INTRODUCTION TO ESP

Introduction to ESPs: Glossary

ACCESS DOORS: A hinged or detached cover provided with a hand operated fastening
device where accessibility is required. Typically it is interlocked using a key interlock
system to prevent access to the ESP when the ESP is energized.

ACFM: Actual Cubic Feet per Minute of gas volume at the actual condition temperature,
pressure and composition. See gas flow rate.

ACID DEW POINT: The temperature at which combustion gases are saturated with
sulfuric acid.

AIR LOAD: This term refers to energizing the ESP during an outage period at ambient
temperatures. The object is to verify the electrical integrity of the bus section, to obtain
electrical readings of voltage and current and to determine whether sparkover occurs
before reaching a specific limit of the TR Set rating. The advantage of this type of
measurement is to relate the internal integrity of the ESP BUS SECTIONS to one another
as to electrode damage or extent of ash buildup.

These readings can be obtained with or without fan operation, or at different temperatures
but, all conditions should be recorded. Measurements can be recorded as maximum
readings or as V-I CURVES. Generally, SPARKOVER should not be observed during these
readings.

ALIGNMENT: This term refers to the maintenance of optimum clearances between the
high voltage system and the grounded surfaces of the precipitator. Operation at the highest
possible ESP voltages depends to a large measure on good mechanical integrity and
elimination of reduced distances where sparkover could occur. This means the high voltage
frame of a BUS SECTION must be held plum relative to the grounded collecting surfaces.
Ideally, discharge electrodes should be centered in the gas passages between the collecting
plate surfaces, and centered between the vertical ribs / baffles of the collecting plates. On a
practical basis for the 9 (228mm) wide GAS PASSAGES commonly found in
WEIGHTED WIRE ESP designs, proper alignment generally means no corona producing
wire closer than 4 (102mm) to the flat surface of the collector plate or 5 1/2 (140mm) to
any vertical rib of the collector plate. The emitters, or corona producing elements of
RIGID DISCHARGE ELECTRODES in GAS PASSAGES spaced at 12 (305mm) should
generally be within 1/2 of center (51/2, 140mm) of the flat surface of the collecting
plates, and be a minimum of 6 71/2 (152 190mm) to any vertical rib of the collector
plate. Allowable tolerances will vary somewhat by manufacturer, electrode design, and
from a practical standpoint, by age and condition of the ESP.

ANODE: Positive electrical terminal of high voltage power supply; this is the collecting
plate surface (ash surface) which is maintained at ground potential. Precipitator (ESP)
sparking starts at the anode.

ANTI-SWAY INSULATOR: These insulators are used to prevent the bottom high voltage
frames, which position and retain the DISCHARGE ELECTRODES, from swinging or
drifting out of alignment. The insulators are either a ceramic bar or a shaft type and are
usually secured to the hopper wall. Some designs connect directly between the collecting
plates and the lower high voltage frames.

ANTI-SNEAKAGE BAFFLES: Internal baffle elements within the precipitator to

prevent the gas from bypassing the active field or causing hopper re-entrainment.

ARC: A severe electrical breakdown between the negative high voltage component and
ground, usually caused by, or aided by, some internal mechanical defect. A poor
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL circuit, as well as operation of the control in the
MANUAL MODE, can aggravate this problem. Meter swings are usually 2 to 3 times
greater those than observed during normal SPARKOVER. Length of breakdown could last
several CYCLES.

ASPECT RATIO: The ratio obtained by dividing effective length of the precipitator by
the effective height.

AUTOMATIC MODE: Modern controls will often feature the ability to transfer from an
automatic mode of AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL, which is normal operation, to a
MANUAL MODE for maintenance or trouble periods. The automatic mode allows the TR
Set voltage control to adjust for the level of sparkover.

AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL: The normal method of controlling the amount of

secondary current to the ESP is by controlling the magnitude of voltage on the primary
winding of the TR Set. This is accomplished by detecting the transient disruption in the
electrical circuitry caused by sparkover, or an arc, in the ESP. A feedback circuit then
adjusts the gate signal of an SCR (thyristor) so as to provide a level of voltage necessary to
maintain the desired sparkover rate.

BACK CORONA: A term that signifies that the ash layer on the collector surface has
reached a level of RESISTIVITY that produces a flow of positive IONS back towards the
negative high voltage discharge electrode. Most commonly observed back corona
conditions result in SPARKOVER and a reduction of POWER INPUT.

SEVERE BACK CORONA (generically referred to as back corona and also referred to as
reverse ionization), this condition is extremely detrimental to precipitator performance and
will result in dramatic re-entrainment of material for the collecting plates at high current
levels.

BACT (Best Available Control Technology): An emission limitation based on the

maximum degree of emission reduction achievable. Under Title I of the CAAA, EPA will
establish BACT standards for serious, severe and extreme non-attainment areas.

BALANCED DRAFT: The condition where the absolute pressure in a boiler furnace is
exactly equal to the absolute atmospheric pressure outside the furnace or it is slightly
negative.

BUS: A conductor enclosed within a grounded duct.

BUS SECTION: Is the smallest portion of high voltage structure, containing a fixed group
of DISCHARGE ELECTRODES that can be independently energized by a single
Transformer (TR). More than one bus section can be controlled through a TR either in
parallel or series arrangement.

CASING: The precipitator shell or casing is designed to confine the flue gas within a
specific collection zone, and it must provide structural support for the discharge and
collecting electrode systems, rapping systems, gas distribution system, and other
precipitator components. The precipitator casing is usually constructed of fabricated steel
panels fitted with external columns, beams, and stiffeners and is designed so that the final
assembly provides a gas tight unit able to withstand both internal and external loading.
The precipitator casing includes ACCESS DOORS located in the side walls and on the roof
that permit access to the precipitator interior. A key interlock system prevents opening the
doors while the precipitator is energized. Access walkways, platforms, stairs, and ladders
are attached to the casing at various internal and external locations.

CATHODE: This is the negative polarity, high voltage DISCHARGE ELECTRODE of a

precipitator. It is the cathode that suffers metal erosion due to ESP repetitive sparkover a
common cause of localized wire thinning, draw-out due to weight tension, and ultimate
breakage with sharp points.

CELLS: A cell is an arrangement of bus sections across the width of the ESP. Typically
the number of cells times the number of fields equals the number of bus sections.

CFM: Cubic Feet (of any gaseous matter) per Minute. See gas flow rate.

CHAMBER: Refers to a gas tight longitudinal subdivision of the precipitator (a

precipitator without any internal dividing walls is a single chamber precipitator; a
precipitator with a single internal dividing wall is a two chamber precipitator, etc.). Very
wide precipitators may have non gas tight load bearing walls that are used for structural
purposes. Technically these non gas tight walls would not be considered as chamber
dividing walls.

CHEVRON DESIGN: Refers to the inlet transition design that places 2 parallel ESPs at a
small angle to each other. This layout typically is used to minimize space requirements.

CLR (Current Limiting Reactor): This is primarily a ballast of inductance placed in the
low voltage circuit to provide current limiting ability under sparkover in the ESP. Another
major advantage of a properly sized reactor is to better shape the waveform of the input
voltage to the TR Set thereby gaining a greater conduction angle of secondary current flow.
This feature has benefits for ash or dust layers that exhibit high resistivity characteristics.

COLLECTION EFFICIENCY: The weight of dust collected per unit time divided by the
weight of dust entering the precipitator during the same unit time expressed in percentage.
The computation is as follows:

(Dust in) (Dust out)

Efficiency = (Dust in) X 100

COLLECTING SURFACE: Is the term for the sheet metal collector plate that serves as
the point of deposition for the particulate that is negatively charged within the gas passage
of the ESP. Collecting surface plate design differs between manufacturers but, all are
secured to the shell of the ESP at ground potential and serve as the positive anode of the
gas passage.

COLD SIDE ESP: An ESP which is installed downstream of the air heaters

COLLECTION SURFACE AREA: The total flat projected area of collecting surface
exposed to the active electrostatic field (length x height x 2 x number of gas passages).

CONDUCTION ANGLE: The CORONA CURRENT flows in pulses rather than as pure
direct current. The percent conduction during each half cycle, out of an available 8.33
milliseconds, (60 Hz), represents the length of time this current flows relative to the off
time of the CYCLE. Operating at the current rating of the TR Set usually means a
conduction angle of 86% exists. As the operating level of the TR Set is reduced, this angle
decreases in a somewhat linear fashion.

CONTROL EQUIPMENT: The necessary electrical components required to regulate the

potential of the high voltage system by regulating the voltage or current applied to the
primary of the high voltage transformer (also metering and protection equipment, and
controls for auxiliary electrical items such as rappers, heaters, etc.).

CONTROL CABINET: This cabinet contains the control and monitor apparatus of the
power supply. Features mainly involve low voltage breaker, overload controls, metering,
and the automatic voltage control components.

CORONA: A gaseous discharge found near an ESP discharge electrode resulting in a faint
glow caused by ionization of gas molecules due to the electric field.

CORONA CURRENT: This term signifies all the measured current flow passing from the
CORONA DISCHARGE of the DISCHARGE ELECTRODE through the gas space of the
ESP to ground, for a collecting plate area controlled by a single TR Set. It is also
commonly known as the secondary DC current and is read on the SECONDARY
AMMETER either as milliamperes or fraction of an amp.

CORONA DISCHARGE: This term represents an electrical breakdown of the flue gas at
localized small zones on the surface of the DISCHARGE ELECTRODE. Approximately
20 25 thousand volts is required to start this process on a smooth 0.1 (2.54mm) diameter
wire. Corona onset will vary with electrode design and gas passage spacing. Electrons
coming out of this localized tuft of activity primarily produce the negative gas IONS
required to properly charge the ash particles negatively so they can migrate toward the
positive ground COLLECTING SURFACE.

CORONA POWER (KW): The product of secondary current and secondary voltage.
Power density is generally expressed in terms of: (1) watts per square foot of collecting
surface, or (2) watts per 1000 ACFM of gas flow.
CURRENT DENSITY: The amount of secondary current per unit of ESP collecting
surface. Common units are ma/ft2 and nA/cm2.

CURRENT WAVE SHAPE: Usually refers to the pattern of the pulsating secondary
CORONA CURRENT as observed on an oscilloscope. As conduction angles decrease, the
waveshape tends toward peakiness. As conduction angles increase, the wave shape
approaches the look of a sine-wave.

CYCLE: Generally refers to an alternating current of 60 cycles per second which is the
standard energizing mode of the TR Sets. This means that 3600 alternating cycles per
minute are rectified into 7200 half cycles per minute and are fed into the area of the
precipitator controlled by one TR Set.

DEW POINT: The temperature at which the equilibrium vapor pressure of a liquid is
equal to the existing partial pressure of the respective vapor. (For air containing water
vapor, it is the temperature at which liquid water begins to condense for a given state of
humidity and pressure as the temperature is reduced. For flue gaining water vapor and SO
it is the set of conditions at which liquid sulfuric acid begins to condense as the
temperature is reduced.)

DIELECTRIC FLUID: A substance used to keep the transformer operating at moderate

temperature levels, and as a dielectric where space is concerned.

DISCHARGE ELECTRODE: Refers to the high voltage component which ionizes the
process gases and creates the electric field. It is shaped to provide a corona discharge when
the impressed voltage breaks the gas down at the electrode surface. This breakdown of the
gas creates corona tufts on the discharge surface. Typically, voltage applied to the
discharge electrode is of negative polarity. In many WEIGHTED WIRE designs, the
discharge electrode is a smooth round wire slightly larger than 0.1 (2.54mm) in diameter.
Barbed wire is also frequently used in part, or all of the ESP, to enhance corona
characteristics. Discharge Electrodes of the RIGID and RIGID FRAME or Mast variety are
also widely available. They can vary widely in style and shape

DEUTSCH-ANDERSON EQUATION: The Deutsch-Anderson Equation is a

mathematical formula that can be used to determine the collection efficiency of an ESP. It
states that efficiency is related to the ratio of collecting area (A) divided by the gas volume
(V) multiplied by the particle migration velocity (w). This formula is the basis for all ESP
design and performance models.

Collection Efficiency N = 1 e (A / V) w

DUST or MIST CONCENTRATION: The weight of dust or mist contained in a unit of

gas, e.g. pounds per thousand pounds of gas, grains per actual cubic foot of gas, or grains
per standard dry cubic foot (the temperature and pressure of the gas must be specified if
given as volume).

EFFLUENT: A discharge or emission of a fluid (liquid or gaseous).

ELECTRONIC TUBE RECTIFIER: A rectifier consisting of high vacuum rectifier
tubes. Can be either Air-cooled or Liquid-immersed.

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR (ESP): A single precipitator is defined by all parts

that are contained by an independent casing.

EMISSION: Release of pollutants into the air from a source.

EXCEEDANCE: Defined as a condition that is detected by the CAM plan monitoring that
provides data in terms of an emissions limitation or standard and that indicates that
emissions (or opacity) are greater than the applicable emissions standard, consistent with
any specified averaging period.

EXCESS AIR: Air in excess of the amount necessary to combust all the available fuel.

EXCURSION: Defined as a departure from an indicator or indicator range established for

monitoring under the CAM plan, consistent with any specified averaging period.

FIELD: Refers to an arrangement of one or more bus sections, oriented perpendicular to

the direction of flue gas flow, which is energized by one TR SET. The number of TR sets /
power supplies positioned in series (parallel to the gas flow), each one controlling the
collection of particles in a specific area, will typically identify the number of fields of a
precipitator.

FLY ASH: Particulate matter entrained in the flue gas stream leaving a fossil fuel fired
boiler. It consists of both ash and combustible matter.

FOSSIL FUELS: Coal, oil and natural gas; so-called because they are the remains of
ancient plant and animal life.

FUGITIVE EMISSIONS: Emissions not caught by a capture system.

FULL WAVE: This electrical term means that the 7200 rectified half cycles per minute are
fed into the full precipitator area energized or controlled by one TR Set.

FUME: Solid particulates generated by condensation from the gaseous state, generally
after volatilization from molten metal, and often accompanied by a chemical reaction, such
as oxidation. Fumes flocculate and sometime coalesce.

GAS DISTRIBUTION DEVICES: Internal elements in the transition or ductwork to

produce the desired velocity contour at the inlet and outlet face of the precipitator example:
turning vanes or perforated plates.

GAS FLOW RATE, CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE (CFM): The volume of process gas
at any point of the plant exhaust system measured in terms of minutes. There are several
units of measurement:

ACFM (Actual Cubic Feet Per Minute): The actual gas flow measured.
 SCFM (Standard Cubic Feet Per Minute): The gas flow volume reduced to 70OF
(standard temperature) by calculation.
DSCFM (Dry Standard Cubic Feet Per Minute): The gas flow reduced to 70O
(standard temperature) and without volume of steam or water vapor contained in
the exhaust gas.

GAS PASSAGE: Is the passage formed by two adjacent collector plates, normally on 9
10 (228 254mm) centers with WEIGHTED WIRE systems; 11 16 (279-406mm)
with Rigid Discharge and Rigid Frame Electrode systems. The passage can be considered
to consist of two capacitors with the negative DISCHARGE ELECTRODE at centerline
and the positive ground collecting plates forming the other electrode. This passage is where
the action takes place within the precipitator.

GAS VELOCITY: A figure obtained by dividing the volume rate of gas flow through the
precipitator by the effective cross-sectional area of the precipitator. Gas velocity is
generally expressed in terms of ft./sec. And is computed as follows:

Velocity = Gas Volume (ft3/sec.)

Effective cross-section area (ft2)

Effective cross-section is construed to be the effective field height X width of gas passage
X number of passages.

GRAIN: A dust weight unit commonly used in air pollution control. Equal to one seven
thousandth of a pound. One grain = 1/7000 lb.

GRAIN LOADING: The rate at which particles are emitted form a pollution source.
Measurement is made by the number of grains per cubic foot of gas emitted.

HALF WAVE: This term means the TR Set is energizing more than one BUS SECTIONS
and that these separate areas of the precipitator are receiving alternate pulses or 3600
rectified half cycles per minute. The TR Set will always have two outlet bushings with this
mode of hook-up. Even though each bus section operates electrically independent, the
overall operating level of the TR Set is controlled by the weakest point of the areas
controlled. On balance, with the larger TR Sets in use today, the half-wave mode is not
generally recommended.

HIGH VOLTAGE BUS SYSTEM: The high voltage (HV) bus system is used to transfer
power from the power supplies (Transformer Rectifiers) to the HV discharge electrode
frames. The bus is the conductor and is usually made of pipe/bar, cable, or a combination
of the two. Bus runs between the interlocked insulator compartments or penthouses are
enclosed in watertight bus duct. The bus is supported with insulators, usually of the
standoff / post insulator type. Thru-bushing insulators may or may not be used at the
insulator compartment / penthouse and switch housing penetrations. Ground and/or
disconnect switches may be part of the HV bus arrangement.

HIGH VOLTAGE CONDUCTORS: Conductor to transmit the high voltage from the
transformer-rectifier to the precipitator high voltage system.
HIGH VOLTAGE SELECTOR SWITCH: Is the means to selectively energize a
separate bus section when more than one bus is controlled by a TR Set. There are several
methods of high voltage isolation, but all must be accomplished with the TR Set shut down
and properly locked out. One type of switch is internal to the transformer and immersed in
the same oil as the transformer winding. Another type of switch, external to the TR tank,
isolates the high voltage circuit with a blade mechanism by withdrawing a blade from a
clip or pan disc. A third mode of isolation on the high voltage side involves actual
disconnection of a flexible lead from one TR output bushing and physically placing a
jumper between the two bushings (if one is not already in place).

HOPPERS: Hoppers located at the bottom of the precipitator casing and are used to
collect the material that has been collected and that falls off of the internal components that
are cleaned. The typical shape is pyramidal with the sides of each hopper being steep
sloped and the outlet opening is sized so that fly ash may be easily removed by an ash
removal system. Baffles are usually placed in the hoppers; they extend below the dust
level to minimize undesirable gas sneakage below the collection plates. Typically hopper
are equipped with level detectors to alarm high levels and hopper heaters which are used to
reduce corrosion and to keep the material fluidized. Hoppers are also equipped with access
doors, strike plates for manually rapping the hopper walls, and poke holes to unclog the
hopper outlets.

HOPPER CAPACITY: Total volumetric capacity of hoppers measured from a plane 10

below high voltage system or plates, whichever is lower.

HOT SIDE ESP: An ESP which is installed upstream of the air heaters.

HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER: A device used for the measurement of flow velocities and
turbulence in an ESP and its associated ductwork. It has the advantage of high sensitivity at
very low velocities and produces an electrical readout.

HUMIDITY, ABSOLUTE: The weight of water vapor per unit volume, pounds per cubic
foot or grams per cubic centimeter.

HUMIDITY, RELATIVE: The ratio of the actual partial pressure of water vapor in a
space to the saturated pressure of pure water vapor in a space to the saturated pressure of
pure water at the same temperature.

INLET DUST LOADING: A measure of the particulate matter entering an ESP expressed
in grains of particulate matter per actual cubic foot of flue gas.

IONS: Generally refers to the flue gas molecules within the gas passage that become
primarily charged negatively by the action of free electrons initiated from the CORONA
DISCHARGE. It is this ionic flow that basically charges and pushes the ash particles
toward the positive ground COLLECTING SURFACE under the influence of the
VOLTAGE FIELD. In the complex action of the gas space, some positive gas ions are also
formed which tend to promote particle deposition on the negative discharge electrode.
Negative ions by far are the most numerous in the gas space and help constitute a space
charge in the precipitation process.
IN SITU RESISTIVITY: Particle resistivity as determined by a probe inserted into the
flue gas stream. See Resistivity

INSULATOR COMPARTMENT: Enclosure for the insulator(s) supporting the high

voltage system (may contain one or more insulators, but not enclosing the roof as a whole).

LAER (Lowest Achievable Emission Rate): The rate of emissions which reflects either
the most stringent emission limit contained in the implementation plan of any state (unless
it is proved that such limitations are not achievable) or the most stringent emission limit
achieved in practice, whichever is most stringent.

LINEAR REACTOR (CLR): This is primarily a ballast of inductance placed in the low
voltage circuit to provide current limiting ability under sparkover in the ESP. Another
major advantage of a properly sized reactor is to better shape the waveform of the input
voltage to the TR Set thereby gaining a greater conduction angle of secondary current flow.
This feature has benefits for ash or dust layers that exhibit high resistivity characteristics.

KEY INTERLOCK SYSTEM: A system of locks that prevents opening the ESP access
doors while the precipitator is energized.

MACT (Maximum Achievable Control Technology): The standard with which source of
HAPs will have to comply; the CAAA defines MACT as the maximum degree of
reduction in emissions achievable for new or existing sources taking into account the
cost of achieving such reductions. MACT standards for existing sources must be at least
as stringent as the average level of control achieved at the best controlled 12 percent of
facilities, and MACT for new sources will have to be even stricter.

MANUAL MODE: This refers to the ability to remove the automatic voltage control
features from the electrical circuit by a switch in the control cabinet. In this mode, the
amount of power input to the ESP is fixed at the manual setting chosen. If excessive
sparkover occurs at this manual setting the control will not recognize nor correct this
condition. This could cause deterioration in performance as well as possible internal
damage to the DISCHARGE ELECTRODES.

MECHANICAL COLLECTOR: Devices that are functionally dependent on the laws of

mechanics governing the motion of bodies in space. They can be operated dry or wet.
When operated wet, devices are generally called scrubbers. Examples of mechanical
collectors are cyclones, settling chambers and various types of impingement collectors.

MECHANICAL RECTIFIER: A device consisting of a disc or arms with appropriately

placed contacts rotating at a synchronous speed to produce an unidirectional voltage at its
output.

MIGRATION VELOCITY: A parameter in the Deutsch-Anderson equation used to

determine the required size of an electrostatic precipitator to meet specified design
conditions. Other terminology used are W value and precipitation rate. Values are
generally stated in terms of ft/min or cm/sec
NOX (Nitrogen Oxides): Chemical compounds containing nitrogen and oxygen; react with
volatile organic compounds, in the presence of heat and sunlight, to form ozone. They are
also a major precursor to acid rain. Nationwide, approximately 45% of NOX emissions
come from mobile sources, 35% from electric utilities and 15% from industrial fuel
combustion.

OHMS LAW: The formula used to determine the relationship between Voltage (V),
Current (I) and Resistance (R). V = IR

OPACITY: Refers to the amount of light that can pass through expressed in percent
reduction of light intensity. At the stack it normally refers to the degree of visibility of an
exhaust plume. Normally measured by opacity monitors mounted in the ductwork or stack.
EPA method 9 is used to measure it visually at the stack.

OZONE: A compound consisting of three oxygen atoms that is the primary constituent of
smog. It is formed through chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving volatile organic
compounds, nitrogen oxides and sunlight. Ozone can initiate damage to the lungs as well
as damage to trees, crops and materials. There is a natural layer of ozone in the upper
atmosphere, which shields the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

PARTICLE SIZE: The diameter in mms (micrometers) of a particular piece of particulate

matter.

PARTICLE MATTER: Solid or liquid particles entrained in a gas stream.

PENTHOUSE: A weatherproof gas-tight enclosure over the precipitator to contain the

high voltage insulators.

PIGGY-BACK LAYOUT: Refers to the orientation of two or more parallel ESPs in a

piggy back arrangement (one on top of the other). This layout typically is used to minimize
space requirements.

PITOT TUBE: A common instrument used for velocity determination in ducts leading to
and from air pollution control devices.

PM 10: A EPA standard for measuring the amount of solid or liquid matter suspended in
the atmosphere (particulate matter). Refers to the amount of particulate matter under 10
micrometers in diameter. The smaller PM10 particles penetrate to the deeper portions of
the lung, affecting sensitive population groups such as children and people with respiratory
diseases.

PM 2.5: New EPA standard that limits the amount of particulate matter emissions under
2.5 micrometers in diameter.

PPM (Parts Per Million): The number of parts of a given pollutant in a million parts of
air. Units are expressed by weight or volume.

PRECIPITATOR CURRENT: The rectifier or unidirectional average current to the

precipitator measured by a milliamp meter in the ground return leg of the rectifier.
PRECIPITATOR DIMENSIONS:

1. Effective Length: Total length of collecting surface measured in the direction of

gas flow. Length between fields is to be excluded.
2. Effective Height: Total height of collecting surface measured from top to bottom.
3. Effective Width: Total number of gas passages multiplied by spacing dimension of
the collecting surface.
4. Effective Cross-Sectional Area: Effective width times effective height.

PRECIPITATOR VOLTAGE: The average DC voltage between the high voltage system
and grounded side of the precipitator.

PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE (PM): This includes the actions that detect,

preclude, or mitigate degradation of functional equipment to sustain or extend its useful
life by controlling degradation and failures to an acceptable level. There are three types of
preventive maintenance: periodic, predictive, and planned.

PERIODIC MAINTENANCE: is a form of preventive maintenance consisting of

servicing, parts replacement, surveillance, or testing at predetermined intervals of calendar
time, operating time, or number of cycles.

PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE: is a form of preventive maintenance performed

continuously or at intervals governed by observed condition to monitor, diagnose, or trend
the equipments functional or condition indicators. Results indicate current and future
functional ability or the nature and schedule for planned maintenance.

PLANNED MAINTENANCE: is a form of preventive maintenance consisting of

refurbishment or replacement that is scheduled and performed prior to failure of the
equipment.

CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE: includes actions that restore, by repair, overhaul, or

replacement, the capability of any failed equipment so it can function within acceptance
criteria.

PRIMARY AMMETER: This meter measures the current flow through the low voltage
primary winding of the TR Set in alternating current amperes. The meter normally receives
its signal from a current transformer in the primary circuit. Dividing this indicated current
by the turns-ratio of the TR Set will provide the level of AC current in the secondary
winding.

PRIMARY CURRENT: Current in the transformer primary as measured by an AC

ammeter.

PRIMARY VOLTAGE: The voltage as indicated by an AC voltmeter across the primary

of the transformer.

PRIMARY VOLTMETER: This meter measures the voltage drop across the primary
winding of the high voltage transformer in the TR Set. The voltage can be measured in
various manners, but the object is not to include any other equipment or apparatus within
the measurement point located at the main power cables going directly to the TR Set. With
recent SCR controls, the true value of this voltage varies with the waveform at different
levels of load current.

POWER INPUT: Generally refers to the corona power of the ESP which is the average
DC voltage multiplied by the corona DC current. Without actual secondary circuit meters,
an approximate DC power input in watts would be between 65 to 70% of the primary AC
circuit volt-amperes. A key point here is not to rely on power as the criterion of good
precipitation. Good precipitation requires adequate VOLTAGE FIELDS; the current
observed will be a reflection of many factors. Thus, we have to evaluate the values of
proper power input more in terms of how the voltage relates to the current than by the
product of the two terms.

RACT (Reasonably Available Control Technology): An emission limitation on existing

sources in nonattainment areas, defined by EPA in a Control Techniques Guideline (CTG)
and adopted and implemented by states. Under Title I of the CAAA, EPA will establish
RACT standards for marginal, moderate and serious nonattainment areas.

RAPPERS COLLECTING SURFACES: These are devices, generally located at the

top of the ESP or bottom of the collecting plates, which periodically impart a shock to the
collecting surfaces to help dislodge the collected material into the hopper system. The final
collection efficiency of the precipitator is often determined by how well this process is
conducted. The object is to dislodge the material from the collector surface in small clumps
or patches without building excessive dust layer thicknesses. This is a complex part of
precipitation, but it is more important to know that reliability of rapper operation holds
priority over timing, impact force and other aspects of this system.

RAPPERS HIGH VOLTAGE: These rapper devices impart a vibration or shock to the
high voltage frame supporting the discharge electrodes. The object is to keep the buildups
on these electrodes from affecting the corona discharge pattern. The discharge electrodes
will generally exhibit irregular coatings of various size and shape. Whether the buildups
observed during outage inspections are detrimental can usually be determined by an
analysis of electrical readings during periods of operation. It is usually better to operate
with some buildup than employ excessive rapping forces that can result in failure of
DISCHARGE ELECTRODES.

RAPPER INSULATOR: A device to electrically isolate discharge electrode rappers yet

transmit mechanically, forces necessary to create vibration or shock in the high voltage
system.

RAPPING INTENSITY: The g force measured at various points on collecting or

discharge electrodes. Measured forces should be specified as longitudinal or transverse.

REENTRAINMENT: Re-entrainment, usually is associated with rapper re-entrainment,

which refers to the reintroduction of particulate back into to the gas stream from the
discharge electrodes and collecting surfaces during rapping. Re-entrainment can also result
from gas sweepage when gases bypass the treatment zone of the ESP and disturb collection
zones such as hoppers. High velocity zones and external influences, such as ambient air
infiltration of the casing or hopper, can also promote particulate re-entrainment. Re-
entrainment can substantially lower the ESP collection efficiency.

RESISTIVITY: This term is most critical for the fly ash precipitator because it directly
controls the levels of voltage and current observed at most installations. Resistivity refers
to the electrical resistance of the ash layer after it forms on the positive ground
COLLECTING SURFACE. If the resistance level is high, the corona current passing
through the ash layer must be generally reduced or BACK CORONA effects will reduce
performance of the ESP. The range of resistivity is primarily affected by the chemistry of
the ash, moisture in the flue gas, levels of sulfur trioxide, and flue gas temperature.
Resistivity effects are generally observed by the occurrence of SPARKOVER on most ESP
fields at some reduced level of voltage and current. Operation in a good zone of resistivity
allows the ash layer on the collector plate to bond sufficiently for optimum ESP
performance and helps to reduce REENTRAINMENT. When resistivity drops to low
levels, the ash layer on the collecting surface allows current to flow through it without
restriction and it is easily re-entrained back into the gas stream. This condition is generally
characterized by high corona current levels without the occurrence of sparkover.

RIGID DISCHARGE ELECTRODE (RDE) DESIGN: This term refers to precipitators

utilizing rigid discharge electrodes, such as the pipe and spike variety, for its discharge
electrode rather than a weighted wire type of high voltage system.

RIGID FRAME DESIGN: This term refers to precipitators utilizing rigid frames with
tensioned discharge electrodes between supporting members. Frame shapes can vary from
rectangular tubular pipes with horizontal cross members to Mast frames with a vertical
primary support and horizontal cross members in a T configuration. Electrode styles and
shapes can also vary widely. Rigid frame designs are almost exclusive to European design
precipitators and are typically rapped by tumbling hammer rappers located within the gas
stream.

SAFETY GROUNDING DEVICE: A device for physically grounding the high voltage
system prior to personnel entering the precipitator. (The most common type consists of a
conductor, one end of which is grounded to the casing, the other and attached to the high
voltage system using an insulated operating lever.

SATURABLE CORE REACTOR: This is a method of voltage control for the

precipitator that has been superseded in recent years by the SCR. The saturable core reactor
passed the primary current through a substantial winding on an iron core. The voltage
output of this device varied by the level of DC current through a control winding and its
subsequent effect on the saturation flux of the reactor core. This control was used
extensively for years and still exists at some locations. A disadvantage was a slower
response to sparkover conditions.

SCA (Specific Collecting Area): The quotient of the total collecting area (A) divide by the
total gas volume (V) handled by the ESP multiplied by 1000. SCA is commonly expressed
as ft2/1000 acfm (m2 / (m3/sec).

SELENIUM RECTIFIER: A rectifier consisting of selenium cells (fluid immersed).

SPECIFIC COLLECTING AREA (SCA): A figure obtained by dividing total effective
collecting surface of the precipitator by gas volume, expressed in thousands of actual cubic
feet per minute.

SPECIFIC CORONA POWER: The quotient of the total corona power of all precipitator
bus sections divided by the total gas volume handled by the precipitator, multiplied by
1000 Units are expressed as watts/1000 acfm.

SCFM (Standard Cubic Feet Per Minute): The volume that a gas would occupy at
standard temperature and pressure conditions (70OF and 14.7 PSIA). See gas flow rate.

SCR: Selective Catalytic Reduction is the most advanced and efficient process for NOx
reduction. SCR technology is based upon the conversion (reduction) of NOx (NO2 and
NO) with ammonia (NH3) into water (H2O) and nitrogen (N2). A catalyst is used to speed
up the conversion rate. The term SCR is used to describe both for the technology and the
apparatus that that is used.

SCR CONTROLS (Silicon-Controlled Rectifier): Silicon controlled rectifiers are the

most extensively used method of voltage control in recent years, and consists of two
silicon rectifiers mounted in an inverse parallel fashion in the primary AC circuit of the TR
Set. Thyristors are also used instead of silicon diodes, but the principle is basically
identical. These devices are normally open in both directions until a small gate signal is
applied which allows the SCR to conduct in one direction. The output is controlled by the
strength of the current flow in the gate circuit which receives its signal from either the
AUTOMATIC or MANUAL mode operation of the voltage controller.

SCRUBBER: A device that uses a liquid spray to remove aerosol and gaseous pollutants
from an air stream. The gases are removed either by absorption or chemical reaction. Solid
and liquid particulates are removed through contact with the spray. Scrubbers are used for
both the measurement and control of pollution.

SECONDARY AMMETER: This meter measures the average DC secondary current,

which is actually the precipitator corona current passing through the ground path on its
return to the rectifier connection of the TR Set so as to complete the electrical circuit. This
meter has a low resistance movement and the scale reads in milliamperes or amps
depending on the size of the TR Set. The secondary current waveform can usually be
observed by connecting an oscilloscope across the meter. There is usually a shorting device
or surge arrestor across the meter for protection. Under no circumstance should the leads
be removed from this type of meter with the TR set energized. Another method generally
used is a meter measuring a voltage across a resistor and calibrated as a current meter.

SECONDARY VOLTMETER: This measurement is made between the rectifier output

and the outlet bushing of the TR Set by use of a voltage divider installed inside the tank.
With older TR Sets, it is possible to obtain the average precipitator voltage, usually read as
average DC kilovolts, by installation of a retrofit voltage divider at the outlet bushing of
the TR Set. The indicated voltage represents the voltage from the discharge electrode to
ground, comprising both the voltage drop across the gas space as well as the ash layer on
the collecting surface. It actually is a measurement of the dielectric resistance and
represents all the characteristics of the precipitator load.
SHROUD: Refers to a steel tube or rod installed at the top and bottom of a wire discharge
electrode. The purpose of this shroud, approximately 3/8 (9.5mm) outside diameter, is to
eliminate the corona discharge opposite the top and bottom termination of the collector
plate. The enlarged radius of the shroud would require a higher voltage than required by
the wire to initiate a corona tuft. The shrouds usually extend about 4 6 inches (102
152mm) into the gas passage. Prevention of localized sparkover at these critical points
eliminates premature wire failure due to electric erosion.

SILICON DIODE BRIDGE: The diode assembly converts the high voltage AC to DC
voltage. These bridges are normally made up individual diodes connected in series. The
number of diodes used will vary by manufacturer from 20 to several hundred.

SNCR (Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction): As the name implies this form of NOx
reduction technology does not use a catalyst as with SCR NOx reduction technology. With
the SNCR technology, ammonia or ammonia-based compounds, such as urea, are injected
into the furnace at specific temperatures. These temperatures are much higher than those
for an SCR, the optimum being around 1400 to 2000 F. The NOx reduction reactions are
very sensitive to temperature and ammonia slip is a common problem.

SO2: Sulfur dioxide is an invisible, nonflammable acidic gas, formed during combustion of
fuel containing sulfur.

SO3: Sulfur trioxide oxidized from SO2; combines with atmospheric moisture to form
sulfuric acid mist (H2SO4).

SPARKOVER: Is a localized electrical breakdown in the gas space between the high
voltage system and ground. This generally occurs between the DISCHARGE
ELECTRODE and COLLECTING SURFACE. This breakdown, or flashover, can occur
when the physical clearance has been reduced so that the operating voltage is greater than
the space will allow. More often, sparkover will occur when the resistivity of the ash layer
on the collecting surface reaches critical levels. Premature sparkover at extreme low levels
of voltage can often be observed with a combination of higher resistivity and internal
difficulties such as reduced electrical clearances.

During a significant sparkover, the basic collapse of the VOLTAGE FIELD occurs which
should always cause a downward flick of the VOLTMETER needles. A small number of
sparks per minute is generally desirable in fly ash precipitators as long as it occurs at
reasonable levels of voltage and current.

SPARKMETER: This meter attempts to represent the number of sparks per minute by
integrating these transient surges by some type of capacitance circuit. In most locations
where spark-meters still exist, replacement of the automatic voltage controls will
discontinue its use. In all cases, representation of the ESP sparkover by a meter can be
misleading. For all practical purposes, it is recommended that a visual count or evaluation
of the flicks of the voltmeter needle be made on a per minute basis to better gauge the
spark rate. Spark rates as high as 60 to 70 per minute can be easily observed. This is
generally at the higher range that should exist on most modern installations. At this higher
sparkover level, the meter needle must still come to rest many times during any given
minute.
STRUCTURAL STEEL: The precipitator casing is support by a structure steel system
that is typically only tied to the ESP in one fixed location to allow the ESP casing to grow
and expand independently during normal operation. The casing columns rest on a slide
plate or slide bearing in all other areas.

SUPPORT INSULATOR: This term refers to the ceramic component that supports and
isolates the high voltage frame from ground potential. Recent designs involve an alumina
cylinder that also acts as a gas seal at the top frame locations. The surface of the insulator
is sensitive to electrical leakage to ground if condensation or contamination is allowed to
occur. Purge air and heater applications are two methods used to minimize insulator
failures.

TR RATING: The transformer rectifier (TR) should be sized to supply sufficient current
for the area of the precipitator to which it is connected. The nameplate shows a KVA size,
primary and secondary voltage ratings, and primary and secondary current ratings. These
values are of most interest. The nameplate should show whether the primary winding is
tapped for more than one voltage connection. A key point here is that the actual electrical
performance of the ESP may in no way resemble any of the values shown on the
nameplate.

TR SET: Is the term for the high voltage transformer and rectifier that provides the
electrical energy for a given precipitator area. These components involve a specially
wound transformer that supplies a RMS secondary voltage sized on the basis of GAS
PASSAGE spacing and discharge electrode design. An RMS secondary voltage of about
53,500 volts AC (45 KV DC average) is utilized for the 9 (228mm) wide GAS PASSAGE
of most weighted wire precipitators; 77,300 volts AC (65 KV DC average) for most of the
12 (305mm) wide GAS PASSAGE of rigid electrode precipitators.

This AC voltage is usually rectified through a silicon diode bridge circuit in most existing
TR Sets. Rated DC voltages are usually specified at the 45,000 50,000 volt level for 9-
10 (228 254mm) plate spacing; the 55,000 65,000 volt level for 11-12 (279
305mm) plate spacing; the 70,000 90,000 volt level for 15-16 plate spacing. Other
pertinent data can be observed on the metal nameplate of each tank. While the voltages are
generally similar between TR Sets, the current ratings vary greatly based on the anticipated
load requirements of the particular ESP FIELD. While the KVA rating is used, it is also
common practice to specify the size of the TR Set by its corona current rating in
milliamperes.

TR TURNS RATIO: Expresses the number of turns in the secondary winding of the
transformer for every turn in the primary winding. For example, a TR Set with a 400 volt
primary rating relative to a 53,500 volt secondary would have an approximate ratio of 133
turns in the secondary winding.

TRANSITION: An aerodynamically designed inlet or outlet duct connection to the

precipitator. Transitions are normally included as part of the precipitator.

TREATMENT TIME: A figure, in seconds, obtained by dividing the effective length, in

feet, of a precipitator by the precipitator gas velocity figure calculated above.
TURNING VANES: Vanes in ductwork or transition to guide the gas and dust flow
through the ductwork in order to minimize pressure drop and to control the velocity and
dust concentration contours.

V-I CURVE: Usually refers to a plot of secondary voltage versus secondary current for a
single TR set in which the shape of the plotted curve might indicate a number of internal
operating characteristics of the precipitator. An important part of these measurements is the
indicated voltage at the threshold of corona current. While normally obtained during air
load, these curves sometimes can be developed during operating periods

VOLTAGE DIVIDER: A means for supplying a low voltage feedback signal that is
proportional to the KV output of the TR.

VOLTAGE FIELD: Refers to the high voltage field generated between the negative
discharge electrode and positive collecting surface at ground potential. This field supplies
the charging mechanism and driving force for the removal of the particles from the flue gas
stream. Desirable values of this field strength would lie between 4 to 5 kilovolts per inch of
space.

VOLTAGE WAVE SHAPE: The pulsating DC voltage in the precipitator will show peak
and minimum values that vary in magnitude about the average as observed on a secondary
KV meter. The peak voltage is based somewhat on the peak AC magnitude while the
minimum voltage is based on the capacitance resistance effect on the decay characteristics
of the voltage field in the gas passage. The conduction time of the secondary current will
be a factor. With low capacitance conditions, the minimum point might coincide with the
threshold corona producing voltage on the discharge electrode.

WEATHER ENCLOSURE:

Upper Weather Enclosure A non gas-tight enclosure on the roof of the

precipitator to shelter equipment (TR sets, rappers, purge air fans, etc.) and
maintenance personnel.
Lower Weather Enclosure A non gas-tight enclosure at base of precipitators to
protect hoppers from wind and/or detrimental weather condition.

WEIGHTS: This term refers to the cast iron weight attached to the bottom of the wire
discharge electrode to keep it taut, much like the effect of a plumb-bob. These weights are
about 25 lbs. (11.3kg) for most installations. The weights are positioned and retained in a
bottom guide frame for maintenance of wire alignment at the center line of the gas passage.

WEIGHTED WIRE DESIGN: This term refers to precipitators utilizing the wire and
weight for its discharge electrode rather than a rigid type of high voltage system.
Introduction to Electrostatic Precipitators
As you may know, particulate matter (PM) is a common industrial air pollutant that is
harmful to human health and must be controlled in order to minimize its harmful effects. In
many industrial plants, particulate matter created in the industrial process is carried as dust
in the hot exhaust gases. These dust-laden gases pass through an electrostatic precipitator
that collects most of the dust. Cleaned gas then passes out of the precipitator and through a
stack to the atmosphere. Precipitators typically collect 99.9% or more of the dust from the
gas stream.

Particle pollution is not isolated to a few geographic locations or even a few industries; but
is pervasive across a wide variety of industries all over the world. In the United States the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates particulate emissions for various
industries, and as a result, provoked industry to respond with various control devices that
enable these regulations to be met.

Of the major particulate collection devices available today, electrostatic precipitators

(ESPs) are one of the more frequently used options. It is designed to trap and remove dust
particles from the exhaust gas stream of an industrial process. These devices depend on
electrostatic attraction to capture particles from industrial processes, and are adaptable to
many applications. Depending on the design, ESPs are capable of handling large gas
volumes across a wide range of temperatures, pressures, dust volumes, and acid gas
conditions. They can collect a wide range of particle sizes, in either dry or wet states, and
are cable of achieving collection efficiencies greater than 99.5%. Though they are not
always the appropriate PM removal solution, they are popular among these industries:

Power/Electric
Cement
Chemicals
Metals
Paper

Electrostatic precipitators function by electrically charging PM within a passing gas

stream, inducing the particles to be attracted to and deposited on grounded plates or some
other grounded collecting surface. When a layer of dust has accumulated, the collectors are
shaken to dislodge the particles, causing them to fall with the force of gravity to hoppers
below. The collected PM is then removed from the ESP by a conveyor system for disposal
or recycling.

Depending upon flue gas chemistry and the gas volume to be treated, there are many
different sizes, types and designs of electrostatic precipitators. However, they all operate
using the same principles and key components.

Electrostatic precipitation removes particles from the exhaust gas stream of an industrial
process. Often the process involves combustion, but it can be any industrial process that
would otherwise emit particles to the atmosphere. Six activities typically take place:

Ionization Charging of particles

Migration Transporting the charged particles to the collecting surfaces
 Collection Precipitation of the charged particles onto the collecting surfaces
Charge Dissipation Neutralizing the charged particles on the collecting surfaces
Particle Dislodging Removing the particles from the collecting surface to the
hopper
Particle Removal Conveying the particles from the hopper to a disposal point

The major precipitator components that accomplish these activities are as follows:

Discharge Electrodes
Power Components
Precipitator Controls
Rapping Systems
Purge Air Systems
Flue Gas Conditioning / Sorbent Injection Systems
Introduction to ESPs: Theory of Operations
All PM either has or can be given a charge positive or negative. Lets suppose we impart
a negative charge to all the particles within a gas stream. Then suppose we set up a
grounded plate having a positive charge in the same vicinity. What would happen? The
negatively charged particle would migrate to the grounded collection plate and be captured
due to electrostatic attraction, this is the same phenomenon that causes a balloon to stick to
the wall after rubbing it on your hair. As particles collect on the plate, a dust layer would
form and accumulate until it was removed with some force that is able to overcome the
attractive forces, which we could do by rapping the plate or spraying it with a liquid.
Charging, collecting, removing thats the basic idea of an ESP.
Introduction to ESPs: Theory of Operations: Charging
Charging

A typical ESP has thin wires called discharge electrodes (DE), which are evenly spaced
between large plates called collection electrodes (CE). Think of an electrode as something
that can conduct or transmit electricity. In the case of an ESP, a negative, high-voltage,
pulsating, direct current is applied to the DEs in order to create a negative electric field and
induce ionization of the passing PM. For the sake of understanding the charging process,
the negative electric field can be mentally divided into three regions. The first region is
right next to the discharge electrode, where the field is the strongest. The second region
includes space between the DE and CE called the inter-electrode region, and is weaker than
the first. The third region is located near the collection electrode and has the weakest field
strength of all.

Corona Discharge: Free Electron Generation

The first region is where the particle charging process begins, and in this small area
immediately surrounding the discharge electrode several things happen very rapidly (in a
matter of a millisecond). As voltage applied to the DE is increased, it eventually reaches a
point when the electric field around the conductor is high enough to form a conductive
region, but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or arcing to nearby objects. This
phenomenon is commonly referred to as corona discharge and can be seen by the human
eye as a luminous blue glow surrounding the DE. As free electrons created by the corona
discharge are repulsed by the negative electric field, they move faster and faster away from
the DE. This acceleration causes the electrons to literally crash into passing gas molecules
and occasionally knock off some of their electrons. As these gas molecules lose electrons
that are negatively charged, they become positively charged ions. So, this is the first thing
that happens gas molecules are ionized, and electrons are liberated. All this activity
occurs very close to the discharge electrode, and as the process continues, it creates more
and more free electrons and positive ions. The name for all of this electron generation is
avalanche multiplication.

Ionization of Gas Molecules

As electrons leave the strong electrical field region surrounding the discharge electrode,
they enter the inter-electrode region where they begin to lose energy and slow down.
Though there are still gas molecules in the inter-electrode region, the electrons kind of
bump up to them and get captured instead of violently colliding with them, creating
negative gas ions. Now we have ionization of gas molecules happening near the discharge
electrode as well as in the inter-electrode area, but with a big difference. The ions created
near the discharge electrode are positive and remain in that area. However, because the
ions created in the inter-electrode area are negative, they want to move with the electrons
in the direction opposite the strong negative field.

Charging & Migration

Before PM can be captured, it must first acquire a negative charge and the negative gas
ions created in the inter-electrode region play a crucial role in this process. When PM and
negative gas ions cross paths, the gas ions stick to the particles and impart a negative
charge to them. At first the charge is fairly insignificant, as most particles are huge
compared to a gas molecule, but many gas ions can fit on a single particle, and they do.
Small particles (less than 1 m diameter) can absorb tens of ions, while large particles
(greater than 10 m) can absorb tens of thousands of ions. Eventually, there are so many
ions sticking to the particles, that the particles begin to emit their own negative electric
field. When this happens, the negative fields surrounding the saturated particles start to
repulse negative gas ions and no additional ions are acquired. This is called the saturation
charge and is responsible for inducing the PMs inescapable pull of electrostatic attraction,
or migration. Bigger particles have a higher saturation charge and are consequently pulled
more strongly to the collection plate than smaller particles that have a smaller saturation
charge. Regardless of size, the particles eventually encounter the CE and stick due to
adhesive and cohesive forces.
Introduction to ESPs: Theory of Operations: Collecting
Collecting

Lets stop here and reassess whats taking place inside the precipitator. Gas molecules
around the discharge electrode are positively ionized and generate an avalanche of free
electrons. These free electrons race as fast as they can away from the strong negative field
that surrounds the discharge electrode and get captured as they encounter gas molecules in
the inter-electrode area. This creates negative gas ions that then accumulate on nearby PM
and the net result is negatively charged particles that are repulsed by the negative electric
field surrounding the DE and strongly attracted to the CE. This induces the negatively
charge PM to migrate toward the grounded collection plate where it accumulates, and all of
this happens in the blink of an eye.

Precipitation of Particulate Matter

The point when PM sticks to the CE and starts to form a layer is called precipitation. The
chemistry definition of precipitation is the process of separating a substance from a
solution as a solid. In the case of ESPs, PM matter is separated from the flue-gas solution
by electrostatic attraction that causes it to precipitate onto the collection plate.
Neutralization & Clamping Forces

Once charged PM reaches the grounded CE, the charge on the particle is partially
discharged and slowly leaked to the grounded collection plate. It is this retained charge that
contributes to the inter-molecular adhesive and cohesive forces that holds the PM onto the
CE. Adhesive forces cause the particles to physically hold on to each other because of their
dissimilar surfaces. Newly arrived particles are held to the collected particles by cohesive
forces; particles are attracted and held to each other molecularly. The accumulating dust
layer is allowed to build up on the plate until a desired thickness is achieved and the
particle removal cycle is initiated.
Introduction to ESPs: Theory of Operations: Removal
Particulate matter that has accumulated to a certain thickness on the CE is removed by one
of two processes, depending on the type of CE used. Collection electrodes in ESPs can be
either plates or tubes, with plates being the more common of the two. Tubes-type ESPs are
usually cleaned by water sprays, while plates can be cleaned by either water sprays or a
process called rapping. We will focus on the latter.

Rapping: Dislodging Particulate Matter

Rapping is a process whereby deposited, dry particles are dislodged from the CE by
sending mechanical impulses, or vibrations, to the plates. Precipitator plates are rapped
periodically while maintaining the continuous flue-gas cleaning process. In other words,
the plates are rapped while the ESP is on-line; the gas flow continues through the ESP and
the applied voltage remains constant. Plates are rapped when the accumulated dust layer is
relatively thick (0.08 to 1.27 cm) so that the dust layer is coaxed to fall off the plates as
large aggregate sheets instead of small sections, helping to minimize re-entrainment. Most
precipitators have adjustable rappers that allow rapper intensity and frequency to be
changed according to the dust concentration in the flue gas. Precipitator fields with heavy
dust concentrations require more frequent rapping than fields with light dust
concentrations.
Recycle or Disposal

As PM is dislodged from CEs, is falls into the hopper. A hopper is a dedicated collection
bin with sides sloping approximately 50 to 70o so that PM is allowed to flow freely from
the top of the hopper to the discharge opening in the bottom. Particulate matter collected in
hoppers should be removed as soon as possible in order to avoid packing that is very
difficult to remove. Most hoppers are emptied by some type of discharge device and then a
conveyor transports the collected PM to its final destination for recycling or disposal.

In an ESP using liquid sprays to remove accumulated PM, the sludge collects in a holding
basin at the bottom of the vessel. The sludge is then sent to settling ponds of lined landfills
for proper ultimate disposal. Spraying can occur while the ESP is on-line and is typically
intermittent. While water is generally used as the spraying liquid in wet ESPS, other
liquids could be used if absorption of gaseous pollutants is also a goal.
Maintenance
EMR Rapper Maintenance
Rapping is an essential component of the collection and removal processes and an integral
part of precipitator performance. Ineffective rapping can lead to build-up, re-entrainment,
and reduced power levels. Periodically checking your rappers to ensure proper
connections and functioning can help support consistent precipitator performance. Below
are some helpful tips to ensure the continued proper operation of your equipment.

How can I check the operation of my EMR2 rappers?

1. Check your lift height. This will be the primary indicator if the rapper needs to be
replaced. See our video on how to check lift height.
2. Make sure its properly seated on the shaft. The rapper shaft needs to seat up
against the strike plate in the mounting of the rapper to assure transfer of rapping
energy.
3. Check for corrosion on the housing and around the junction box. Water in-leakage
will corrode the internals and cause coil failures.
4. Check for missing or loose bolts at the flange. Replace or tighten as necessary.
5. Check electrical connections in the junction box.
Precipitator Inspections
Inspections & Maintenance

An effective electrostatic precipitator inspection is part of routine equipment maintenance.

For example, at the municipal utilities power station in Sikeston, Missouri, precipitator
blast-cleaning is done every year along with a walk-through and routine rapper tune-ups.
Complete detail inspections and larger repairs are scheduled every other year during longer
outages.

By keeping up with this maintenance, and also doing a more thorough inspection every
other year, we get a lot more longevity out of the run, explains Ed Boyd, Sikestons
electrical supervisor and project engineer, who has been in the industry for 34 years.

Any inspection, whether a quick walk-through or a more lengthy check-up, requires some
legwork up front, and a plan for prioritization during and afterward. This article outlines
best practices for a smooth inspection. If youre doing the inspection yourself, treat this as
a checklist. If youre hiring a contractor, make sure these steps are part of their routine
procedure.

First, clarify desired outcomes of the inspection with whoever will get a report afterward
and is authorized to act on recommendations. Having a clear objective up front will save
time, money and headaches later. The scope of work for a preventative maintenance (PM)
inspection will be different from one focused on troubleshooting specific problems.

Next, get background information from people responsible for operating each area of the
equipment (electrical, mechanical, ash handling). Ask these people if there are specific
issues theyre troubleshooting. Piecing this information together will provide a picture of
current operating conditions and possible problem areas. For example, electrical issues
might be traceable back to hopper pluggage.

Its easy to get sidetracked or impatient looking for people who have this information,
notes Jim Parsons, Senior Environmental Consultant at Neundorfer, who has been doing
inspections for 30 years. But its worth spending the time gathering background
information and clarifying expectations before jumping in the ESP box.

Background information gathered ahead of the inspection should include original design
specifications. These specs enable you to create an accurate precipitator layout form (a grid
showing the location of plates, wires and other components) to mark with notes during the
inspection. A layout form is especially vital if youre inspecting a large precipitator;
without a map showing where things are located, the job can be daunting.

After a while, its like walking around in a cave with sunglasses on, Parsons says. You
can easily get overwhelmed if you dont have a clear idea of what to look for.

With design specs, information about troubleshooting efforts, and understanding about
expectations, you can effectively prioritize where to begin and what to look for during the
inspection.
Before actually heading into the precipitator, of course, make sure all safety protocols
including tag-out and lock-outare being followed. This is high-voltage equipment and not
something to mess around with.

Usually, the inspection scope of work includes a standard list of maintenance items and at
least a few requests to look for specific problems. At Sikeston, inspection work is
prioritized first based on job tickets, such as a report of rappers not operating properly. Its
also standard practice to check for broken insulators.

We start with anything thats obvious from the outside, Boyd explains. Then, we go
inside and look for anything unusual.

Things can get pretty interesting during an inspection if you are troubleshooting specific
issues, but even a routine maintenance walk-through will turn up items in one area that
impact performance elsewhere and require further investigation.

If an ash line is clogged and we find foreign material when clearing it, during the
inspection we go look for where that material came from, Boyd notes, citing one
troubleshooting example. Or, if we do a quick inspection of the high voltage area and find
arcing, we know there is moisture and we need to look for leaks.

Finally, an exit review meeting should be part of any inspection. During this meeting, give
the person youre reporting to a punch list of items that need to be addressed right away.

A punch list is different from the more detailed report youll submit later, which will focus
on longer-term follow-up. For example, if you find bowed plates in a section of the
precipitator, the punch list might recommend pulling wires in those areas to prevent
electrical shorts. The longer report would specify that the plates need to be straightened or
replaced.

Its important that any inspection be performed by experienced professionals who

understand how all components of the system work, know what to look for, and are
informed about how to prioritize what needs maintenance immediately and what can wait.

Purpose

Internal inspections of Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) are a necessary part of

maintaining the mechanical portion of the electrical to obtain maximum performance. In
some instances, when performance is deemed acceptable prior to a scheduled outage,
inspections often overlook specific internal areas that can detract from collection efficiency
during the next on-line period of the ESP. Detailed internal inspections are required to
properly schedule current and future maintenance and as a prelude to failures. The
following are recommendations, generic in nature, for the conduction of an inspection that
will time freeze the condition of the internal ESP components.
Legal Notice

CAUTION Inspections should only be accomplished under the direction of personnel

familiar with all Electrostatic Precipitator Safety procedures. It is important that proper
grounding procedures and removal of all sources of power be accomplished prior to
entering the Precipitator. LETHAL VOLTAGES CAN BE PRESENT AND CAN LEAD
TO DEATH BY ELECTROCUTION IF THE PROPER PROCEDURES ARE NOT
FOLLOWED. Hot dust may be present on the interior surface of the ESP. These dust
deposits may be cool on the surface, but the interior of the deposit may retain sufficient
heat to cause SEVERE BURNS ESPECIALLY WHEN OPENING HOPPER DOORS.
CONSULT YOUR PLANTS SAFETY MANUAL FOR PROPER PROCEDURES.
Neundorfer, Inc. is not responsible for any damages or injury as the result of this document
and the use of the document is at the sole risk of the USER and NOT Neundorfer, Inc.

Pre-Inspection Preparation

1. Take electrical readings from all High Voltage Controls (MC) at normal operating
conditions.
2. If possible, take a set of V-I Curves for each MVC identifying the corona onset
voltage. (First flow of secondary current).
3. Record all Rapper Control Parameters including cycle times, time between raps and
intensities.
4. Develop Cell Diagrams of each ESP Field showing every Collecting Electrode
(CE) and Discharge Electrode (DE) with numbers on CEs and Gas Passages (GP).
5. Develop Roof Plan Diagrams of the ESP showing the Transformer-Rectifiers (T-
R), CE and DE Rappers and locations of High Voltage Support and Rapper Shaft
Insulators.
6. As soon as the Fuel supply is turned off (I.E. coal mills stopped, wood/wood waste
feeders stopped, Black Liquor Guns pulled, etc.) Turn off the Rapper Controls.
7. Leave the T-R sets on until the Fans are shutdown.
8. After Fan shutdown, turn off the MVCs.
9. Remove all ash from the Hoppers.
10. Follow specific owner and ESP Manufacturer instructions for Key Interlock Lock-
Out and Tag-Out of the Transformer-Rectifiers.
11. Follow specific owner and ESP Manufacturer instructions for entry into the
Precipitator following all grounding, entry and Personal Protection Equipment
(PPE) procedures.

Dirty Inspection

The purpose of the Dirty Inspection is to examine dust deposits on the ESP internals. It
becomes a guide for determining the effectiveness of the Rapping System, Flue Gas
Conditioning System (if equipped), Gas Flow Distribution and unusual build-ups, etc.
Dust deposits not compacted by the ESP electrical forces are often quite fragile so
minimum disturbance is recommended.
1. Observe dust deposits in inlet and outlet ductwork and diffusers (I.E. Nozzles
and/or Plenums, etc.), gas distribution devices (such as Turning Vanes, Perforated
Distribution Plates) and any other internal struts, braces, etc.
2. Conduct a GP by GP inspection noting the depth of dust deposits on the CEs and
the characteristics of the particulate. (I.E. Color, Density, Muddy, Cement like, etc.)
Note if deposits are more in a given area. (Measuring depths is recommended.)
Inspect all lower and mid-point CE horizontal spacers and CE Alignment devices
attached to the Casing.
3. Inspect all DEs noting dust deposits on the DEs and Lower Discharge Electrode
Frame (LDE). (DE deposits could be light, donuts, smooth, pointy, etc.) Examine
the condition of the lower Anti-Sway insulators is so equipped, especially for
carbon and tracking.
4. Measure and record all CE to DE spacing.
5. Look down into the hoppers and note any buildups in the corners, valley angles and
baffles.
6. From the inside of the Penthouse or Insulator Compartments inspect all High
Voltage Support and Rapper Shaft Insulators noting dust deposits, cracked and/or
tracking.
7. Inspect all other High Voltage Insulators such as Standoff, Feed-Through, etc, for
dust deposits and tracking.
8. Inspect all Buss Ducts and High Voltage Conductors and connections.
9. Observe dusting on the interior surfaces of the Penthouse or Insulator
Compartments. Observe any air-in and water-in leakages.
10. Open Hot Roof access doors noting gasket, hold-downs and corrosion.
 11. Inspect the Upper Discharge Electrode Frame (UDE) and tops of CEs noting dust
build-up and dust characteristics.
12. Check the UDE Frame for vertical position from the tops of the CEs in four
locations.
13. Check the High Voltage Support Insulators from the top of the UDE frame and the
corona shield (if so furnished) noting any corrosion or miss-alignment of the UDE
Support Rod or Pipe. Check all welds of the Support Rod/Pipe to the UDE Frame.
14. Check all DE connections to the UDE Frame noting any corrosion or electrical
erosion. Look for bent or twisted DEs and bent emitter pins (Rigid Discharge
Electrodes).
15. At approximately the four outermost corners of the UDE Frame Measure the DE to
CE Spacing in the direction and perpendicular to Gas Flow. This will determine the
relative position of the UDE Frame with regard to the CE System. Place a level on
the UDE frame between Support Rods/Pipes and record.
16. Check all CE suspension bolts and Rapper Shaft connections to the CEs and/or CE
Suspension. Inspect all welds.
17. Look for any water-in leakage and/or corrosion on the sidewalls and girders of the
casing and underside of the hot roof. Pay close attention to any penetrations in the
hot roof including High Voltage Support Lifting Rod Nipples and Rapper Shafts.
18. From the Hopper Access Doors Inspect all internal hopper surfaces and Door
Condition.
19. Exhausted and dirty, clean up and take a well-deserved break while transposing
notes to the Cell and Roof Plan Diagrams.

Interpretation of Dirty Inspection Results

1. From the dust deposits and DE to CE Spacing recorded on the Cell Diagrams,
compare these to the electrical readings taken ahead of the shutdown. Using a rule
of thumb of 10 KV/Inch of clearance between the DEs, CEs and other grounded
surfaces a general agreement should be noted.
2. DE deposits usually result in higher KV and lower MA.
3. CE deposits usually result in lower KV and MA.
4. Dust deposits that are found to be heaver in one part of a Field as compared to other
parts dramatically detract from performance.
5. Schedule maintenance/repairs from recorded non-operating Rappers.
6. Re-align DEs to CEs to achieve the ESP Manufacturers Tolerances.
7. Unusual dust deposits in Ductwork, Diffusers and Gas Distribution Media or sand
blasted clean indicate attention to Gas Flow Dynamics and/or Process Conditions.
8. Schedule repair of corrosion and/or Access Door Gaskets to minimize air-in
leakage (especially with ESPs operating under suction).

Clean Inspection

1. Prior to the inspection clean down the ESP internals in accordance with your
specific Plants instructions. If minor or major maintenance is to be undertaken
during this outage a thorough cleaning is normally required prior to work being
accomplished.
 2. Inspect all Rappers. If external electro-magnetic style, insure Rappers are Plumb,
all support rods and nuts are tight. If Pneumatic or Shaft Mounted electro-magnetic
style, check Rappers for Plumb. If Vibrators, check all attachment bolts and nuts. If
internal rapping system check all hammers for wear, side-to-side motion and the
strike anvils.
3. Check all boot seals/stuffing boxes and ground connections on ESPs with External
Rapping Systems.
4. Check stuffing boxes and external drives/motors on ESPs with Internal Rapping
Systems.
5. Run the Rappers at least one full cycle and observe rapping action. Measure lifts
where Rapper plungers are visible (electro-magnetic styles).
6. Check the Purge Air System fan and dampers. Operate briefly to determine damper
operation, if so equipped. Ohm check Blast Heaters, if so equipped. (Some ESPs
are equipped with Calrod Heaters at the Base of the HV Support Insulators.)
7. Check all key interlocks for ease of operation, chains and/or mounts, transfer
blocks, etc.
8. Check all Transformer-Rectifiers (T-R) noting any dielectric fluid leaks, tank hold-
downs and grounding. Record nameplate data. Open the 480 V JB and check the
surge arrestors.
9. Open up the T-R buss duct inspection covers and check all insulators and HV
conductors noting any dust, corrosion and or evidence of sparking.
10. Check the Penthouse or Insulator Compartment Access Doors for gasket resilience,
hold-downs and corrosion.
11. Inspect all Grounding Sticks and connections.
12. From the underside of the Hot Roof re-inspect all UDE Frames, DEs, CE
Suspension and Rapper Rod connections. Check for corrosion especially under
each HV Support Insulator.
13. Inspect all Side Access Doors for gaskets, hold-downs and corrosion. Check all key
interlocks. (Not all ESPs have Side Access Doors)
14. Inspect all Grounding Sticks outside of the Side Access Doors is so equipped.
15. Re-Inspect all internal components from the Side Access Doors and or the Hoppers.
Spot measure again all DE to CE Clearances. Check all CE alignment devices.
Check for corrosion everywhere.
16. Inspect Hopper Access Doors, gaskets, and key interlocks.
17. Check Hopper Vibrators (if so equipped) and operate.
18. Check all hopper poke holes and caps.
19. Ohm check hopper heaters.
20. Re-Inspect all ductwork, diffusers and gas distribution devices. Look for corrosion.
21. Inspect all control cabinets.
22. Exhausted again, clean up and transpose all notes to the Diagrams.

Post Inspection

1. If internal Repairs were made, megger each Electrical Buss Section, after
disconnecting the HV lead, to check for dead shorts.
2. Lock out the ESP following the Plants procedures.
3. Operate the Purge Air System and Heaters for a minimum of 1 hour prior to turning
on the T-R Sets.
 4. Turn on the AHVCs, one-at-a-time with Secondary KV settings at 20 to 25 KV.
Observe readings. Troubleshoot as required. Raise the Secondary KV to the normal
setting. A secondary limit of KV or MA should be reached without sparking.
Troubleshoot at required.
5. Run V-I curves for each set noting the Corona Onset Voltage. Compare with the
ones taken prior to the outage.
6. Record all AHVC Parameters/Settings. Tune each set as required to match the
internal conditions of the ESP.
7. Review Rapper Control Parameters/Settings. Adjust as required.
8. After Process Stabilization, take V-I Curves and compare with those taken just
before startup.
9. Take V-I Curves after approximately 1 month of operation and compare with those
taken just before the outage.

Electrostatic Precipitator Outage Startup Best Practices

Prior to an outage, be sure to record a set of benchmark T/R readings, and particularly for a
major outage, a set of V/I curves as well. Then, plan to run a set of post-outage readings,
once the unit is up and running normally, for comparison.

By recording T/R readings even for short outages, you will be able to see potential areas
that need attention during this outage or the next one. You may also be able to address an
issue that could have caused you to reduce process production if left unattended.

The V/I curves provide a benchmark of clearance issues in the box and show which T/Rs
are functioning properly versus those that need to be addressed. V/I curves will also help
show the effects of other performance factors such as coal and temperature changes.
T/R Set Preventative Maintenance
T/R sets play an important role in the performance of precipitators, serving as the
workhorses of the process. However, they are often neglected from preventative
maintenance. It is important to pay attention to their operations and maintenance in order
to avoid future problems that impact the precipitator when it is in operation, increasing the
risk of non-compliance. One measure to add to your preventative maintenance routine is
to test the T/R set oil annually after 5 years of service and document the results. NWL, a
manufacturer of T/R sets, recommends you monitor nine gases: hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, acetylene, methane, ethylene and ethane.

As T/Rs are in operation, the insulating paper begins to breakdown in the oil, moisture can
infiltrate, semiconductors begin to breakdown, and the normal sparking and arcing inside
the ESP cause gasses to form and dissolve in the oil. Good proper preventative
maintenance practices will assure long reliable, consistent performance from your T/R
sets. For more information, please contact us or your T/R manufacturer.
Major Components
Major Components: Collecting Plate Electrode
Collecting plate electrodes (CE) are designed to receive and retain the precipitated particles
until they are intentionally removed into the hopper. Collecting plates are also part of the
electrical power circuit of the precipitator. These collecting plate functions are incorporated
into the precipitator design. Plate baffles shield the precipitated particles from the gas flow
while smooth surfaces provide for high operating voltage.

Collecting plates are suspended from the precipitator casing and form the gas passages
within the precipitator. While the design of the collecting plates varies by manufacturer,
there are two common designs:

Plates supported from anvil beams at either end. The anvil beam is also the point of
impact for the collecting rapper
Plates supported with hooks directly from the precipitator casing. Two or more
collecting plates are connected at or near the center by rapper beams, which then
serve as impact points for the rapping system

Top, center, or bottom spacer bars may be used with either design to maintain collecting
plate alignment and sustain electrical clearances to the discharge system.

Major Components: Discharge Electrodes

Discharge electrodes (DE) emit charging current and provide voltage that generates an
electrical field between the discharge electrodes and the collecting plates. The electrical
field forces dust particles in the gas stream to migrate toward the collecting plates. The
particles then precipitate onto the collecting plates.

Common types of discharge electrodes include:

Straight round wires

Twisted wire pairs
Barbed discharge wires
Rigid masts
Rigid frames
Rigid spiked pipes
Spiral wires
Discharge electrodes are typically supported from the upper discharge frame and are held
in alignment between the upper and lower discharge frames. The upper discharge frame is
in turn supported from the roof of the precipitator casing. High-voltage insulators are
incorporated into the support system. In weighted wire systems, the discharge electrodes
are held taut by weights at the lower end of the wires.

Major Components: Ductwork

Ductwork connects the precipitator with upstream and downstream equipment. The design
of the ductwork takes into consideration the following:

1. Low Resistance to Gas Flow Achieved by selecting a suitable cross-section for

the ductwork and by installing gas flow control devices, such as turning valves and
flow straighteners
2. Gas Velocity Distribution Gas flow control devices are used to maintain good
gas velocity distribution
3. Minimal Fallout of Fly Ash Fallout can be minimized by using a suitable
transport velocity
4. Minimal Stratification of the Fly Ash A suitable transport velocity also reduces
fly ash stratification in the gas stream
5. Low Heat Loss The goal is to reduce the heat loss of the flue gas to a level that
will prevent acid or moisture condensation in the downstream equipment, requiring
the use of thermal insulation protected by external siding.
6. Structural Integrity Ductwork structure supports its total load, including wind
and snow loads. The design also allows for accumulated fly ash, negative/positive
operating pressure, and gas temperature. Expansion joints are used to accommodate
thermal growth.
Major Components: Gas Distribution Systems
One electrical field or bus section of an electrostatic precipitator is by itself an independent
precipitator. Its operation is governed by the inlet gas and dust conditions, as well as the
collecting plate and discharge electrode geometries.

Within this electrical field or bus section, one gas passage is also an independent
precipitator governed by the same factors. (Note that the gas passage shares the voltage
level with the adjacent gas passages of the same electrical field or bus section, but not the
corona current level, which can be different in each gas passage.)

This points to the importance of creating similar gas and dust conditions 1) at the inlet of
each electrical field or bus section, and 2) further at the inlet of each gas passage of the
electrical field or bus section. Ideally, uniformity is desired in:

Gas velocity
Gas temperature
Dust loading

Gas velocity distribution can be most effectively influenced by the use of gas distribution
devices.

The quality of gas velocity distribution can be measured in a scaled-down model of the
precipitator and its ductwork, and also in the precipitator itself. Typical criteria are based
on ICAC (Institute of Clean Air Companies) recommendations using average gas velocities
or on a calculated RMS statistical representation of the gas velocity pattern.

In general, gas distribution devices consist of turning vanes in the inlet ductwork, and
perforated gas distribution plates in the inlet and/or outlet fields of the precipitator.

Major Components: Hoppers

Precipitator hoppers are designed to completely discharge dust load on demand. Typically,
precipitator hoppers are rectangular in cross-section with sides of at least 60-degree slope.
These hoppers are insulated from the neck above the discharge flange with the insulation
covering the entire hopper area. In addition, the lower 1/4- 1/3 of the hopper wall may be
heated. Discharge diameters are generally 8 12.

1. Insulation Insulation provides protection for facility personnel and also works to
retain as much hopper wall temperature as possible. Hopper wall temperature
retention discourages condensation on the inside of the hopper. Heaters are added
to ensure that metal surfaces immediately above the fly ash discharge are hot.
2. Facilitating Hopper Discharge Hopper discharge problems are caused by
compaction of the fly ash in the hopper. Moisture content, particle size and shape,
head of material, and vibration all affect PMs compaction characteristics. The flow
of PM out of the hopper can be facilitated by the use of external vibrators. These
can operate on the outside wall of the hopper or on an internal hopper baffle.
3. Hopper Fluidizers Hopper fluidizers have a membrane that permits airflow to
the PM directly above. This airflow fills the voids between the fly ash particles at a
slight pressure, changes the repose angle of the particles, and promotes gravity
flow.
4. Ash Handling System The fly ash handling system evacuates the fly ash from
the hoppers, and transports the fly ash to reprocessing or to disposal. The ash
handling system should be designed and operated to remove the collected fly ash
from the hoppers without causing re-entrainment into the gas flow through the
precipitator. The design of the ash handling system should allow for flexibility of
scheduling the hopper discharges according to the fly ash being collected in these
hoppers.

Either the precipitator hopper or the feeder hopper is used for temporarily storing material
prior to discharge. Three types of handling systems are in use:

Negative Pressure or Vacuum System Connects to the hopper by a simple

discharge valve
Positive Pressure Dilute Phase System Uses an airlock-type feeder; the feeder is
separated from the hopper by an inlet gate and from the conveying line by a
discharge gate
Positive Pressure Dense Phase System Connects to the hopper with an airlock
type feeder.
Understanding Major Electrostatic Precipitator Components
The major components of the precipitator are part of the power circuit, rapping system,
collecting system, hoppers and evacuation system, insulator compartment, and gas flow
distribution systems.
Major Components: Power Supplies & Controls
The power supply system is designed to provide voltage to the electrical field (or bus
section) at the highest possible level. The voltage must be controlled to avoid causing
sustained arcing or sparking between the electrodes and the collecting plates.

Electrically, a precipitator is divided into a grid, with electrical fields in series (in the
direction of the gas flow) and one or more bus sections in parallel (cross-wise to the gas
flow). When electrical fields are in series, the power supply for each field can be adjusted
to optimize operation of that field. Likewise, having more than one electrical bus section in
parallel allows adjustments to compensate for their differences, so that power input can be
optimized. The power supply system has four basic components:

Automatic voltage control

Step-up transformer
High-voltage rectifier

Sensing device

Voltage Control

Automatic voltage control varies the power to the transformer-rectifier in response to

signals received from sensors in the precipitator and the transformer-rectifier itself. It
monitors the electrical conditions inside the precipitator, protects the internal components
from arc-over damages, and protects the transformer-rectifier and other components in the
primary circuit.

The ideal automatic voltage control would produce the maximum collecting efficiency by
holding the operating voltage of the precipitator at a level just below the spark-over
voltage. However, this level cannot be achieved given that conditions change from moment
to moment. Instead, the automatic voltage control increases output from the transformer-
rectifier until a spark occurs. Then the control resets to a lower power level, and the power
increases again until the next spark occurs.

Theory

Optimize Power Application

The primary purpose of a voltage controller is to deliver as much useful electrical
power to the corresponding electrostatic precipitator field(s) as possible. This is not
an easy job; electrical characteristics in the field(s) are constantly changing, which
is why a voltage controller is required.
Spark Reaction
When the voltage applied to the electrostatic precipitator field is too high for the
conditions at the time, a spark over will occur. Detrimentally high amounts of
current can occur during a spark over if not properly controlled, which could
damage the fields. A voltage controller will monitor the primary and secondary
voltage and current of the circuit, and detect a spark over condition. Once detected,
the power applied to the field will be immediately cut off or reduced, which will
 stop the spark. After a short amount of time the power will be ramped back up, and
the process will start over.
Protect System Components by Adhering to Component Limitations
The Transformer Rectifier set (TR set) can be damaged by excessive amounts of
current or voltage flowing through it. Each TR set has voltage and current limits
established by the manufacturer, which are labeled on an attached nameplate. These
nameplate limit values (typically primary and secondary current, and voltage) are
programmed into the voltage controller. Through metering circuits, the voltage
controller will monitor these values, and ensure these limits are not exceeded.
Tripping
When a condition occurs that the voltage controller cannot control, often times the
voltage controller will trip. A trip means the voltage controller (by way of the
contactor) will shut off the individual precipitator power circuit. A short inside the
electrostatic precipitator field caused by a fallen discharge electrode (wire), or a
shorted out Silicone Controlled Rectifier are examples of conditions that a voltage
controller cannot control.

Operation

To maximize electrostatic precipitator efficiency, a voltage controller usually attempts to

increase the electrical power delivered to the field. However in some conditions a voltage
controller must just maintain power at a constant level. Increased electrical power into the
electrostatic precipitator directly correlates with better precipitator performance, but there
is a limit. If too much voltage is applied for a given condition (as mentioned in the spark
reaction section), a spark over will occur. During a spark over precipitator performance in
that field will drop to zero, rendering that field temporarily ineffective.

To overcome the crippling effect that spark over has to increasing the electrical power in
the precipitator field, spark response algorithms have been developed that will interrupt
power upon detection of a spark, then ramp power back up to a high level. These response
algorithms can greatly influence overall precipitator performance.

Transformer/Rectifiers The T/R set rating should be matched to the load imposed
by the electrical field or bus section. The power supply will perform best when the
T/R set operates at 70 90% of the rated capacity, without excessive sparking. This
reduces the maximum continuous-load voltage and corona power inputs. Practical
operating voltages for T/R sets depend on:
1. Collecting plate spacing
2. Gas and dust conditions
3. Collecting plate and discharge electrode geometry
At secondary current levels over 1500 mA, internal impedance of a T/R set is low,
which makes stable automatic voltage control more difficult to achieve. The design
of the T/R set should call for the highest possible impedance that is commensurate
with the application and performance requirements. Often, this limits the size of the
electrical field or bus section. It is general practice to add additional impedance in
the form of a current-limiting reactor in the primary circuit. This reactor will limit
the primary current during arcing and also improve the wave shape of the
voltage/current fed into the T/R set.
 Corona current density should be in the range of 10 100 mA/1000 ft2 of plate
area. (Calculate this using secondary current divided by collecting area of the
electrical field or bus section.) The actual level depends upon:
1. Location of electrical field or bus section to be energized
2. Collecting plate area
3. Gas and dust conditions
4. Collecting electrode and discharge wire geometry

Major Components: Rapping Systems

Rappers are time-controlled systems provided for removing dust from the collecting plates
and the discharge electrodes as well as for gas distribution devices (optional) and for
hopper walls (optional). Rapping systems may be actuated by electrical or pneumatic
power, or by mechanical means. Tumbling hammers may also be used to dislodge ash.
Rapping methods include:

Electric vibrators
Electric solenoid piston drop rappers
Pneumatic vibrating rappers
Tumbling hammers
Sonic horns (do not require transmission assemblies)
Discharge Electrode Rapping

In general, DE should be kept as free as possible of accumulated particulate. As a result,

the rapping system for the discharge electrodes should be operated on a continuous
schedule with repeat times in the 2 4 minute range, depending on the size and inlet
particulate loading of the precipitator.

Collecting Plate Rapping

Collecting plate rapping must remove the bulk of the precipitated PM. The collecting
plates are supported from anvil beams or directly with hooks from the precipitator casing.
With anvil beam support, the impact of the rapping system is directed into the beams
located at the leading and/or trailing edge of the collecting plates. For direct casing
support, the impact is directed into the rapper beams located at or near the center of the top
of the collecting plates.

The first electrical field generally collects about 60-80% of the inlet dust load. The first
field plates should be rapped often enough so that their precipitated layer of particulate is
about 3/8 1/2 thick. There is no advantage in rapping more often since the precipitated
dust has not yet agglomerated to form a sheet, which requires a minimum layer thickness.
Sheet formation is essential to make the dust drop into the precipitator hopper without re-
entrainment into the gas stream. Rapping less frequently typically results in a deterioration
of the electrical power input by adding an additional resistance into the power circuit. Once
an optimum rapping cycle has been found for the first electrical field (which may vary
across the face of a large precipitator), the optimum rapping cycles for the downstream
electrical fields can be established.

The collecting plate rapping system of the first field has a repeat time T equal to the time it
takes to build a 3/8 1/2layer on the collecting plates. The plates in the second field
should have a repeat time of about 5T, and the plates in the third field should have a repeat
time of 25T. Ideally, these repeat times yield a deposited layer of 3/8-1/2 for the plates in
all three fields. Adjustment may be required for factors such as dust resistivity, dust layer
cohesiveness, gas temperature effects, electrical field height and length, and the collecting
area served by one rapper.
Gas Distribution & Hopper Wall Rapping

The gas distribution plates used in an ESP should also be kept free of excessive particulate
buildup and may require rapping on a continuous basis with a cycle time in the 10-20
minute range, depending on the inlet particulate loading of the precipitator and the nature
of the PM. Gas distribution plates in the outlet of the precipitator may be rapped less often
(every 30 60 minutes) due to the smaller concentration of PM that reach this area.
Process Influences & Keys to Performance
Combustion Process Improvements for Power Plants
The primary contributors to combustion process conditions and their effects include:

Coal

Flue gas flow rate

Flue gas moisture content
Fly ash resistivity
Fly ash inlet loading

Fly ash particle size

Coal Mills

Fly ash particle size

Unburned carbon (LOI)

Furnace

Base load/swing load operation

Flue gas flow rate

Burners

Flue gas temperature

Fly ash resistivity

Unburned carbon (LOI)

Air Pre-Heaters

Rotation
Gas flow pattern
Gas temperature pattern

SO3 distribution pattern

Coal

Bituminous coals from Eastern mines, sub-bituminous and lignite coals from Western
mines, and lignites from Texas mines are substantially different from each other in the
combustion process. Coal blending is now used for operational and financial benefits. This
results in a wide range of boiler and precipitator operating conditions.
Precipitating fly ash from difficult coals can be improved with conditioning systems.
However, the furnace and its associated equipment can still cause problems in the
precipitator, particularly coal mills, burners, and air pre-heaters.

Coal Mills

The setting of the coal mills and classifiers defines the coal particle size which in turn
impacts the fly ash particle size. Larger coal particles are more difficult to combust, but
larger fly ash particles are easier to collect in the precipitator.

Furnace

Base-load operation of the boiler is usually better for precipitator operation than swing-
load operation due to more stable operating conditions. Boiler operation at low loads may
be as problematic for the precipitator as operating the boiler at its maximum load level, due
to fallout of fly ash in the ductwork, low gas temperatures, and deterioration of the quality
of the gas velocity distribution.

If low load operation cannot be avoided, the installation of additional gas flow control
devices in the inlet and outlet of the precipitator may prove beneficial.

Coal Burner

The operation of coal burners, together with the setting of the coal mills and their
classifiers, affects the percentage of unburned carbon (LOI or UBC) in the fly ash. The use
of Lo-NOx burners increases this percentage, and causes re-entrainment and increased
sparking in the precipitator. Further, the UBC tends to absorb SO3, which in turn increases
the fly ash resistivity. Over-fire air optimization or coal-reburn systems may reduce UBC
in the fly ash.

Air Pre-heater

Regenerative air pre-heaters cause temperature and SO3 stratification in the downstream
gas flow. This problem is more severe in closely coupled systems, where the precipitator is
located close to the air pre-heater. Depending upon site-specific conditions, flow mixing
devices may be installed in the ductwork to the precipitator, or flue gas conditioning
systems may be used to equalize the gas flow characteristics.

Fly Ash & Flue Gas Conditioning

Flue gas and fly ash characteristics at the inlet define precipitator operation. The
combination of flue gas analysis, flue gas temperature and fly ash chemistry provides the
base for fly ash resistivity. Typically, fly ash resistivity involves both surface and volume
resistivity. As gas temperature increases, surface conductivity decreases and volume
resistivity increases.
In lower gas temperature ranges, surface conductivity predominates. The current passing
through the precipitated fly ash layer is conducted in a film of weak sulfuric acid on the
surface of the particles. Formation of the acid film (from SO3 and H2O) is influenced by the
surface chemistry of the fly ash particles.

In higher gas temperature ranges, volume conductivity predominates. Current conduction

through the bodies (volume) of the precipitated fly ash particles is governed by the total
chemistry of the particles.

Fly ash resistivity can be modified (generally with the intent to reduce it) by injecting one
or more of the following upstream of the precipitator:

Sulfur trioxide (SO3)

Ammonia (NH3)

Water

Sulfur Trioxide & Ammonia Conditioning Systems

In most cases, a sulfur trioxide conditioning system is sufficient to reduce fly ash resistivity
to an acceptable level. The source of sulfur trioxide can be liquid sulfur dioxide, molten
elemental sulfur, or granulated sulfur. It is also possible to convert native flue gas SO2 to
SO3.

In some instances, ammonia alone has been proven a suitable conditioning agent. It forms
an ammonia-based particulate to increase the space charge. The source of ammonia may be
liquid anhydrous or aqueous ammonia, or solid urea.

Finally, sulfur trioxide and ammonia may be used in combination. This solution has been
successful because it can lower fly ash resistivity and also form ammonia bisulfate. The
latter increases the adhesion of particles, and thus reduces re-entrainment losses.

Water Injection

The injection of water upstream of the precipitator lowers the gas temperature and adds
moisture to the flue gas. Both are beneficial in cold-side precipitator applications.
However, care must be taken that all of the water is evaporated and that the walls in the
ductwork or gas distribution devices do not get wet.
Establishing Design & Performance Requirements for
Precipitators
Designing a precipitator for optimum performance requires proper sizing of the
precipitator in addition to optimizing precipitator efficiency. While some users rely on the
precipitator manufacturer to determine proper sizing and design parameters, others choose
to either take a more active role in this process or hire outside engineering firms.

Precipitator performance depends on its size and collecting efficiency. Important

parameters include the collecting area and the gas volume to be treated. Other key factors
in precipitator performance include the electrical power input and dust chemistry.

Precipitator Sizing
The sizing process is complex as each precipitator manufacturer has a unique
method of sizing, often involving the use of computer models and always involving
a good dose of judgment. No computer model on its own can assess all the
variables that affect precipitator performance.
Collecting Efficiency
Based on specific gas volume and dust load, calculations are used to predict the
required size of a precipitator to achieve a desired collecting efficiency.
Power Input
Power input is comprised of the voltage and current in an electrical field. Increasing
the power input improves precipitator collecting efficiency under normal
conditions.

Keys to Equipment Improvement

The objectives of equipment improvements are to optimize corona power, reduce re-
entrainment, and optimize gas velocity distribution inside the precipitator. Some important
topics to consider when planning equipment improvements include:

1. Precipitator Size When sizing the precipitator, it is important to provide a cross-

section that will maintain an acceptable gas velocity. It is also important to provide
for enough total discharge wire length and collecting plate area, so that the desired
specific corona current and electrical field can be applied.
2. Gas Velocity Distribution Improving gas velocity distribution in the precipitator
reduces particle re-entrainment and boosts precipitator efficiency. Typically, a
uniform gas velocity is desired, but there are site-specific exceptions. Gas velocity
distribution can be modified by using flow control devices and baffles. Refer to the
special section on gas velocity distribution.
3. Corona Power The separation of dust particles from the gas flow in an
electrostatic precipitator depends on the applied corona power. Corona power is the
product of corona current and voltage. Current is needed to charge the particles.
Voltage is needed to support an electrical field, which in turn transports the
particles to the collecting plates. For additional information, refer to Corona Power.
 4. Sectionalization The precipitator is divided into electrical sections that are cross-
wise and parallel to the gas flow to accommodate spatial differences in gas and dust
conditions. Optimization of corona power involves adjusting the corona power
(secondary voltage and current) in each electrical section for optimum conditions.
5. Particle ReEntrainment Minimizing reentrainment of dust particles is important
to improvement of precipitator efficiency. Most precipitator equipment affects the
reentrainment level. For a detailed discussion, visit the special section on re-
entrainment.
6. Additional Equipment Performance improvement options include the
installation of a second precipitator in series with the existing precipitator; using
fabric filters downstream of the precipitator; and adding a second particle collector
in parallel with the existing collector. Other possibilities include sonic or
electrostatic particle agglomerators upstream of the precipitator; a mechanical
upstream collector; or an electrostatically-enhanced or mechanical collector, or a
filter downstream of the precipitator.
7. Review the General Equipment Requirements Reviewing the Neundorfer
Knowledge Base sections on equipment will provide additional insight into
performance improvements.

Improve Flow Distribution

Maintain Design Temperatures

The air heater is usually the last piece of equipment before a cold-side ESP. It transfers
some heat from the flue gas back into the boiler system to pre-heat combustion air. This
significantly reduces the temperature of flue gas heading downstream to the ESP, from
about 700 to about 300.

Flue gas temperature is critical to ESP performance; both ash resistivity and gas volume
increase with higher temperatures. The optimal operating temperature for a cold-side ESP
is in the 280-320range. Temperatures above 350 usually have a significantly
negative impact on ESP performance.

At most plants, air heater exit temperature readings are readily available in the DCS.

If air heater temperatures are higher than normal, testing the combustion system is an
effective way to determine why. High exit gas temperatures can be associated with excess
airindicating poor combustion control, which wastes energy and increases flue gas
volume. Poor balance across the furnace is another likely cause. Mill performance, as well
as ash chemistry, can alter particle size distribution, which can significantly impact ESP
performance.

Combustion system testing to find the cause of high exit temperatures may be combined
with checking the air heater itself to find out if flow quantities are optimal and/or if air in-
leakage is a problem.
Minimize Air In-Leakage

Anything that increases the volume of gas being treated by the ESP is bad for collection
efficiency. Finding air in-leakage can be complicated, since it can get into the system at
many locations. If tramp air is suspected, the hunt for a source usually starts by observing
oxygen (O2) meter readings.

At most plants, O2 meters are located at the economizer exit; readings from this location
are used primarily for combustion control. Under normal conditions, the boiler exit meter
will read around 3% oxygen. Some plants also have an O2 meter in the stack as part of a
continuous emission monitoring system (CEMS). Normally, the stack meter reads a bit
higher: between 5% and 6.5%. If the stack O2 meter reading is above 8%, air in-leakage
may be a significant problem.

Regular testing for air in-leakage at multiple points should be part of every plants
operating policy. Test results help direct repairs to duct-work and equipment, ensuring that
whatever maintenance is done will have maximum impact.

Optimize Flow Distribution Devices

The goal of the flow distribution devices in an ESP are to distribute the flue gases across
the ESP as evenly as possible. When process changes or air in-leakage occur the flow
profile of the flue gases change and the flow distribution devices may no longer be able to
carry out this job efficiently. Another possibility is that the flow distribution devices get
PM built up on them or deteriorate from corrosion. In any one of these situations the flow
distribution is skewed and leads to poor ESP performance. In order to optimize flow it is
important to check your devices and make sure they are clean and in good condition. If
buildup is present, one option may be to add some type of rapping that will periodically
clean these systems. If permanent changes to the process have changed, it may be a good
idea to have a flow study done in order to find out how the new conditions affect the ESP
and what can be done to correct this issue.

Improving Rapping System Performance

All precipitator rapping systems allow adjustment of rapping frequency, normally starting
with the highest frequency (the least time between raps), progressing to the lowest
frequency. The times that are actually available may be limited. Rapping systems with
pneumatic or electric actuators allow variations of the rapping intensity. Pneumatic or
electric vibrators allow adjustments of the rapping time. State-of-the-art rapper controls
allow selection of rapping sequences, selection of individual rappers, and provide anti-
coincidence schemes which allow only one rapper to operate at a given time.

Rapping systems can be optimized for top precipitator performance using precipitator
power input and stack opacity as criteria. Optimization of the rapping system starts with
the discharge electrode rapping system operating on its own time schedule, for example
with repeat times of 2 4 minutes. The rapping system for the gas distribution screens in
the inlet and outlet of the precipitator should then be operated with repeat times of 2-3
minutes for the inlet and 2 3 hours for the outlet screens.

The only rapping system requiring optimization is the collecting plate rapping system. The
optimization should start with the Collecting Plate Rapping Schedule determined above.
Next, the rapping frequency of the inlet field should be increased or decreased until the
electrical power input of the inlet field remains constant. Next, the rapping frequency of
the other fields should be adjusted in sequence until their electrical power inputs remain
constant. If the stack opacity trace shows rapping spikes, the rapping intensity should be
reduced while observing the electrical power input of the precipitator.

The adjustment of the rapping system for optimum precipitator performance is a slow
process. It requires a substantial amount of time for stabilization after each adjustment.

Process Influences & Keys to Performance

The different areas of a power utility or industrial plant are sometimes operated as if
theyre isolated from one another, when in fact every piece of equipment in the system
eventually impacts every other piece of equipment. This section looks at some of the ways
front-end operations (mills, boiler) impact the performance of electrostatic precipitators on
the back end.
Flue gas volume, temperature and composition, as well as particulate size and composition,
is largely determined by how well combustion equipment is operated and maintained.
These two sets of factors have a direct, significant impact on a plants ability to comply
with air pollution limits set by Federal and state regulators. Gas characteristics and particle
properties define how well a precipitator will work in a given application. The main
process variables to consider are:

Gas Flow Rate The gas flow rate in a power plant is defined by coal quality,
boiler load, excess air rate and boiler design. Where there is no combustion, the gas
flow rate will have process-specific determinants. A precipitator operates best with
a gas velocity of 3.5 5.5 ft/sec. At higher velocity, particle re-entrainment
increases rapidly. If velocity is too low, performance may suffer from poor gas flow
distribution or from particle dropout in the ductwork.
Particle Size The size distribution in a power plant is defined by coal quality, the
coal mill settings and burner design. Particle size for non-combustion processes
will have similar determinants. A precipitator collects particles most easily when
the particle size is coarse. The generation of the charging corona in the inlet field
may be suppressed if the gas stream has too many small particles (less than 1 m).
Very small particles (0.2 0.4m) are the most difficult to collect because the
fundamental field-charging mechanism is overwhelmed by diffusion charging due
to random collisions with free ions.
Particle Resistivity Resistivity is resistance to electrical conduction. The higher
the resistivity, the harder it is for a particle to transfer its electrical charge.
Resistivity is influenced by the chemical composition of the gas stream, particle
temperature and gas temperature. Resistivity should be kept in the range of 108
1010 ohm-cm. High resistivity can reduce precipitator performance. For example, in
combustion processes, burning reduced-sulfur coal increases resistivity and reduces
the collecting efficiency of the precipitator. Sodium and iron oxides in the fly ash
can reduce resistivity and improve performance, especially at higher operating
temperatures. On the other hand, low resistivity can also be a problem. For example
 (in combustion processes), unburned carbon reduces precipitator performance
because it is so conductive and loses its electrical charge so quickly that it is easily
re-entrained from the collecting plate.
Gas Temperature The gas temperature is affected by heat transfer efficiency in
the boiler as well as the air-preheater efficiency and air in-leakage. The effect of gas
temperature on precipitator collecting efficiency, given its influence on particle
resistivity, can be significant.

Optimizing Corona Power

Optimize Controls

Precipitator corona power is the useful electrical power applied to the flue gas stream to
precipitate particles. Either precipitator collecting efficiency or outlet residual can be
expressed as a function of corona power in Watts/1000 acfm of flue gas, or in Watts/1000 ft
of collection area. Corona power is the product of corona current and voltage. Current is
needed to charge the particles, while voltage is needed to support an electrical field that in
turn transports the particles to the collecting plates. In the lower range of the collecting
efficiencies, relatively small increases in corona power result in substantial increases in
collecting efficiency. On the other hand, in the upper ranges, even large increases in corona
power will result in only small efficiency increases.
In order to maximize corona power in an ESP, the power controls must be optimized for
the process conditions at that time. This includes setting the secondary voltage and current
limit, spark rate, spark rate setback and any other controllable variables that are available
on the installed controls.

Sectionalize

Electrostatic precipitators are divided into electrical sections that are cross-wise and
parallel to the gas flow in order to accommodate spatial differences in gas and dust
conditions. Optimization of corona power involves adjusting the corona power (secondary
voltage and current) in each electrical section for optimum conditions. When voltage
controllers sense a spark they momentarily cut power to the affected field in order to
quench the spark. During the quench, collection efficiency of that field is also momentarily
lost; however increasing sectionalization of the ESP can minimize this effect. This means
splitting the fields and adding additional T/R sets so that a smaller section is affected when
a spark is quenched by the voltage controllers.
Methods to Reduce ReEntrainment
Optimize Rapping

All ESP rapping systems allow for some adjustment of rapping frequency, normally
starting with the highest frequency (the least time between raps), progressing to the lowest
frequency. Although, variability between individual rappers or the actual frequencies that
are available may be limited. For rapping systems that have pneumatic or electric
actuators, variations of the rapping intensity can also be modified along with the rapping
frequency. Today, state-of-the-art rapper controllers allow complete customization of the
rapping sequences, including selection of individual rappers, their intensity and frequency,
and also provide anti-coincidence schemes that allow only one rapper within a given lane
to operate at the same time.

An optimized rapping system starts with the DE rapping system operating on its own time
schedule, and having typical repeat times in the range of 2 4 minutes. The same is true
for the gas distribution rapping system in the inlet and outlet of the precipitator, however
they should be operated with repeat times of 2-3 minutes for the inlet and 2 3 hours for
the outlet screens. Because the goal for DE and Gas distribution rapping systems are to
make sure that these components stay as clean as possible, these systems require the least
amount of effort for optimization.
The only rapping system that truly requires optimization is the CE rapping system, with
precipitator power input and stack opacity being excellent criteria for adjustment.
Typically, CE rapping optimization should start with the Collecting Plate Rapping
Schedule determined above, followed by the rapping frequency of the inlet field increased
or decreased until the electrical power input of the inlet field remains constant. Once the
inlet field is satisfactory, the rapping frequency of the other fields should be adjusted in
sequence until their electrical power inputs also remain fairly constant. If during this
process the stack opacity trace shows spikes that correspond with rapping events, the
rapping intensity should be reduced while simultaneously observing the electrical power
input of the precipitator.

Adjustment of the rapping system for optimum precipitator performance is a methodical

process, and is often considered more of an art than a science. Doing it correctly is a slow
process that requires a substantial amount of time for stabilization after each adjustment.

Improve Hopper Reliability

Often times the hoppers and hopper evacuation system are overlooked as crucial elements
to overall system performance. However, when hopper systems fail it can be the source of
several issues that can lead to excessive sparking or performance killing re-entrainment. As
hopper levels get too high, the PM within gets closer to the discharge electrodes and the
flue gas moving through the precipitator. This can cause sparking between the DE and PM
in the hopper, or allow the ash to be picked up by the faster moving air and carried below
the CEs out of the hopper. This type of re-entrainment is cause sneakage because the PM
sneaks below the collecting area and out of the ESP.

Improve Resistivity
Resistivity is dependent on temperature, particle size, and flue gas chemistry. As a result,
the process can be modified to change the resistivity of PM. Typically PM resistivity
involves both surface and volume resistivity. Larger particles capture charged gases easier
and therefore have a lower resistivity. Smaller particles are less probable to capture
charged gases and have a higher resistivity. The effect of temperature can be see in the
graph below, and may be modified by improving boiler and air-preheater efficiency. As gas
temperature increases, surface conductivity decreases and volume resistivity increases. In
lower gas temperature ranges, volume surface conductivity predominates. The current
passing through the precipitated PM layer is conducted in a film of weak sulfuric acid on
the surface of the particles. Formation of the acid film (from SO3 and H2O) is influenced by
the surface chemistry of the particles. In higher gas temperature ranges, volume
conductivity predominates. Current conduction through the bodies (volume) of the
precipitated PM is governed by the total chemistry of the particles. The third influence of
resistivity, flue gas chemistry, can be modified through Implementation of flue gas
conditioning systems that inject either sulfur trioxide (SO3), ammonia (NH3), or water
(H2O).

Reduce Unburned Carbon (Loss on Ignition)

Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) dont do a very good job of collecting carbon; these
particles re-entrain easily because their resistivity levels are low. ESP performance starts to
noticeably degrade, and stack opacity levels to rise, when the ash contains more than 10
percent unburned carbon. High carbon concentration can also cause increased sparking and
reduce secondary voltage levels in the ESP.

At most plants, carbon content in ash is measured regularly. If not, it is a relatively easy
matter to send ash samples from the ESP hoppers to a lab (such as Neundorfers) for
analysis.

When coal is not pulverized properly, and/or there is poor combustion air distribution, the
result is incomplete combustion and unburned carbon. Reducing unburned carbon means
you are wringing more power out of the same amount of fuel. Optimizing your combustion
system isnt just about cutting emissions; it might also reduce fuel costs.

Improving Your Precipitator Operation

Improvement or optimization of precipitator operation can result in significant savings.
Many specific situations encourage a review of precipitator operation:

Deterioration of existing equipment

Tightening of air pollution emission regulations
Changes in products and/or production rates
Frequent forced outages
De-rating of production
The key areas for performance improvement are reducing re-entrainment, improving gas
flow distribution, and optimizing corona power.

Troubleshooting Precipitator Solutions

The general process for troubleshooting starts with identifying if the issue is likely a
process issue or a precipitator issue. Changes in performance that are isolated to one or a
few fields are typically indicative of precipitator issues where general performance issues
and powering issues across the box are typically indicative of a process issue.