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G = R 12 Rg ,
where R is the Ricci curvature tensor, R is the scalar
curvature, g is the metric tensor, is the cosmological which is a symmetric second-rank tensor that is a function
constant, G is Newtons gravitational constant, c is the of the metric. The EFE can then be written as
1
2 2 THE COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT
R = [S2] [S3] R
Einstein modied his original eld equations to include a
With these denitions Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler clas- cosmological constant term proportional to the metric
sify themselves as (+ + +), whereas Weinberg (1972)[8] is
(+ ), Peebles (1980) and Efstathiou (1990) are ( + +),
while Peacock (1994), Rindler (1977), Atwater (1974), R 1 R g + g = 8G T .
2 c4
Collins Martin & Squires (1989) are ( + ).
Authors including Einstein have used a dierent sign in Since is constant, the energy conservation law is unaf-
their denition for the Ricci tensor which results in the fected.
sign of the constant on the right side being negative The cosmological constant term was originally introduced
by Einstein to allow for a universe that is not expanding
or contracting. This eort was unsuccessful because:
8G
R 12 Rg g = 4 T .
c
the universe described by this theory was unstable,
The sign of the (very small) cosmological term would and
change in both these versions, if the (+ ) metric sign
convention is used rather than the MTW ( + + +) metric observations by Edwin Hubble conrmed that our
sign convention adopted here. universe is expanding.
3.3 The correspondence principle 3
So, Einstein abandoned , calling it the biggest blunder 3.3 The correspondence principle
[he] ever made.[9]
The EFE reduce to Newtons law of gravity by using both
Despite Einsteins motivation for introducing the cos-
the weak-eld approximation and the slow-motion ap-
mological constant term, there is nothing inconsistent
proximation. In fact, the constant G appearing in the EFE
with the presence of such a term in the equations. For
is determined by making these two approximations.
many years the cosmological constant was almost uni-
versally considered to be 0. However, recent improved
astronomical techniques have found that a positive value
of is needed to explain the accelerating universe.[10][11]
Einstein thought of the cosmological constant as an inde-
pendent parameter, but its term in the eld equation can
4 Vacuum eld equations
also be moved algebraically to the other side, written as
part of the stressenergy tensor:
c4
(vac)
T = g .
8G
The resulting vacuum energy is constant and given by
c2
vac =
8G
The existence of a cosmological constant is thus equiva-
lent to the existence of a non-zero vacuum energy. Thus,
the terms cosmological constant and vacuum energy
are now used interchangeably in general relativity.
3 Features
A Swiss commemorative coin from 1979, showing the vacuum
3.1 Conservation of energy and momen- eld equations with zero cosmological constant (top).
tum
If the energy-momentum tensor T is zero in the region
General relativity is consistent with the local conservation under consideration, then the eld equations are also re-
of energy and momentum expressed as ferred to as the vacuum eld equations. By setting T =
0 in the trace-reversed eld equations, the vacuum equa-
tions can be written as
T = T ; = 0
R = 0 .
which expresses the local conservation of stressenergy. In the case of nonzero cosmological constant, the equa-
This conservation law is a physical requirement. With his tions are
eld equations Einstein ensured that general relativity is
consistent with this conservation condition.
R = D g .
2 1
3.2 Nonlinearity
The solutions to the vacuum eld equations are called
The nonlinearity of the EFE distinguishes general relativ- vacuum solutions. Flat Minkowski space is the simplest
ity from many other fundamental physical theories. For example of a vacuum solution. Nontrivial examples in-
example, Maxwells equations of electromagnetism are clude the Schwarzschild solution and the Kerr solution.
linear in the electric and magnetic elds, and charge and Manifolds with a vanishing Ricci tensor, R = 0, are
current distributions (i.e. the sum of two solutions is also referred to as Ricci-at manifolds and manifolds with a
a solution); another example is Schrdingers equation of Ricci tensor proportional to the metric as Einstein mani-
quantum mechanics which is linear in the wavefunction. folds.
4 8 POLYNOMIAL FORM
If the energy-momentum tensor T is that of an The study of exact solutions of Einsteins eld equations
electromagnetic eld in free space, i.e. if the is one of the activities of cosmology. It leads to the pre-
electromagnetic stressenergy tensor diction of black holes and to dierent models of evolution
of the universe.
One can also discover new solutions of the Einstein eld
1 ( 1 )
equations via the method of orthonormal frames as pi-
T
= F F + 4 g F F
0 oneered by Ellis and MacCallum.[15] In this approach,
is used, then the Einstein eld equations are called the the Einstein eld equations are reduced to a set of cou-
EinsteinMaxwell equations (with cosmological constant pled, nonlinear, ordinary dierential [16]
equations. As dis-
, taken to be zero in conventional relativity theory): cussed by Hsu and Wainwright, self-similar solutions
to the Einstein eld equations are xed points of the re-
sulting dynamical system. New solutions have been dis-
8G ( )
covered using these methods by LeBlanc [17] and Kohli
R 12 Rg +g = 4 F F + 41 g F F and. Haslam.[18]
c 0
until there are none left in the denominator results in poly- [10] Wahl, Nicolle (2005-11-22). Was Einsteins 'biggest
nomial equations in the metric tensor and its rst and sec- blunder' a stellar success?". Archived from the original
ond derivatives. The action from which the equations are on 2007-03-07. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
derived can also be written in polynomial form by suitable
[11] Turner, Michael S. (May 2001). Making
redenitions of the elds.[19]
Sense of the New Cosmology. Int. J. Mod.
Phys. A. 17 (S1): 180196. arXiv:astro-
ph/0202008 . Bibcode:2002IJMPA..17S.180T.
9 See also doi:10.1142/S0217751X02013113.
[9] Gamow, George (April 28, 1970). My World Line : An Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Einstein equa-
Informal Autobiography. Viking Adult. ISBN 0-670- tions, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer,
50376-2. Retrieved 2007-03-14. ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
6 12 EXTERNAL LINKS
13.2 Images
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: Einstein (gravitational) eld equations including the cosmological constant <img src='https:
//wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0ac0a4a98a414e3480335f9ba652d12571ec6733' class='mwe-math-fallback-image-
inline' aria-hidden='true' style='vertical-align: 0.338ex; width:1.623ex; height:2.343ex;' alt='{\displaystyle \Lambda }' /> by Albert Ein-
stein from his theory of general relativity (Stephen Weinberg, Gravitation and cosmology, New York, 1972 p. 155); painting by Jan-Willem
Bruins (TegenBeeld); photograph by Vysotsky
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