks(in each path corresponding to each subcarrier) takes the effects of the channel
out of each received data symbol and corrects the received data symbol.For the case of OFDM-
based systems,this process is largely simplified and Linear Equalization can be performed for
each subcarrier.
2.5 System Parameters Used

The parameters used for implementing the system is given in table 2.3
Table 2.3: System Parameters Used
Parameter Value
Number of OFDM symbols per TTI 12
FFT Size 1024
Number of useful subcarriers 600
Single side Guard Band 211
CP length 256
Modulation schemes QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM
Code rate 1/3, 1/2 and 2/3
WARP Board sample frequency 40 MHz
Transmission Band Channel 12 in 2.4GHz ISM Band
2.6 Practical Issues of the Hardware Test-bed

The WARPLab framework has thrown up some practical challenges while implementing algo-
rithms in it, some of the issues and how they have been dealt with are discussed below:
Adjusting Gains of the Transmitter and Receiver
The specifications state that Transmitter Baseband gain can be varied in the range [0 3],and
would produce 1.5 dB change/step and Transmitter RF gain can be varied in the range [0 63]
and would produce 0.5 dB change/step. Similarly Receiver Baseband gain could be varied
in the range [0 31],and would produce 2 dB change/step and Receiver RF gain can be varied
in the range [1 3] and would produce 15 dB change/step. But it was found that these values
considered a lot of approximations and would possibly work if the receiver was working in
some linear region of operation. Usually the receiver got saturated at a certain value of SNR
23
(Signal to Noise Ratio), and the performance would actually degrade with increase in any
further increase in Transmitter or Receiver gains after that.
As it can be seen from Fig. 2.11, showing plot of variation of average SNR(dB) with Tx. RF
gains (at a fixed Rx. BB gain) that for the setup considered (simple OFDM-based transmitter
and receiver placed at a distance of around 110 cm from each other with aluminium sheets
positioned between them to simulate non line-of-sight environment), with Rx. BB gain=1,
changing Tx. RF gain by 1 step is indeed changing SNR by roughly 0.5 dB, but only upto
around 10 dB SNR, then it saturates and the changes in SNR with change in Tx. RF gain be-
comes much less pronounced and the Receiver finally saturates at roughly 17 dB SNR. Increase
in Tx. RF gain beyound 50 dB is actually resulting in fall in SNR. Also, Higher the RF BB gain,
this sooner the saturation occurs with increase in Tx. RF gain. Due to strict time constraints,
this issue could not be persued further, but the optimal set of gains at a particular setup was
roughly estimated while performing experiments.
Figure 2.11: Variation of Avg SNR with Tx. RF Gains
Normalization of Transmitted Data
To compare the results generated in Hardware with that of theory, the data input to the IFFT
block was initially being normalized to unit energy. These included normalising data based
on their modulation scheme. But then, the inphase and quadrature component of data being
transmitted usually had absolute values less than 1. But according to WARPLab specifications,
the real and quadrature components could have a maximum absolute value of 1, and trasmit-
ting at less than that would result in under-utilization of available transmitter resources. So,
the transmitted datas were so scaled such that the maximum inphase and quadrature compo-
nents were scaled up to have absolute value of 1,and the other datas were scaled using the
same scaling index.
24
Very High BER for 64-QAM
The BER obtained while transmitting data using 64-QAM was vey high, and even using FEC
techniques was unable to bring that down to acceptable limits. This problem can be a result of
the low noise immunity of higher modulation schemes.
25
Link Adaptation
3
3.1 Introduction
The principle of Link Adaptation is very important for designing of a radio interface which is
efficient for packet-switched data traffic. Unlike the early versions of UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System), which used fast closed-loop power control to support circuit-
switched services with a roughly constant data rate, link adaptation in HSPA (High Speed
Packet Access) and fourth-generation(4G) systems like Mobile WiMAX and LTE (Long Term
Evolution) adjusts the transmitter information data rate (modulation scheme and channel cod-
ing rate) dynamically to match the prevailing radio channel for each user/Physical Resource
Block. [4]
3.2 Theory
In OFDM-based systems, the system puts data symbols across multiple subcarriers all over the
transmission band.At any given time some subcarriers experience fading but other subcarriers
do not experience it. For those subcarriers that experience fading, they can fall back to a more
robust modulation (e.g., BPSK or QPSK) and/or lower-rate error correction code (e.g., rate 1/3
convolutional code). Doing so increases the chance that data symbols will be received without
errors but reduces the effective bit rate. For those subcarriers that experience little fading, they
can take advantage of a more efficient modulation scheme (e.g.,16-QAM or 64-QAM) and/or
higher-rate error correction code (e.g., rate 3/4 convolutional code). Doing so increases the ef-
fective bit rate without sacrificing the error rate. By adapting modulation and coding for each
subcarrier, the system can achieve the best possible overall capacity and performance. This
forms the basis of Link Adaptation and is an intrinsic advantage of OFDM-based systems.
26
Link Adaptation
For the downlink data transmissions in LTE, the eNodeB typically selects the modulation
scheme and code rate depending on a prediction of the downlink channel conditions. An im-
portant input to this selection process is the Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) feedback trans-
mitted by the User Equipment (UE) in the uplink. CQI feedback is an indication of the data
rate which can be supported by the channel, taking into account the Signal-to-Interference
plus Noise Ratio (SINR) and the characteristics of the UEs receiver.In general, in response to
the CQI feedback the eNodeB can select between QPSK,16-QAM and 64-QAM schemes and a
wide range of code rates.the optimal switching points between the different combinations of
modulation order and code rate depend on a number of factors, including the required quality
of service(QoS) and cell throughput.For the uplink data transmissions,the link adaptation pro-
cess is similar to that for the downlink, with the selection of modulation and coding schemes
also being under the control of the eNodeB. An identical channel coding structure is used for
the uplink, while the modulation scheme may be selected between QPSK and 16QAM.The
main difference from the downlink is that instead of basing the link adaptation on CQI feed-
back, the eNodeB can directly make its own estimate of the supportable uplink data rate by
channel sounding.
In cellular communication systems, the quality of signal received by the UE (User Equipment)
depends on the channel quality from the serving cell, the level of interference from other cells,
and the noise level. To optimize system capacity and coverage for a given transmission power,
the transmitter should try to match the information data rate for each user to the variations in
the received signal quality. This is commonly referred to as Link Adaptation and is typically
based on Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC). [4]
The degrees of freedom for the AMC consist of Modulation and Coding schemes:
Modulation Scheme: Low-order modulation (i.e. few data bits per modulated symbol,
eg. QPSK) is more robust and can tolerate higher levels of interference but provides
a lower transmission bit-rate. Higher-order modulation (i.e. more bits per modulated
symbol, eg. 64-QAM) offers a higher bit-rate but is more prone to errors due to its higher
sensitivity to errors; it is therefore useful only when SINR (Signal to Interference and
Noise Ratio) is sufficiently high.
Code Rate: For a given Modulation, the code rate can be chosen depending on the Radio
Link Conditions: a lower code rate can be used in poor channel conditions and higher
code rate in the case of high SINR.
Link Adaptation algorithms can be divided into two types:
Time Domain Link Adaptation (TDLA):In TDLA, the Modulation and Channel Coding
rates are constant for all sub-carriers and time domain channel-dependent scheduling
and Adaptive Modulation and Coding supported instead. After certain time intervals
(depending on the coherence time period of the channel), new values of Modulation and
27
Link Adaptation
Code Rates are selected and maintained constant till the next instant of channel estima-
tion.
Frequency Domain Link Adaptation (FDLA):In FDLA, the Modulation and Coding
Schemes are different for different blocks of sub-carriers carrying one OFDM symbol (the
group of sub-carriers utilizing the same Modulation and Coding Scheme are referred to
as a Physical Resource Block (PRB)). The size of a PRB depends on the coherence band-
width of the channel concerned. The Modulation and Code Rates corresponding to each
PRB are updated periodically.In LTE,the size of a PRB consists of 12 consecutive subcarri-
ers(with 15 KHz sub-carrier spacing) and 12/14 OFDM symbols,occupying 1 sub-frame
spread over 1 microsecond.
Figure 3.1: Difference between TDLA and FDLA
28
Link Adaptation
3.3 Implementation
3.3.1 Time Domain Link Adaptataion(TDLA)
Figure 3.2: Logical representation of TDLA algorithm
Algorithm:
metric considered: ber(u,n-1)

metric to be updated: m(u,n)
for every TTI n
if ber(u,n-1) < L
if m(u,n) is not already allotted maximum value
m(u,n)=m(u,n)+1
else if ber(u,n-1) > H
if m(u,n) is not already allotted minimum value
m(u,n)=m(u,n)-1
end
end
where: n=time instant/TTI

u=user
m(u,n)=modulation and coding scheme index used by the user u at TTI n
29
Link Adaptation
Explanation:
The Fig.3.2 shows the logical representation of the TDLA algorithm and the algorithm above
presents the logical steps implemented. The stream of information bits from one user (rep-
resented by u) for a TTI (represented by n) are being transmitted over the channel us-
ing a certain modulation and coding scheme index (combination of a particular modulation
scheme and code rate:the higher the index,the higher the information data rate (represented
by m(u,n))). Data over all the resource elements use the same modulation and coding scheme.
The data bits pass through a scrambler, FEC Encoder, Interleaver, Modulator and are then di-
vided amongst multiple subcarriers via the IFFT operation. The Tx. RF Chain upconverts them
to radio signals transmitted over the channel. At the Receiver end, the exact reverse operations
are done, namely: downconversion by the Rx. RF chain, FFT, Demodulation, Deinterleaving
and FEC Decoding. After the FEC Decoding stage, the data obtained is the Receivers approx-
imation of the Transmitted data. The BER of the system over the last TTI can be obtained by
comparing the data received with the data transmitted. If this value of BER (represented by
ber(u,n-1)) is less than a certain lower threshold (represented by L ), then the transmission
data rate is increased (by increasing the modulation and coding scheme index by 1) if it is not
already at its maximum, or else if value of BER (represented by ber(u,n-1)) is greater than a
certain upper threshold (represented by H ), then the transmission data rate is decreased (by
decreasing the modulation and coding scheme index by 1) if it is not already at its minimum.
It is to be noted that the values of the two thresholds (represented by L and H ) are predeter-
mined and not getting updated. The values considered are H =1.25x102 and L =0.5x102 .
30
Link Adaptation
3.3.2 Frequency Domain Link Adaptation(FDLA)
Figure 3.3: Logical representation of FDLA algorithm
Algorithm:
metric considered: ber(u,n-1,k)

metric to be updated: m(u,n,k)
for every TTI n
for every PRB k

if ber(u,n-1,k) < L
if m(u,n,k) is not already allotted maximum value
m(u,n,k)=m(u,n,k)+1
else if ber(u,n-1,k) > H
if m(u,n,k) is not already allotted minimum value
m(u,n,k)=m(u,n,k)-1
end
end
end

k=PRB
u=user
m(u,n,k)=modulation and coding scheme index used by the user u at TTI n over
PRB k
31
Link Adaptation
Explanation:
The Fig.3.3 shows the logical representation of the FDLA algorithm and the algorithm above
presents the logical steps implemented. The stream of information bits from one user (rep-
resented by u) for a TTI (represented by n) over a certain PRB (represented by k) is being
transmitted over the channel using a certain modulation and coding scheme index(combination
of a particular modulation scheme and code rate:the higher the index,the higher the informa-
tion data rate (represented by m(u,n,k))). Data over different PRBs may be transmitted using
different modulation and coding scheme indexes for the same TTI. Data over all the resource
elements in the same PRB use the same modulation and coding scheme. The data bits pass
through a scrambler, FEC Encoder, Interleaver, Modulator and are then divided amongst mul-
tiple subcarriers via the IFFT operation. The Tx. RF Chain upconverts them to radio signals
transmitted over the channel. At the Receiver end, the exact reverse operations are done,
namely: downconversion by the Rx. RF chain, FFT, Demodulation, Deinterleaving and FEC
Decoding. After the FEC Decoding stage, the data obtained is the Receivers approximation of
the Transmitted data. The BER of the system for each PRB over the last TTI can be obtained
by comparing the data received with the data transmitted. If this value of BER for each PRB
(represented by ber(u,n-1)) is less than a certain lower threshold (represented by L ), then the
transmission data rate is increased (by increasing the modulation and coding scheme index by
1) if it is not already at its maximum, or else if value of BER (represented by ber(u,n-1,k)) is
greater than a certain upper threshold (represented by H ), then the transmission data rate is
decreased (by decreasing the modulation and coding scheme index by 1) if it is not already at
its minimum. It is to be noted that the values of the two thresholds (represented by L and
H ) are predetermined and not getting updated. The values considered are H =1.25x102 and
L =0.5x102
32
Link Adaptation
3.4 Results
3.4.1 BER Performance Comparison
CDF Plot Comparisons between TDLA and FDLA (BER performance)

1
0.8
0.6
CDF >
0.4
0.2
FDLA (mean=8.34e2)
TDLA (mean=10.63e2)
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
BER >
Figure 3.4: CDF Plot Comparison between TDLA and FDLA (BER Performance)
3.4.2 Data-rate Performance Comparison
CDF Plot Comparisons between TDLA and FDLA (Datarate performance)

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 TDLA (mean=1.187e4)

FDLA (mean=1.334e4)
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Data rate (kbps) 4
x 10
Figure 3.5: CDF Plot Comparison between TDLA and FDLA (Data-rate Performance)
33
Link Adaptation
Table 3.1: Performance Comparison of different Link Adaptation Schemes
Parameters Mean Value 10 (%) Outage

BER(TDLA) 10.63x102 27.55x102
BER(FDLA) 8.34x102 11.47x102
Datarate(Mbps)(TDLA) 11.87 6.12
Datarate(Mbps)(FDLA) 13.34 12.86
3.5 Analysis and Conclusions

Fig.3.4 above shows the CDF plot comparison of BER performances of TDLA and FDLA, and
Fig.3.5 above shows the CDF plot comparison of Data-rate performances of TDLA and FDLA.
Table 3.1 tabulates the major performance metrices to compare the two schemes. From them
and implementation details, we can draw the following conclusions:
FDLA provides higher mean and 10% Outage data-rate than TDLA
FDLA provides lower mean and 10% Outage BER than TDLA
Implementing FDLA is more complex compared to TDLA, but it yields better perfor-
mances in terms of both throughput(indicated by datarate) and BER
The amount of control data being utilized for FDLA is more than TDLA
34
Radio Resource Allocation
4
4.1 Introduction
Radio resource management (RRM) is the system level control of co-channel interference and
other radio transmission characteristics in wireless communication systems. RRM involves
strategies and algorithms for controlling parameters such as transmit power, channel alloca-
tion, data rates, handover criteria, modulation scheme, error coding scheme, etc. The ob-
jective is to utilize the limited radio spectrum resources and radio network infrastructure as
efficiently as possible. RRM concerns multi-user and multi-cell network capacity issues, rather
than point-to-point channel capacity. Traditional telecommunications research and education
often dwell upon channel coding and source coding with a single user in mind, although it
may not be possible to achieve the maximum channel capacity when several users and adja-
cent base stations share the same frequency channel. Efficient dynamic RRM schemes may
increase the system capacity in an order of magnitude, which often is considerably more than
what is possible by introducing advanced channel coding and source coding schemes. RRM is
especially important in systems limited by co-channel interference rather than by noise, for ex-
ample cellular systems homogeneously covering large areas, and wireless networks consisting
of many adjacent access points that may reuse the same channel frequencies. [3, 4]
4.2 Theory
4.2.1 Radio Resource Scheduler
The eNodeB in an LTE system is responsible, among other functions, for managing resource
scheduling for both uplink and downlink channels.It ensures that the radio resources are effi-
ciently used, taking advantage of the available adaptation techniques. The ultimate aim of this
35
function is typically to fulfil the expectations of as many users of the system as possible, taking
into account the Quality-of-Service (QoS) requirements of their respective applications.
The Fig. 4.1 below shows an overview of the user-plane and control-plane protocol stack
at the eNodeB, as well as the corresponding mapping of the primary RRM related algorithms
to the different layers. The family of RRM algorithms at the eNodeB exploits various func-
tionalities from Layer 1 to Layer 3 as illustrated. The RRM functions at Layer 3, such as QoS
management, admission control, and semi-persistent scheduling, are characterized as semi-
dynamic mechanisms, since they are mainly executed during setup of new data flows. The
RRM algorithms at Layer 1 and Layer 2, such as Hybrid Adaptive Repeat and Request (HARQ)
management, dynamic packet scheduling, and link adaptation, are highly dynamic functions
with new actions conducted every Transmission Time Interval (TTI) of 1 ms. The latter RRM
functions are therefore characterized as fast dynamic. [3]
Figure 4.1: Overview of the eNodeB user plane and control plane protocol architecture [3]
Radio Resource Management related functions are done at the eNodeB by a Radio Resource
Scheduler, as shown for the downlink case in the Fig. 4.2 below. It is meant to to schedule
data to a set of UEs on a shared set of physical resources. In general, scheduling algorithms
can make use of two types of measurement information to inform the scheduling decisions,
namely channel-state information and traffic measurements (volume and priority). These are
obtained either by direct measurements at the eNodeB or via feedbacksignalling channels, or
a combination of both. [4]
36
Figure 4.2: Generic view of Radio Resource Scheduler [4]
The amount of feedback used is an important consideration, since the availability of accu-
rate channel state and traffic information helps to maximize the data rate in one direction at
the expense of more overhead in the other.
Based on the available measurement information, the eNodeB resource scheduler must
manage the differing requirements of all the UEs in the cells under its control to ensure that
sufficient radio transmission resources are allocated to each UE within acceptable latencies to
meet their QoS requirements in a spectrally-efficient way. The details of this process are not
standardized as it is largely internal to the eNodeB, allowing for vendor-specific algorithms
to be developed which can be optimized for specific scenarios in conjunction with network
operators. However, the key inputs available to the resource scheduling process are common,
and in general some typical approaches can be identified.
4.2.2 RRA Algorithms
The Radio Resource Allocation algorithms are mainly classified into three types:
Round Robin
Max C/I
Proportional Fair
37
Round Robin
Round Robin is a channel-unaware scheduling algorithm, whose working is based on fairness

to all users. It, therefore pays more attention to latency for each user than to the total data rate
achieved. This is particularly important for real-time applications such as Voice-over-IP (VoIP)
or video-conferencing, where a certain minimum rate must be guaranteed independently of
the channel state. The throughput achieved is usually not optimized because the user sched-
uled may not be experiencing the better channel condition at that time for that PRB. As the Fig.
4.3 given below shows,the PRBs are just allotted alternatively without considering which user
is experiencing better channel quality.
Max C/I
Max C/I is a channel aware opportunistic scheduling algorithm, is typically designed to max-
imize the sum of the transmitted data rates to all users by exploiting the fact that different
users experience different channel gains and hence will experience good channel conditions at
different times and frequencies. A fundamental characteristic of mobile radio channels is the
fading effects arising from the mobility of the UEs in a multipath propagation environment,
and from variations in the surrounding environment itself. It is shown that, for a multiuser
system, significantly more information can be transmitted across a fading channel than a non-
fading channel for the same average signal power at the receiver. This principle is known as
multi-user diversity. With proper dynamic scheduling, allocating the channel at each given
time instant only to the user with the best channel condition in a particular part of the spec-
trum can yield a considerable increase in the total throughput as the number of active users
becomes large.The working of a Max C/I scheduler is shown in the Fig. 4.3 below:
Figure 4.3: Comparison of working of a Round Robin and Max C/I Scheduler
The main issue arising from opportunistic resource allocation schemes is the difficulty of
38
ensuring fairness and QoS. Users data cannot always wait until the channel conditions are
sufficiently favourable for transmission, especially in slowly varying channels. Furthermore,
it is important that network operators can provide reliable wide area coverage, including to
stationary users near the cell edge and not just to the users which happen to experience good
channel conditions by virtue of their proximity to the eNodeB.
Proportional Fair
Proportional Fair is another channel aware scheduling algorithm which,unlike the Max C/I
algorithm does not only attempt to maximise the sum of transmitted data rates. It can be
described as a combination of the previous two extreme algorithms which introduces some
fairness into the system while maintaining a good throughput.This kind of algorithm is suit-
able for applications where the QoS required by it includes latency constraints.Proportional
Fair scheduler schedules a user when its instantaneous channel quality is high relative to its
own average channel condition over time.
39
4.3 Implementation
For keeping the implementation of RRA algorithms simpler, only Channel Quality Indicator
was considered while scheduling. Traffic load information for different users were ignored and
it was approximated that all the users belonged to the same traffic class and had no latency cri-
terias. Also, time domain link adaptation based on BER criteria was used on individual links
along with RRA algorithms. A brief overview of how the algorithms were implemented is
given below:
4.3.1 Round Robin:
Algorithm:
Assumption:There are only two users:user-1 and user-2

metric to be updated: PRB allocation to in TTI n
for every TTI n
for every PRB k

if k is odd
allocate k to user-1 for TTI n
else if k is even
end
end
end
k=PRB
Explanation:
Round Robin(RR) is a channel unaware scheduling algorithm aimed at providing maximum

fairness to all users in terms of resources allocated. Hence, it simply allocates alternate PRBs
to the two users, resulting in them having equal number to resources to utilise irrespective of
their channel condition.
4.3.2 Max C/I:
Algorithm:
Based on BER considerations:

Assumption: There are only two users:user-1 and user-2
metric:ber(ui ,n-1,k) ;i=1,2
for every TTI n
40
for every PRB k

if ber(u1 ,n-1,k) < ber(u2 ,n-1,k)
else
end
end
end
Based on CQI considerations(indicated by channel transfer function co-efficients):

Assumption:There are only two users:user-1 and user-2
metric:h(ui ,n-1,k) ;i=1,2
for every TTI n
for every PRB k
if h(u1 ,n-1,k) > h(u2 ,n-1,k)
else
end
end
end
k=PRB
ber(ui ,n-1,k)= BER for data transmitted by user ui over PRB k at TTI n-1
h(ui ,n-1,k)= Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) for user ui over PRB k at TTI n-1
Explanation:
Max C/I is an oppurtunistic scheduling algorithm, designed to maximise the transmission

data rate over the channel. It takes into consideration that different users experience different
channel conditions for different frequencies at a certain time (frequency-selective channel)
and favours the one with a better channel condition. It either considers BER or Channel
Quality Indicators (represented by transfer function co-efficients) as metric and allocates a
PRB to the user having lower BER or higher transfer function co-efficients as it is expected
that these users will experience better channel conditions and will thus be able to transmit
data with higher data rates.
4.3.3 Proportional Fair:
Algorithm:
Based on BER considerations:
41

ber(ui ,n1,k)
metric: ber(ui ,n-1,k)metric = ber(u i ,n1,k)avg
;i=1,2
where, ber(ui ,n-1,k)avg = (1-).ber(ui ,n-1,k)avg + .ber(ui ,n-1,k)
for every TTI n
for every PRB k
if ber(u1 ,n-1,k)metric < ber(u2 ,n-1,k)metric
else
end
end
end
Based on CQI considerations(indicated by channel transfer function co-efficients):

h(ui ,n1,k)
metric: h(ui ,n-1,k)metric = h(u i ,n1,k)avg
;i=1,2
where, h(ui ,n-1,k)avg = (1-).h(ui ,n-1,k)avg + .h(ui ,n-1,k)
for every TTI n
for every PRB k
if h(u1 ,n-1,k)metric > h(u2 ,n-1,k)metric
allocate PRB k to user-1 for TTI n
else
allocate PRB k to user-2 for TTI n
end
end
end
k=PRB
ber(ui ,n-1,k)= BER for data transmitted by user ui over PRB k at TTI n-1
h(ui ,n-1,k)= Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) for user ui over PRB k at TTI n-1
Explanation:
Proportional Fair is a channel-aware algorithm, which can be described as a combination of

the previous two extreme algorithms, combining the advantages of both. It tries to produce
high throughput while maintaining a certain amount of fairness among the users in terms of
resource allocation. So, instead of simply choosing the user experiencing a better channel
condition over a PRB, it allocates the PRB to the user experiencing a better channel condition
relative to its own average channel condition for the PRB over time. The average is calculated
roughly over the last 10 TTI. The forgetting factor () can be adjusted to change this averaging
window duration. Its value must lie between 0 and 1. The smaller the value, the larger is the
averaging window duration. For experiment purpose it was approximated as 0.1.
42
4.4 Results
CDF Plot Comparison of BER Performance of different RRA Schemes

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
0.4
0.3
RR(based on BER)[mean=0.06811]
PF(based on BER)[mean=0.0637]
0.2 Max C/I(based on BER)[mean=0.0631]
RR(based on CQI)[mean=0.0668]
0.1 PF(based on CQI)[mean=0.05169]
Max C/I(based on CQI)[mean=0.0394]
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
BER>
Figure 4.4: CDF Plot Comparison of BER Performance of different RRA Schemes
CDF Plot Comparison of Datarates for different RRA Schemes

1
RR(based on BER)[mean=1.303e4]
0.9 PF(based on BER)[mean=1.220e4]
Max CI(based on BER)[mean=1.230e4]
0.8 RR(based on CQI)[mean=1.285e4]
PF(based on CQI)[mean=1.037e4]
0.7 Max C/I(based on CQI)[mean=1.2063e4]
CDF >
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Data Rate(kbps)> 4
x 10
Figure 4.5: CDF Plot Comparison of Data-rate Performance of different RRA Schemes
43
4.4.3 Allocation Fairness Performance Comparison
CDF Plot Comparison of Allocation Fairness Metric for Different RRA Schemes
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
RR(based on BER)[mean=1]
PF(based on BER)[mean=0.9493]
0.5 Max C/I(based on BER)[mean=0.9526]
RR(based on CQI)[mean=1]
0.4 PF(based on CQI)[mean=0.6811]
Max C/I(based on CQI)[mean=0.5351]
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Allocation Fairness Metric>
Figure 4.6: CDF Plot Comparison of Allocation Fairness Metric of different RRA Schemes
Table 4.1: Performance Comparison of different RRA Schemes
RRA Scheme Parame- RRA Scheme Mean data- Mean BER Mean Allocation
ter rate(Mbps) Fairness Metric
BER RR 13.03 6.81x102 1
BER PF 12.30 6.31x102 0.9526
BER Max C/I 12.20 6.37x102 0.9493
CQI RR 12.85 6.68x102 1
CQI PF 10.37 5.17x102 0.6811
CQI Max C/I 12.06 3.94x102 0.5351

The difference in performance between the RRA schemes becomes more evident when
the two users are kept far apart from each other,thus experiencing different channel
conditions or when they have different receiver gains.
Max C/I usually provides the best performance in terms of mean BER, which is
expected as this scheme tries to allocate a resource to the user experiencing the best
channel condition for that resource(subcarrier/Physical Resource Block(PRB)).Round
Robin,a channel condition-blind scheme usually provides the worst performance.
44
The Allocation Fairness index has a range of values between 1/number of receivers and
1. When the allocation is most unfair (one receiver gets all the resources), the index
reaches its minimum value, and when the allocation is most fair (all receivers have
equal number of resources), the index reaches its maximum value. Max C/I is the most
unfair scheme, providing more resources to the user expeiencing better channel
condition. Users positioned away from the Base Station starve for resources as they
expeience more path loss. Round Robin was the most fair scheme,always providing all
users equal number of resources without taking into note the channel condition being
experienced. Proportional Fair maintained a balance by providing more resources to the
users positioned away from the Base Station while maintaining acceptable data-rate
performance.
Nothing specific can be concluded from the Data-rate performances as Link Adaptation
usually influences the data-rate performance besides channel condition.
From the comparison of performances of RRA schemes dependent on CQI and BER
parameters, it is noted that a good channel quality doesnt always ensure less BER in the
Hardware test-bed usually due to saturation of the receivers. This can be a topic for
further investigation.
45
Co-ordinated Scheduling
5
5.1 Theory
Fourth Generation (4G) and onwards cellular systems require very dense reuse of frequency
(reuse factor of one) in order to meet the high data rates it can support. These data rates are
relatively easy to maintain close to the base station, but as distances increase they become
more difficult to maintain. The cell edges are the most challenging. Not only is the signal
lower in strength because of the distance from the base station (eNodeB), but also interference
levels from neighbouring eNodeBs are likely to be higher as the user equipment will be
closer to them. This co-channel interference is the limiting factor that significantly reduces the
cell edge spectral efficiency of the OFDMA based fourth generation Single Frequency
Networks (SFN). Thus, it becomes necessary to design techniques that efficiently control the
interference generated by the co-channel cells along with ICI co-ordination in order to
improve the cell edge performance.
Interference mitigation techniques are classified into three major categories: interference
cancellation through receiver processing, interference randomization through frequency
hopping, and interference avoidance achieved by restrictions imposed in resource usage in
terms of resource partitioning. The Base Station coordinated dynamic scheduling algorithm
implemented is a kind of interference avoidance technique.
5.1.1 Scheduling Architectures:
The Coordinated scheduling architecture can be roughly divided into three categories:
1. Centralised Scheduling
The Fig. 5.1 represents the logical representation of Centralised Scheduling
Architecture. Here a centralised control unit collects all the channel quality indicators
(CQI) of every user in the system and allocates the available Physical Resource Blocks
(PRB) of each eNodeB trying to maximise the capacity of the system. Without an
efficient and fast infrastructure, centralised scheduling is an hard task due to the
46
stringent time required to exchange the inter-cell scheduling information and the large
feedback required by the User Equipments to send all the CQI. [12]
Figure 5.1: Logical representation of Centralised Scheduling Architecture
2. Distributed Scheduling
The Fig. 5.2 represents the logical representation of Distributed Scheduling
Architecture. Distributed Scheduling consists of a distributed scheduler at each
eNodeB. It forms a low complexity multi-cell radio design. The eNodeBs share some
information over the X2 interface. The scheduler at each eNodeB allocates resources to
its users only, and user equipments feedback a partial CQI. The lack of full coordination
in resource allocation simplifies the scheduler implementation, but at the cost of some
capacity degradation. It aims at reducing the stringent time requirement to exchange
information and the high feedback complexity of Centralised Scheduler.
Figure 5.2: Logical representation of Distributed Scheduling Architecture
47
3. Hybrid Scheduling
The Fig. 5.3 represents the logical representation of Hybrid Scheduling Architecture.
The Hybrid Scheduler is a combination of the Centralised and Distributed schedulers.
This scheduler architecture consists of two levels of schedulers. The first level of
scheduler (Centralised) is given some channel quality indicator (CQI) from the eNodeBs
corresponding to each cell. The Centralised scheduler uses them to allocate PRBs to the
eNodeBs, who then divides them among the user equipments being serviced by it via
the second level of scheduler. This limits the amount of feedback required by the User
Equipments, but needs less information exchange between the eNodeBs via the slow X2
interface and provides a reasonably good system capacity.
Figure 5.3: Logical representation of Hybrid Scheduling Architecture
5.2 Implementation
The Scheduler implemented is a two-level scheduler. At the top level is a Centralised
scheduler, which allocates PRBs to the Cells. At the Cell level, the Base Station acts as the
second level of scheduler, dividing the PRBs allocated to it by the Centralised scheduler
among the UEs in the cell following any one of the previously described RRA techniques:
Round Robin, Max C/I or Proportional Fair. The different Base Stations under the same
Centralized Scheduler may or may not use the same RRA scheme. Link Adaptation
(time-domain) also may or may not be used in a particular link. The setup implemented had
2 Cells, each having 1 Tx. and 2 Rx. This section explains how the scheduling algorithms have
been implemented at the Centralized Scheduler level:
48
5.2.1 Random Allocation
Explanation:
The two cells were randomly allocated half of the total number of PRBs each. This allocation
was not orthogonal, and it is expected that some PRBs will be allocated to both Cells. A lot of
inter-cell interference should be expected over these PRBs if the Cells are located close
enough.
5.2.2 Static Allocation
Algorithm:
Assumption:There are only two Cells:cell-1 and cell-2

metric to be updated: PRB allocation to cells in TTI n
for every TTI n

for every PRB k
if k is odd
allocate k to cell-1 for TTI n
else if k is even
allocate k to cell-2 for TTI n
end
end
end
k=PRB
Explanation:
Static Allocation is a channel unaware scheduling algorithm aimed at providing maximum

fairness to all cells in terms of resources allocated. Hence, it simply allocates alternate PRBs to
the two cells, resulting in them having equal number to resources to utilise irrespective of
their channel condition.
5.2.3 Dynamic Allocation
Algorithm:
Assumption:There are only two Cells:cell-1 and cell-2

h(ci ,n1,k)
metric: h(ci ,n-1,k)metric = h(c i ,n1,k)avg
;i=1,2
where, h(ci ,n-1,k)avg = (1-co ).h(ci ,n-1,k)avg + co .h(ci ,n-1,k)
for every TTI n
for every PRB k
if h(c1 ,n-1,k)metric > h(c2 ,n-1,k)metric
allocate PRB k to cell-1 for TTI n
else
49
allocate PRB k to cell-2 for TTI n

end
end
end
k=PRB
h(ci ,n-1,k)= Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) for cell ci over PRB k at TTI n-1,
which is the average channel condition for UEs in cell ci
Explanation:
Dynamic Allocation is a channel-aware Centralised scheduling policy aimed at maximizing

the cell throughput as much as possible while maintaining acceptable amounts of allocation
fairness among users and limiting the amount of feedback information. Here, each cell
reports the average channel condition faced by the users in the cell to the Centralised
scheduler, but not the individual channel condition faced by each user in that cell. This policy
may minimise the amount of control information being transmitted from the cells to the
Centralised Scheduler. The Centralised Scheduler,in turn, maintains a running average of the
average channel conditions reported by each cell. This running average is calculated over
approximately the last 20 TTI. The forgetting factor (co ) can be adjusted to change this
averaging window duration.Its value must lie between 0 and 1. Tne centralised scheduler
allocates the PRB k to the cell having a better relative average channel condition. For
experimental purpose, it was approximated as 0.05.
50
5.3 Results
CDF Plot Comparison of the Data rate Performances of various Coordinated Scheduling Schemes
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
Static Scheduling+RR
0.4 Random Scheduling+RR
Dynamic Scheduling+RR
0.3 Static Scheduling+PF
Random Scheduling+PF
0.2 Dynamic Scheduling+PF
Static Scheduling+Max C/I
0.1 Random Scheduling+Max C/I
Dynamic Scheduling+Max C/I
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Data Rate (kbps) > 4
x 10
Figure 5.4: CDF plot comparison of Data-rate performances of all two-level Scheduling Algorithms
CDF Plot Comparison of the Data rate Performances of various Coordinated Scheduling Schemes with same RRA Scheme
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Random Scheduling+RR
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Data Rate (kbps) >
Figure 5.5: CDF plot comparison of Data-rate performances of all Centralised Scheduling Algorithms
with reference to same RRA algorithm(RR)
51
CDF Plot Comparison of the Data rate Performances of various RRA Schemes with same Coordinated Scheduling Scheme
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 Dynamic Scheduling+PF
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Data rate (kbps) > 4
x 10
Figure 5.6: CDF plot comparison of Data-rate performances of all RRA Algorithms with reference to
same Centralised Scheduler algorithm(Dynamic Scheduling)
Comparison between all two-level Scheduling Algorithms
CDF Plot Comparison of the BER Performances of various Coordinated Scheduling Schemes
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
0.4 Random Scheduling+RR
Random Scheduling+PF
0.1 Random Scheduling+Max C/I
0
0 0.05 0.1 BER > 0.15 0.2 0.25
Figure 5.7: CDF plot comparison of BER performances of all two-level Scheduling Algorithms
52
CDF Plot Comparison of the BER Performances of various Coordinated Scheduling Schemes with same RRA Scheme
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 Static Scheduling+RR
Random Scheduling+RR
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
BER >
Figure 5.8: CDF plot comparison of BER performances of all Centralised Scheduling Algorithms with
reference to same RRA algorithm(RR)
CDF Plot Comparison of the BER Performances of various RRA Schemes with same Coordinated Scheduling Scheme
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CDF >
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Dynamic Scheduling+PF
0.1 Dynamic Scheduling+RR
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
BER >
Figure 5.9: CDF plot comparison of BER performances of all RRA Algorithms with reference to same
Centralised Scheduler algorithm(Dynamic Scheduling)
53
Table 5.1: Performance Comparison of different two-level Scheduling schemes
Parameter Static scheduling + Random schedul- Dynamic schedul-

Round Robin ing + Round Robin ing + Round Robin
Mean BER 6.73x102 7.89x102 3.75x102
Mean datarate(Mbps) 5.42 5.23 7.16
Static scheduling + Random schedul- Dynamic schedul-
Proportional Fair ing + Proportional ing + Proportional
Fair Fair
Mean BER 6.77102 7.7102 3.51102
Static scheduling + Random schedul- Dynamic schedul-
Max C/I ing + Max C/I ing + Max C/I
Mean BER 7.37102 7.51102 4.18102

From the Fig. 5.4,5.5,5.6 and table 5.1, the following conclusions could be drawn:
1. When using the same RRA scheme at the Base Station level, the proposed Dynamic
Scheduling scheme provides better data-rate performance (in terms of both mean and
10% outage ) in comparison to both Static and Random Scheduling schemes
2. The Static Scheme is much easier to implement as no channel quality information needs
to be fed to the Centralised Scheduler, but it doesnt utilise the resources efficiently
3. Random Allocation doesnt allocate resources orthogonally and may cause the
adjoining Base Stations to transmit using the same resources. The cell-edge users are
expected to face high amount of ICI, which has resulted in low goodput for the Random
Scheduling cases
4. While implmenting the same Centralised Scheduler algorithm, the data-rate

performance is best (in terms of both mean and 10% outage ) for Max C/I, followed by
Proportional Fair and Round Robin
5. The minimum mean data-rate is obtained when a combination of Random Allocation at

Centralised Scheduler level and Round Robin at Base station level is used
6. The maximum mean data-rate is obtained when a combination of Dynamic Allocation

at Centralised Scheduler level and Max C/I at Base station level is used
54
From the Fig. 5.7,5.8,5.9 and table 5.1, the following conclusions could be drawn:
1. When using the same RRA scheme at the Base Station level, the proposed Dynamic
Scheduling scheme provides better BER performance (in terms of both mean and 10%
outage ) in comparison to both Static and Random Scheduling schemes.
2. Random Allocation doesnt allocate resources orthogonally and may cause the
adjoining Base Stations to transmit using the same resources. The cell-edge users are
expected to face high amount of ICI, which has resulted in high BER for the Random
Scheduling cases.
3. The maximum mean BER is obtained when a combination of Random Allocation at

Centralised Scheduler level and Round Robin at Base station level is used.
4. The minimum mean BER is obtained when a combination of Dynamic Allocation at

Centralised Scheduler level and Proportional Fair at Base station level is used
55
Scope of Future Work
6
Some of the future work that can be undertaken using this setup developed are:
1. The Link Adaptation algorithms logic can be improved for a more efficient functioning
by using the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as the parameter for choosing the updated
information data rates being used to transmit data. For this a detailed study of the
relationship between SNR, bit error rate (BER) and gains of the antennas in the
Hardware is necessary.
2. Outer-loop Link Adaptation can also be done by dynamically varying the thresholds
considered for changing the information data rates
3. The duration of averaging window for application of Proportional Fair algorithm and
Dynamic scheduling may be optimised for getting better results in terms of users QoS
required.
4. If the relationship mentioned in pt.1 is obtained, then the radio resource allocation
(RRA) algorithms can also utilize the SNR information for allocating resources. This
change can bring uniformity in the parameters chosen for the two algorithms (Link
Adaptataion and Radio Resource Allocation)
5. The two-level Coordinated scheduling algorithm developed is an initial version-it can

be developed furhter for further incease in performance.
6. A form of Distributed Base Station Coordinated Dynamic Scheduling algorithm can be

implemented in the Hardware test bed, which would reduce the computational load on
the Centralised scheduler proposed, but at the cost of some form of information
exchange mechanism between the Base Stations.
7. The setup implemented was restricted to two base stations-scaling up the network can
be done, but that would require realizations of different base stations to be implemented
on different work stations (computers), which could be connected through sockets.
56
Scope of Future Work
8. Presently, complex values are transmitted to the Hardware after processing in Matlab,
and complex values are received back for processing. Steps could be taken to
implement more blocks on the Hardware and transmit and receive bits from it. It would
ensure less processing time and make the system more suitable for real-time traffic.
57
Bibliography
[1] S. C. Yang, OFDMA System Analysis and Design. Artech House, 2010.
[2] Wireless open-access research platform(warp) project website http://warp.rice.edu,

2011.
[3] H. Holma, LTE for UMTS-Evolution to LTE Advanced. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2011.
[4] S. Sesia, I. Toufik, and M. Baker, LTE-The UMTS Long Term Evolution-From Theory to
Practice. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2009.
[5] G. Li and H. Liu, Downlink radio resource allocation for multi-cell ofdma system,
Wireless Communications, IEEE Transactions, vol. 5, no. 12, pp. 34513459, December 2006.
[6] H. Yanikomeroglu, M. Rahman, and H. and, Enhancing cell-edge performance:a

downlink dynamic interference avoidance scheme with inter-cell coordination, Wireless
Communications,IEEE Transactions, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 14141425, April 2010.
[7] T.S.Rappaport, Wireless Communications and Networking, 2nd ed. Pearson Education,
2001.
[8] 3gpp ts 36.211 v8.2.0 ,evolved universal terrestrial radio access (e-utra), physical
channels and modulation, http://www.3gpp.org, 2009.
[9] X. Kai, T. Xiaofeng, W. Ying, and Z. Ping, Inter-cell packet scheduling in ofdma wireless
network, Vehicular Technology Conference, 2007. VTC2007-Spring. IEEE 65th, pp.
31153119, April 2007.
[10] K. Son, S. Chong, and G. Veciana, Dynamic association for load balancing and
interference avoidance in multi-cell networks, Wireless Communications, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 35663576, July 2009.
[11] A. Abrardo, A. Alessio, P. Detti, and M. Moretti, Centralized radio resource allocation
for ofdma cellular systems, Communications, 2007. ICC 07. IEEE International Conference
on, pp. 57385743, June 2007.
[12] S. Cicalo, V. Tralli, and A. Perez-Neira, Centralized vs distributed resource allocation in

multi-cell ofdma systems, Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), 2011 IEEE 73rd,
pp. 16, May 2011.
[13] I. Fraimis, V. Papoutsis, and S. Kotsopoulos, A distributed radio resource allocation

algorithm with interference coordination for multi-cell ofdma systems, Personal Indoor
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13541359, September 2010.
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resource allocation in multicellular multicarrier systems, Vehicular Technology, IEEE
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Intercell
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59

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Implementation of Base Station Coordinated Dynamic

Scheduling Algorithm in Hardware Test

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

for the award of the degree

Telecommunication Systems Engineering

under the guidance of

Dr. Suvra Sekhar Das

Department of Electronics and Electrical Communication

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Dr. Suvra Sekhar Das

2 System Model and Hardware Test-bed(Matlab-Hardware Interface) Design 8

3.3.1 Time Domain Link Adaptataion(TDLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4 Radio Resource Allocation 35

6 Scope of Future Work 56

3.1 Difference between TDLA and FDLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5.1 Logical representation of Centralised Scheduling Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.1 Performance Comparison of different Link Adaptation Schemes . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.1 Performance Comparison of different RRA Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.1 Performance Comparison of different two-level Scheduling schemes . . . . . . . 54

1.3 Goal and Scope

1.4 State of the Art

1. Literature related to Centralized Scheduling Architecture

2. Literature related to Distributed Scheduling Architecture

3. Literature related to Hybrid Scheduling Architecture

1. Literature related to Centralized Scheduling Architecture

Xu Kai 2007 [9]

Kyuho 2009 [10]

Abrardo 2007 [11]

The algorithm is very complex to implement in real world scenario

No differentiation between cell edge and cell centered users

Drop in total cell throughput

2. Literature related to Distributed Scheduling Architecture

Sergio 2011 [12]

The objective is to maximize the networks total throughput

The centralized scheme is difficult to solve using optimization techniques

The Distributed scheme is semi-static

Fraimis 2011 [13]

The objective is to maximize the networks total throughput

Maximum power constraint is considered for each Base Station

The drop in total systems throughput has not been considered

3. Literature related to Hybrid Scheduling Architecture

The objective is maximization of total system throughput

Moretti 2011 [14]

The objective is maximization of total throughput

The utility function can be improved even further

Fodor 2009 [15]

The objective is maximization of total system throughput

1.5 Problem Statement

1. Developing an OFDM-based transmitter-receiver chain in Hardware test-bed (Matlab-

2. Implementing time-domain link adaptation (TDLA) and frequency-domain link adapta-

3. Implementing three radio resource allocation (RRA) algorithms:Round Robin(RR),Max

4. Implementing a two-level Base Station Coordinated Dynamic Scheduling algorithm for a

1.6 List of Contributions

Link Adaptation(time-domain and frequency-domain) was implemented in the Transmitter-

Two-level Base Station Coordinated Dynamic Scheduling algorithms were implemented

1.7 Organisation of the Thesis

Chapter 2: Overview of the System model and Hardware test-bed design.

Chapter 3: Theoritical backdrop of Link Adaptation, implementation details, perfor-

Chapter 4: Theoritical backdrop of Radio Resource Allocation, implementation details,

Chapter 5: Theoritical backdrop of Coordinated Scheduling, implementation details, per-

Chapter 6: Possible scope of future work and enhancements.

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a method of multiplexing by which

Figure 2.2: OFDM Transmitter

Advantages and Disadvantages of OFDM