Metals and

Alloys
 Metallurgy -
- science, which studies relationship between
composition, structure and properties of the
metals and alloys, and how those properties
change under different effects (e.g., thermal,
mechanical, chemical)

Main practical aim of metalurgy investigation

of optimal composition for alloys and
selection of suitable method for their
processing in order to provide them with
desirable properties
 Metal
Material, which has a number of
mechanical and physical propeties:
typical metallic shining, high electrical
and thermal conductivity, high
plasticity
(is malleable and ductile)
 Metals vs Alloy vs Steel
Alloys a material, composed of two or
more metals, or metal and a non-metal; it
has metal properties

Steel alloy of iron and carbon and/or

other elements
 Classification of metals
Ferrous metals
Ferrous metals are usually dark-grey in color and have
high density (except alkali metals). They also have high
melting points and relatively high hardness. Some of
them (iron, titanium, cobalt, manganese, zirconium,
uranium) have polymorphism
Non-ferrous metals
Specific color (yellow, white, red), high plasticity, low
hardness, relatively low melting points
 Polymorphism
Polymorphism is the ability of a solid
material to exist in more than one form or
crystal structure.

While undergoing polymorphi

transformation (transition from one crystal
structure to another) the arrangement of
atoms in crystal changes, i.e. changes type
of crystal lattice.
 Polymorphism.
Iron
cooling curve

Face centered cubic

structure
Body centered cubic
structure

Time
 Base metals
Ferrous metals (Fe, Co, Cr, Ni)

Refractory metals (Cr, Zr, Mn, Nb, Mo, W,

V)

Uranium metals (U, Th, Pa), actinides

Rare-earth metals (Ce, Pr, Nd etc.),

lanthanides, yttrium and scandium
 Noble metals
Light metals (Al, Be, Ti)
Precious metals (Ag, Au, Pt, Os Pd
)
Fusible metals (Zn, Cd, Sn, Pb, Bi, Hg)
 Structure of solid materials
All solid substances can exist as a crystal
or amorphous body. Amorphous structure
means, that all atoms in material are
placed chaotically, while in crystals there
is a strict order of atoms.

All metals in solid state have crystal

structure.
 Structure of solid materials

Crystal structure Amorphous structure

 Crystallisation
Transition of a metal from liquid state to
solid state with simultaneous formation of
crystal lattice.
 Crystal lattice imaginary dimensional
grid, in which atoms are placed at the
intersections of grid lines (lattice points).
Smallest part of a crystal lattice, which
defines whole structure of a metal, is
called unit cell.
Cubic body-centered unit cell has atoms in
lattice points and one in the center of the
cube.
(Cr, W, Mo, Fe).
In cubic face-centered lattice atoms are located
in lattice points and in the middle of each
crystals face. (Al, Cu, Ni, Au, Pt, Ag).
In hexagonal close-packed lattice atoms are
placed in lattice points, in the basis of the
hexagonal prism and three in the middle of
the unit cell (Mg, Zn, Co).
 Formation of any type of crystal lattice is
called crystallization.
In order to investigate this process cooling
curves are used.

Liquid state

Solid state

Amorphous substance Crystalline substance

cooling curve cooling curve
 Dmitry Chernov
(1829-1931)
Metallurgist

Founder of
metallography
(field of
metallurgy,
studying structure
of metals using
microscopy)
 Metallurgy as a science utilizes different methods of investigation of metals
and alloys crystal structures. These methods can be divided into two
groups:
methods to study internal sturucture of metals
methods to study external crystal forms

Position of atoms in the crystall lattice can be studied using X-Ray analysis.
From the outside, crystal forms and sizes can be studied using macro- and
microstructural analysis.
Structure of metal or alloy is defined by position of crystals in them
and since metals are not transparent, form of crystals, their size and
relative position can be studied using metallographic specimens.
Macrostructural analysis can be performed with naked eye or using
magnifying glass
Microstructural analysis can be used to assess quality of metal after
manufacturing, determine impurities of harmful and fusible inclusions,
assess quality of thermal and thermo-chemical treatment of metal,
discover relationship between structure and strength, plasticity and
durability of metals and alloys.
 Cross-section of metal

A B C D
 Crystallization of metals
As it was discovered in 1878 by Dmitry
Chernov, crystallisation of metals is
actually two simultaneous processess:

Nucleation
Growth
Crystallization of metals
Crystallization of metals
 Crystallographic defects

Defects

Point defects Line defects Planar defects

 Point defects

Substitutional Interstitial
Vacancy defects
defects defects
 Vacancy
Lattice sites which would be
occupied in a perfect crystal,
but are vacant
Substitutional defects
Interstitial defects
 Line defects
Line defects are relatively small in two
dimensions and lenghty in the third dimension.
Such defects are called dislocations.
Dislocations :
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
 Planar defects
Grain boundaries occur where
the crystallographic direction of
the lattice abruptly changes. This
usually occurs when two crystals
begin growing separately and
then meet.