BASIC ELECTRONICS

Semiconductor
Semiconductors are used extensively in electronic circuits. As its
name implies, a semiconductor is a
material that conducts current, but
only partly. The conductivity of a
semiconductor is somewhere between
that of an insulator, which has almost
no conductivity, and a conductor,
which has almost full conductivity.
Materials that permit flow
of electrons are called
conductors (e.g., gold,
silver, copper, etc.).
Materials that block flow
of electrons are called
insulators (e.g., rubber,
glass, Teflon, mica, etc.).
Materials whose
conductivity falls between
those of conductors and
insulators are called
semiconductors.
Semiconductors are part-
time conductors whose
conductivity can be
controlled.
Types of Semiconductors
P-Type
In a pure (intrinsic) Si or Ge semiconductor, each nucleus uses its
four valence electrons to form four covalent bonds with its neighbors
(see figure below). Each ionic core, consisting of the nucleus and non-
valent electrons, has a net charge of +4, and is surrounded by 4 valence
electrons. Since there are no excess electrons or holes In this case, the
number of electrons and holes present
at any given time will always be equal.

An intrinsic semiconductor. Note each

+4 ion is surrounded by four electrons.
Now, if one of the atoms in the
semiconductor lattice is replaced by an
element with three valence electrons, such as a Group 3 element like
Boron (B) or Gallium (Ga), the electron-hole balance will be changed.
This impurity will only be able to contribute three valence electrons to
the lattice, therefore leaving one excess hole (see figure below). Since
holes will "accept" free electrons, a Group 3 impurity is also called
an acceptor.

A semiconductor doped with an

acceptor. An excess hole is now present.
Because an acceptor donates excess
holes, which are considered to be
positively charged, a semiconductor that
has been doped with an acceptor is
called a p-type semiconductor; "p" stands for positive. Notice that the
material as a whole remains electrically neutral. In a p-type
semiconductor, current is largely carried by the holes, which outnumber
the free electrons. In this case, the holes are the majority carriers, while
the electrons are the minority carriers.
N-Type
In addition to replacing one of the lattice atoms with a Group 3 atom, we
can also replace it by an atom with five valence electrons, such as the
Group 5 atoms arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P). In this case, the impurity
adds five valence electrons to the lattice where it can only hold four.
This means that there is now one excess electron in the lattice (see figure
below). Because it donates an electron, a Group 5 impurity is called
a donor. Note that the material remains electrically neutral.

A semiconductor doped with a donor. A

free electron is now present.
Donor impurities donate negatively
charged electrons to the lattice, so a
semiconductor that has been doped with a
donor is called an n-type semiconductor;
"n" stands for negative. Free electrons
outnumber holes in an n-type material, so the electrons are the majority
carriers and holes are the minority carriers.
What is electronics?
The branch of physics and technology concerned with the design
of circuits using transistors and microchips, and with the behavior and
movement of electrons in a semiconductor, conductor, vacuum, or gas.
(OR)
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active
electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes,
integrated circuits, associated passive electrical components, and
interconnection technologies. ... Today, most electronic devices use
semiconductor components to perform electron control.
Which Raw Materials Used in the Manufacture of Electronic
Components?
Metals
Copper is often used for its excellent conductivity and malleability
(the ability to be shaped and mashed). Nickel, chromium, aluminum,
lead, silver and tin are also used. These metals go into components such
as resistors, capacitors and transducers.
Plastics and Other Petroleum-Based Materials
Plastics and other petroleum-based materials are used in electronic
components mostly for their insulating and heat-resistant properties.
Polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chlorate
(PVC) are widely used in components such as capacitors and
thermistors.
Minerals and Non-Metallic Materials
Silicon --- considered a metalloid, or semimetal --- is used in
microchips and semiconductors. Other nonmetal or semimetal materials
are antimony, bismuth, cobalt, fluorite, garnet, magnesium and talc.
Other Raw Materials
Ceramics are used as insulators in a variety of electronic
components. Certain clays, glasses, calcium (in various forms), gold and
carbon (in various forms are also often used.
ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS:
Basics
Electrical components fall into one of two categories: passive and
active. While passive components do not run on power, active
components require a level of voltage to be applied in order to be used.
Active components provide directionality and include parts such as caps,
integrated circuits and amps. Passive components allow current to flow
in either direction and include connectors, resistors and inductors.
Active Components
There are a variety of active electrical components, including
diodes, a two-terminal device
used to current flow through a
product. Transistors are a
fundamental semiconductor
device in computers and are
used to amplify signals.
Integrated circuits, also called
microchips, are manufactured
directly into a material and these
microelectronic circuits are used
in digital appliances. Capacitors
store energy between
conductors and can also be used
as electronic filters for
differentiating frequencies.
Passive Components
 Passive components include resonators, devices that automatically
alternate between frequencies, giving off energy in the form of
electromagnetic or mechanical waves. Connectors are used to
temporarily or permanently connect two parts together. Resistors are
terminal parts used to manage the current's flow.
Logic Devices
Logic devices are a subcategory of active component and include
gates, a part of a circuit composed of a
collection of transistors and resistors.
Signal converters, which change the form or
frequency of a signal, and latch circuits,
which transfers input to output are also
variations of logic devices.
Two Types of Connections
Series Circuits
Parallel Circuits
Series Connections
In conducting the lab activity, distinctly different observations are
made for the two types of circuits. A series circuit can be
constructed by connecting light bulbs in such a manner
that there is a single pathway for
charge flow; the bulbs are
added to the same line
with no branching
point. As more and
more light bulbs are
added, the brightness of
each bulb gradually decreases. This observation is an indicator that the
current within the circuit is decreasing.
 So for series circuits, as more resistors are added the overall
current within the circuit decreases. This decrease in current is consistent
with the conclusion that the overall resistance increases.

A final observation that is unique to series circuits is the effect of

removing a bulb from a socket. If one of three bulbs in a series circuit is
unscrewed from its socket, then it is observed that the other bulbs
immediately go out. In order for the devices in a series circuit to work,
each device must work. If one goes out, they all go out. Suppose that all
the appliances in a household kitchen were all connected in series. In
order for the refrigerator to work in that kitchen, the toaster oven,
dishwasher, garbage disposal and overhead light would all have to be on.
In order for one device in series to work, they all must work. If current is
cut from any one of them, it is cut from all of them. Quite obviously, the
appliances in the kitchen are not connected in series.
Parallel Connections
 Using the same collection of wires, D-
cells and bulbs, parallel circuits can
be explored in the same
manner. The effect of the
number of resistors upon the
overall current and the
overall resistance can be
investigated. The diagrams below depict the usual means of constructing
the circuit with parallel connections of light bulbs. One will note that a
study of the overall current for parallel connections requires the addition
of an indicator bulb. The indicator bulb is placed outside of the branches
and allows one to observe the effect of additional resistors upon the
overall current. The bulbs that are placed in the parallel branches only
provide an indicator of the current through that particular branch. So if
investigating the effect of the number of resistors upon the overall
current and resistance, one must make careful observations of the
indicator bulb, not the bulbs that are placed in the branches. The diagram
below depicts the typical observations.
It is clear from observing the indicator bulbs in the
above diagrams that the addition of more resistors
causes the indicator bulb to get brighter. For parallel
circuits, as the number of resistors increases, the
overall current also increases. This increase in
current is consistent with a decrease in overall
resistance. Adding more resistors in a separate branch has the
unexpected result of decreasing the overall resistance!
If an individual bulb in a parallel branch is unscrewed from its
socket, then there is still current in the overall circuit and current in the
other branches. Removing the third bulb from its socket has the effect of
transforming the circuit from a three-bulb parallel circuit to a two-bulb
parallel circuit. If the appliances in a household kitchen were connected
in parallel, then the refrigerator could function without having to have
the dishwasher, toaster, garbage disposal and overhead lights on. One
appliance can work without the other appliances having to be on. Since
each appliance is in its own separate branch, turning that appliance off
merely cuts off the flow of charge to that branch. There will still be
charge flowing through the other branches to the other appliances. Quite
obviously, the appliances in a home are wired with parallel connections.

ACTIVE COMPONENTS:
Diode
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called
the anode and the cathode. The main function of a diode is to block the
current in one direction, and allow
current to flow in the other (reverse)
direction. Current flowing through the
diode is called forward current.
There are several types of diodes:
Rectifier diodes -- these are the
most common, with its function
described above.
Detector diodes -- these are
more sensitive than normal rectifier diodes. They are used in radios and
televisions to convert radio signals to audio or television signals.
Zener diodes -- These diodes are the opposites of the normal
diodes, because they are designed to conduct current in the backwards
(reverse) direction But only at a very precise voltage. Zener diodes are
used to regulate voltages (to behave sort-of like a battery).
 Capacitance diodes-- act as tunable capacitors and are also used
in radios and TVs to allow electronic automatic tuning.
Tunnel diodes-- are used in oscillator circuits.

Various Diode Types:

Practical
Experiments
1. VI CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
Objective:
To study and verify the functionality of PN junction diode in forward
bias and reverse bias and to
Plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode.
Plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode in XY mode.
Find cut-in voltage for P-N Junction diode.
Find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse
biased conditions.
Components:
Diode (1N4007) 1(One) No.
Resistor (1K) 1(One) No.
Bread board 1(One) No.
Operation:
A PN junction diode is formed when a single crystal of
semiconductor is doped with acceptors impurities (Pentavalent) on one
side and donor impurities (Trivalent) on the other side. It has two
terminals called electrodes, one each from P-region and N-region. Due
to two electrodes it is called (i.e., Di-electrode) Diode.
Biasing of PN junction Diode
Applying external D.C. voltage to any electronic device is called
biasing. There is no current in the unbiased PN junction at equilibrium.
Depending upon the polarity of the D.C. voltage externally applied
to diode, the biasing is classified as forward biasing and Reverse biasing.
Forward bias operation
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve
terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (P-side) and ve
terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode. Then diode is said
to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier
at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing
voltage. Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the
junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current from n-side
cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current
(injected minority current due to holes crossing the junction and
entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current flowing through the
diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short- circuited
switch.

Reverse bias operation

 If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-
side) and ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (n-
side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition an
amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the
potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons
on N-side tend to move away from the junction there by increasing the
depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus
a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the
diode. This current is negligible; the diode can be approximated as an
open circuited switch.
Diode current equation
The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following
equations:
I = current flowing in the diode, I0 = reverse saturation current
V = Voltage applied to the diode
VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV
(@ room temp)
=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when
compared to Si diode. The reverse saturation current in Ge diode is
larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.

Circuit Diagram:
 Fig. (1) - Forward Bias Condition:

Fig. (2) -
Reverse
Bias

Condition:

Procedure:
Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1) using PN Junction diode.
2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage Vs in steps
of 0.1 V. Once the current starts increasing vary Vs
from 1V to 12V in steps of 1V and note down the corresponding
readings Vf and If.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward
voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

 1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2) using PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps
of 1V from 0V to 12V and note down the corresponding
readings Vr and Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse
voltages.
4. To get the graph in reverse region (theoretically), remove voltmeter
and with reference to the supply voltage note down the reverse
current readings in Ammeter because current always selects low
reactance path.(Diode have infinite resistance in reverse bias
ideally).To get the graph in reverse region (theoretically), replace
voltmeter with nano ammeter. Voltmeter has less load resistance
when compared to diode. Current conducts in low resistance path.
Diode Characteristics in XY mode:
1. Adjust CRO TIME/DIV knob in X-Y mode.
2. Give the input as triangular voltage waveform
from Function Generator.
3. Connect the CRO CH1 across the input and CH2
across resistor.
4. P-N Junction diode characteristics can
be observed.

VI
Characteristics Graph
2. PIN DIODE BASED FIRE SENSOR
Here is an ultra-sensitive fire sensor that activates an alarm when it
detects fire. Thermistor based fire alarms have a drawback; the alarm
turns on only if the fire heats the thermistor in close vicinity. In this
circuit, a sensitive PIN diode is used as a fire sensor for a longer-range
fire detection.
It detects visible light and infrared (IR) in the range of 430nm
1100nm. So visible light and IR from the fire can easily activate the
sensor to trigger the alarm. It also detects sparks in the mains wiring and,
if these persist, it gives a warning alarm.
PIN diode BPW34 is used in the circuit as light and IR sensor.
BPW34 is a 2-pin photodiode with anode (A) and cathode (K). The
anode end can easily be identified from the top-
view flat surface of the photodiode. A small
solder point to which a thin wire is connected is
the anode and the other one is the cathode
terminal. Fig. 2: BPW34 PIN photodiode
BPW34 is a tiny PIN photodiode or mini solar cell with radiant
sensitive surface that generates 350mV DC open-circuit voltage when
exposed to 900nm light. It is sensitive to natural sunlight and also to
light from fire. So it is ideal for use as a light sensor.
BPW34 photodiode can be used in zero-bias as well as reverse-bias
states. Its resistance decreases when light falls on it.
Circuit and Working
Circuit diagram:
 It is built around 9V battery, PIN diode BPW34 (D1), op-amp
CA3140 (IC1), counter CD4060 (IC2), transistors BC547 (T1 and T2), a
piezo buzzer (PZ1) and a few other components. In the circuit, PIN
photodiode BPW34 is connected to the inverting and non-inverting
inputs of op-amp IC1 in reverse-biased mode to feed photo current into
the input of op-amp. CA3140 is a 4.5MHz Bi-MOS op-amp with
MOSFET inputs and bipolar output.
Gate-protected MOSFET (PMOS) transistors in the input circuit
provide very high input impedance, typically around 1.5T ohms. The IC
requires very low input current, as low as 10pA, to change output status
to high or low.
 In the circuit, IC1 is used as a Trans
impedance amplifier to act as a current-to-
voltage converter. IC1 amplifies and
converts the photo current generated in the
PIN diode to the corresponding voltage in
its output. The non-inverting input is
connected to the ground and anode of
photodiode, while the inverting input gets
photo current from the PIN diode.
Large-value feedback resistor R1
sets the gain of the Trans impedance amplifier since it is in inverting
configuration. Connection of non-inverting input to ground provides low
impedance load for the photodiode, which keeps the photodiode voltage
low.
The photodiode operates in the photovoltaic mode with no external
bias. Feedback of the op-amp keeps the photodiode current equal to the
feedback current through R1. So the input offset voltage due to the
photodiode is very low in this self-biased photovoltaic mode. This
permits a large gain without any large-output offset voltage. This
configuration is selected to get large gain in low-light conditions.
Normally, in ambient light condition, photocurrent from the PIN
diode is very low; it keeps output of IC1 low. When the PIN diode
detects visible light or IR from fire, its photo current increases and Trans
impedance amplifier IC1 converts this current to corresponding output
voltage. High output from IC1 activates transistor T1 and LED1 glows.
This indicates that the circuit has detected fire. When T1 conducts, it
takes reset pin 12 of IC2 to ground potential and CD4060 starts
oscillating.
IC2 is a binary counter with ten outputs that turn high one by one
when it oscillates due to C1 and R6. Oscillation of IC2 is indicated by
the blinking of LED2. When output Q6 (pin 4) of IC2 turns high after 15
seconds, T2 conducts and activates piezo buzzer PZ1, and LED3 also
glows. The alarm repeats again after 15 seconds if fire persists.
You can also turn on an AC alarm that produces a loud sound by
replacing PZ1 with a relay circuitry (not shown here). The AC alarm is
activated through contacts of the relay used for this purpose.
Construction and testing
An actual-size, single-side PCB for the PIN diode based fire sensor
is shown in Fig. 4 and its component layout in Fig. 5. Enclose the PCB
in a small box in such a way that you can connect PIN diode BPW34
easily at the rear side of the box. Install the PIN diode in a suitable place
and cover it such that normal light/sunlight does not fall on it.
Testing the circuit is simple. Normally, when there is no fire flame
near the PIN diode, the piezo buzzer does not sound. When a fire flame
is sensed by the PIN diode, piezo buzzer sounds an alarm. Its detection
range is around two meters. It can also detect sparks in the mains wiring
due to short-circuit.

PCB Layout:
Final Output