Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a viable and feasible option to

achieve sustainable farming systems

By

Yoseph Maru (PhD candidate)

Submitted to Zebene Asfaw (PhD)

Dilla University )
 Table of Contents

Contents Pages
Abstract 2

1. Introduction.4
2. The Conservation agriculture and its comparison with CF.5
3. The three principles of conservation agriculture.6
3.1 Disturb the soil as little as possible....6
3.2 Keep the soil covered as much as possible7
3.3 Mix and rotate crops......8
4. Conservation agriculture as a viable and feasible options...9
4.1 Soil fertility improvement10
4.2 Reduce production costs..11
4.3 Stable yields with integration of trees.12
4.4 Climate change mitigation...13
4.5 Water use efficiency14
5. The challenges for conservation agriculture in the case of developing countries.15
6. Conclusion and Recommendations...17
7. References..18

Abstract
Conservation Agriculture (CA) is resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to
achieve acceptable profits, high and sustained production levels while concurrently conserving
the environment. It is regarded as sustainable land management tool for agricultural lands and
sustainable development. CA typically involves: (1) minimal soil disturbance; (2) covering soils
with crop residues; and (3) rotating crops or intercropping with legumes. CA is based on
enhancing natural biological processes above and below the ground. Interventions such as
mechanical soil tillage, application of chemical fertilizers and other unsustainable practices are
tremendously affecting the natural environment as well as agricultural products. Instead of
maximizing crop yield, the managerial objectives implied by CA is to optimize long-term soil
2
fertility improvements through residue management and cover crop rotations, with higher yields
and potentially lower input cost side-benefits.

Keywords: conservation agriculture (CA), principles, soil fertility and crop yields

Part one
Introduction

The agricultural sector is a key sector of both the global economy and many national economies.
It provides livelihoods and basic subsistence needs for millions of people, and contributes to the
achievement of food security in both developing and developed countries (IPCC, 2007).
However, Agriculture is already a major contributor to annual global emissions, contributing
approximately 12-14% of the total (Valin et al, 2013). Global agriculture will be under
significant pressure to meet the demands of rising populations using finite, often degraded, soil
and water resources that are predicted to be further stressed by the impact of climate change and
chronic food insecurity. The application of fertilizers, rearing of livestock, and related land
clearing influences both levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the potential for
carbon storage (IPCC, 2007). Thus, developing adaptable, productive agricultural systems that
are resilient to the risks and shocks associated with long-term climate variability is essential to
maintaining food production into the future (FAO, 2010).
Conservation agriculture is sounds like old hat, but it has breathed new life into developing
countries including Africa smallholder farming. Broadly, its a suite of land and crop
management practices to improve productivity, profitability, and sustainability. CA is builds a
more integrated and holistic approach onto soil management and soil productivity, fertilizer, organic
matter, water management and field preparation which is more environmental as well as economical
attractive agricultural practices (ICRISAT ).
The global environmental and developmental agendas are now converging to address the
economic, social and environmental dimensions to achieve sustainable development. The past
three decades have seen innumerable attempts done by governments of both developed and
developing countries to intervene within social, economic and environmental dimensions to
advance towards sustainable agricultural practices to feed enormously growing world population
and on the other scenario working to halt environmental crisis such as climate change,

3
deforestation, land degradation, air and water pollution as well as global biological crisis (Mbow,
2015).
The use of improved technologies such as conservation agriculture may be in place as farmers
seek to achieve gains in the face of harsh climatic conditions (Hove and Twomlow, 2006).
Conventional agriculture, which often involves intensive tillage, has been claimed to cause soil
degradation, particularly when practiced in areas of marginal productivity. Currently,
conventional tillage methods are a major cause of soil loss and desertification in many
developing countries. Tillage induced erosion in developing countries can entail soil losses
exceeding 150 t/ha annually and soil erosion, accelerated by wind and water is responsible for
40% of land degradation worldwide (Moyo, 2013).
But, Some forms of CA require low external inputs (pro-poor), have a high recycling rate, and
good integration of trees, crops and animals, making them good candidate for achieving both
sustainable livelihood and climate changes objectives to halt agricultural vulnerability to climate
change and to ensure ecological sustainability (WB, 2006). Therefore, the main objective of this
review article is to assess the feasibility and sustainability of CA in environmental conservation,
food security and in provision of stable agricultural yields particularly in developing countries.
Part Two
Result and Discussion (literature review)
2. The Conservation agriculture and its comparison with conventional farming in terms of
production
Conservation Agriculture is a way of managing agro-ecosystems to achieve higher, sustained
productivity, increased profits and food security while enhancing the environment. It is a way of
farming that conserves, improves, and ensures efficient use of natural resources. It aims to help
farmers achieve profits with sustained production levels while conserving the environment
(SUSTAINET, 2010). It is also a way of farming that conserves, improves and makes more
efficient use of natural resources through integrated management of available resources
combined with external inputs. It contributes to environmental conservation as well as to
enhanced and sustained agricultural production. It can also be referred to as resource efficient
agriculture (IFAD, 2013).
In sum, CA low demand for external demand, emphasis on use of natural inputs such as organic
compost, humus, manure and crop residues, Emphasis on small-scale labour-saving devices and

4
animal farming, and Emphasis on good production, food security and crop diversity. But,
conventional farming practices have been blamed for high external demand for chemical
fertilizer, high cost of production, intensive tillages and soil disturbance and in few year it can
affect soil and degrade critical ecosystems such as soil, climate, water and others (Tab 1).
Tab.1 The comparison of Conservation agriculture and conventional farming
Conventional Farming Conservation Agriculture
Credit High demand to buy high- Low demand for external
tech inputs inputs; some demand for loans
to support entrepreneurial
activities
Seeds Use of improved hybrid Emphasis on use of local,
varieties or genetically traditional varieties bred by
modified organisms (GMOs) farmers
Chemical fertiliser and High and often increasing use Reduced and sometimes no
pesticide use, with emphasis on natural
inputs such as organic
compost and crop residues
Extension service advice Critical. Large need for Critical. Large need for good
training, especially on advice on sustainable
appropriate and safe use of agriculture methods. But also
chemicals an emphasis on sharing
farmers existing knowledge
Equipment Emphasis on large-scale Emphasis on small-scale
machinery and mechanization labour-saving devices and
animal farming. Like, hoe
farming and draught animal
Production goals Emphasis on maximising yield Emphasis on good production,
Emphasis on producing for food security and crop
markets diversity
Source: FAO. 2011.

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3 The three principles of conservation agriculture
Conservation Agriculture encompasses three principles namely. It is achieved through improved
management and application of these three key principles. Together, these principles form an
integrated system of farming (ICRAF, 2014). For full benefits, all three principles must be
applied at the same time and in conjunction with other good agronomic practices such as timely
planting, effective weed control and integrated pest and disease management (FAO, 2010). The
following are the three basic principles of CA:-
3.1 Disturb the soil as little as possible
This principle advocates for minimal or little soil disturbance where the soil is not ploughed or
turned. Continuous tillage destroys the soil structure, eventually forming a hard pan that prevents
water infiltration and proper crop root development. Instead of ploughing and harrowing, the soil
could be sub-soiled using a sub-soiler and then ripped using a ripper to make furrows for seed
placement (ICRAF, 2014).
Only disturb the soil where the seed, fertilizer and manure are to be placed. In CA, crops are
planted directly into unploughed soils. Minimal disturbance of the soil allows the retention of
soil organic matter, which is lost through conventional agriculture. This not only provides more
nutrients for the growing crop, but also stabilizes the structure of the soil, making it less
vulnerable to crusting, compaction and erosion (FAO, 2010). For example, hoe minimum tillage
in Zambia allows farmers to complete land preparation in the dry season, plant on time, reduce
soil disturbance from 100% to 10%, reduce labour peaks and apply nutrients more accurately
(Peter, 2010).

Hoe Min-Till

Photo-1 Hoe minimum till

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3.2 Keep the soil covered as much as possible
The aim is to have a protective layer above the soil surface. Covering the soil reduces its chances
of being eroded by moving water or wind, conserves soil moisture, reduces weed growth,
increases the rate of water infiltration into the soil while reducing the same from evaporation
(ICRAF, 2014). In conventional farming, farmers remove or burn the crop residues or mix them
into the soil with a plough or hoe. The soil is left bare, so it is easily washed away by rain, or is
blown away by the wind (Photo 2).

Photo-2 Conventional Farming and the Burning of Crop Residues

In conservation agriculture, crop residues left on the field, mulch and special cover crops protect
the soil from erosion and limit weed growth throughout the year (FAO, 2008). In sum, Crop
residues in CA are retained in the field as mulch and/or cover crops are grown throughout the
year. Covering the soil protects it from the physical impact of rain and wind and helps retain soil
moisture and stabilize soil temperature in the surface layers (FAO, 2010). It is also an effective
way of organic matter (OM) and nutrient replenishment. The high moisture retention by residues
provides an opportune environment for development of micro fauna and flora communities
(Moyo, 2013).

7
 Photo-3 Mulching and cover of maize
3.3 Mix and rotate crops
Crop rotation is the practice of growing two (or more) dissimilar type of crops in the same space
in sequence. Farmers should plant several crops in rotation or as intercrops (crop mixes) rather
than planting a single crop in a season or year. Crop rotations should include legumes, deep-
rooted crops and high-residue crops (ICRISAT). For example, in equatorial latitudes bush Beans
are often planted in the inter rows at the same time or a few days after the Maize is planted or
after the first weeding, by making small holes with a Panga (Machete) (photo 4). But, in
conventional farming, the same crop is sometimes planted each season. That allows certain pests,
diseases and weeds to survive and multiply, resulting in lower yields.

Photo-4 Maize/Bush Bean Intercrop Kenya

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In conservation agriculture, this is minimized by planting the right mix of crops in the same field,
and rotating crops from season to season. This also helps to maintain soil fertility. Instead of
planting a single crop of maize, farmers should plant several crops in rotation or as intercrops. It
is important to include a rotation with legumes. Rotation with legumes is essential in maintaining
and improving soil fertility and exploration of different soil layers by different crop species helps
prevent formation of a hard pan (ICRAF, 2014).
4. Conservation Agriculture (CA) as a viable and feasible option to farm sustainability and
climate change mitigation
4.1 Soil Fertility Improvement
Ploughing is necessary in order to loosen the soil and prepare a seedbed to encourage seed
germination, control weeds and incorporate manure and plant material into the soil. Conventional
ploughing/tillage as practiced in many African countries involve turning the soil surface of the
entire area of the field that is to be planted. This type of cultivation leaves the soil bare, exposing
it to erosion and water loss through evaporation which results in capping of the soil surface,
accelerated decomposition of soil organic matter and contributes to the destruction of soil
structure. Repeated ploughing and cultivation at the same depth increases the risk of soil
compaction and creation of hardpans at the working depth. Mixing of the soil layers can also
severely harm soil organisms such as earthworms (ICRAF, 2014). (Tab 2)
Tab.2 Environmental impacts of conventional agriculture compare with CA
Environmental damage Impact
Soil erosion Low productivity, salinity, water-holding
capacity
Sediment damage Reservoir siltation, increased navigation
channel siltation, floods, increased costs of
road maintenance, habitat degradation
Over irrigation Depletion of groundwater, water logging,
salinization
Agrochemical damage Worker health, water contamination, weed
chocking, cost of mending damage
Soil compaction Low soil productivity
Deforestation Soil erosion, crop damage from high wind, loss

9
 of genetic diversity
Wetland drainage Decreased water purification service, genetic
diversity loss
Air pollution Odour, smoke, ozone layer depletion
Setboonsarng, S. 2006.
CA has emerged as an alternative to conventional agriculture as a result of losses in soil
productivity due to soil degradation (e.g. erosion and compaction) (Table 3). CA aims to reduce
soil degradation through several practices that minimize the alteration of soil composition and
structure and any effects upon natural biodiversity. In general, CA includes any practice that
reduces changes or eliminates soil tillage and avoids the burning of residue in order to maintain
adequate surface cover throughout the year to improve the fertility of soil, using natural
biological process such as compost, humus, manure, crop residues, crop byproducts and others
(ECAF, 2001).
In contrast, conventional forms of agriculture regularly use ploughs to enable a deep tilling of the
soil (FAO, 2001). The line between conventional and CA often blurs as conventional agriculture
utilizes many practices typical of CA, such as minimum or no-tillage. Hence, the differentiating
feature of CA and conventional agriculture is the mind-set of the farmer (Table 3).
Table 3 Effects of conventional farming and conservation agriculture (continued)
Operation Conventional farming Conservation agriculture
Costs and labour Ploughing and weeding are expensive (if it It is not necessary to plough, so there is
is necessary to hire workers to do it), take a no need to buy expensive mouldboard
lot of time, and are hard works. Fuel costs ploughs, disks and harrows (though
are high, and there is a lot of wear and tear farmers may have to invest in new
on equipment. equipment such as planters and rippers).
Less work is needed for weeding. The
costs of fuel or of hiring animal traction
are lower
Crop diversity Monocropping produces one staple crop, Crop rotations and crop mixes produce a
with the risk of failure if there is a drought range of crops. They reduce the risk of
or pest attack. Farmers incomes and diets ruin if one crop fails, and provide a more
depend on a single crop. diverse diet

10
Livestock Animals provide manure, but Controlled grazing prevents trampling
trample and compact the soil and compaction, and leaves the mulch
and remove the cover, and cover crop to protect the soil and
leaving the soil open to enrich the organic matter. Livestock
owners have to find alternative
Environment CF is unfriendly to the environment. It CA is environmentally friendly. It
encourages erosion, pollutes water supplies, reduces erosion; streams and rivers are
reduces soil fertility, and destroys cleaner and flow throughout the year. It
ecosystems. It releases carbon dioxide maintains soil fertility, and conserves
(CO2) into the atmosphere, which changes natural ecosystems. It raises the amount
the climate and contributes to global of organic matter in the soilcarbon
sink, and reduces global warming.
Crop yields Yields fall over time as fertility declines. Planting can be earlier because it is not
Farmers are forced to rely on expensive necessary to wait until the soil is moist
artificial fertilizer which few can afford. enough for ploughing. Soils are fertile
Planting is often late because farmers have and contain more moisture, so produce
to wait until the soil is moist enough for higher and more stable yields.
ploughing.
Weeds Keeping the soil bare allows weeds to grow The cover crop or mulch smothers
unhindered. Planting the same crop year weeds and prevents them from growing
after year encourages certain weeds, pests quickly.
and diseases.
4.2 Reduce production costs
Conventional agricultural practices such as tilling are expensive especially within the context of
rising fuel and labor costs. Experiences in Ghana and Kenya have shown a decrease of labor
costs by 40 percent input by using no tillage methods (FAO, 2014) .
A comparative analysis of the return on investment between conventional and nonconventional
agriculture in Kenya has shown a potential of doubling benefits by using Conservation
Agriculture (Table 4).

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Table 4: Cost comparison in Muriukis Farm in Nyanyuki Kenya in terms of yields
Conventional farming inputs Costs Conservation Agriculture inputs Cost
KSh. Ksh.
Land rent/acre/ year 2 300 Land rent/acre/ year 2 300
Ploughing Tractor 2 000 Herbicide 1 200
Ridging by Oxen (Men) 1 000 (glyphosphate) 1 000
Seed 10 Kg 1 250 Seed 8Kg
Fertilizer 50Kg 4 000 Fertilizer 25Kg 2 000
Planting 5 women @150 750 Planting with animal planter 1 000
1st Weeding 10x10 @50 2 500 1st Weeding 1 200
2nd Weeding 10x10 @50 2 500 2nd Weeding 1 200
Chemical application labor 300 Chmical application labor 300
Harvest+ transport(home) 2 500 Harvest+ transport(home) 2 500
Total input 21 600 Total input 14 000
Total Harvest 8 bags@1500 12 000 Total Harvest 16 bags 24 000
@1500
1 USD= Ksh 74, (FAO, 2009)
4.3 Stable Yields with integration of trees
Conventional ploughing is largely to blame for the extremely low yields and high labour input
which characterize farming in most parts of Africa (Moyo, 2013). CA provides the means that
can prevent further destruction of precious soils, ensures higher and more stable yields while
reducing production costs (especially the energy input for tillage) and increases labour
productivity (ICIPE, 2014). For example, the adoption of conservation agriculture can lead to
significant increases in yields of maize, sorghum, wheat, and other crops (up to 20120% higher
than those in conventional agriculture; Kassam et al. 2009), due to increased soil fertility,
nutrient availability, and water availability.
Above all, CA is integrated approaches of biodiversity management such as soil, forest, trees,
water and other critical ecosystems to increase crop yields. In Zambia small scale are more
profitable by integrating environmental friendly tree species. For instance, the widespread
planting of Faidherbia albida combined with CA can replenish soils, increase Maize yields,
minimize dependency on fertiliser and enable small-scale agriculture to become associated with

12
re-forestation. Faidherbia is the only known tree to display reverse phrenology (ICRAF, 2014).
Mature Faidherbia has a dramatic effect on Maize yields as trials in Zambia and Malawi have
shown. At harvest Maize yields under the trees averaged 5.12 tons/ha and outside 2.65 tons/ha
with zero chemical fertilizer (Peter, 2010) (Photo 5).

Trial under and outside mature Faidherbia All zero fertiliser

Maize outside tree

Maize under tree

Photo-5 integration of trees with crops in farm fields

4.4 Climate Change Mitigation
Since the early 1990s the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has provided
evidence of accelerated global warming and climate change. The last IPCC report concludes that
the global temperature in the last 100 to 150 years has increased by 0.76 0.19C (IPCC, 2007).
Agriculture lies at the crossroads of climate-change mitigation and adaptation efforts. The
agricultural sector is currently responsible for an estimated 13.7% of global greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions (Tubiello et al. 2013) and is also a key driver of deforestation which
contributes an additional 714% of global emissions (Harris et al. 2012). Above all, climate
change will have significant negative impacts on many agricultural communities, particularly
smallholders and poor farmers who have limited capacity to adapt to adverse shocks, further
exacerbating global poverty and food insecurity (Howden et al. 2007; Morton 2007). Thus, both
mitigation efforts to reduce GHG emissions and adaptation measures to maintain crop yields are
of global significance (IPCC, 2007).
The adaptation of conservation agriculture (CA) is viable practices that increase the agricultural
capacity of resilience and climate change mitigation. The CA sustainable practices such as farm

13
management practices (soil and water conservation practices, crop diversification, and improved
tillage practices) that make agricultural systems more resilient to climate change, diversify
farmer livelihoods and ensure the continued supply of ecosystem services and sound ecological
conservation (Howden et al. 2007). It is also has innumerable values of climate change. For
example, Baker et al. (2007) estimated that crop rotation systems in conservation agriculture
accumulated 11 tons of carbon per hectare after 9 years.
Several management strategies hold particular promise for simultaneously achieving adaptation
and mitigation benefits at the plot and farm scale. For example, soil conservation practices and
the use of conservation agriculture, such as the incorporation of crop residues, use of composts,
and minimum tillage, can increase organic carbon in soils, improve soil moisture, and reduce
erosion during extreme weather events (Hobbs, 2007). The integration of trees in farms through
agroforestry systems increases soil carbon stocks and above-ground biomass, while providing
shade for protection from rising temperatures, diversifying farmer income and reducing financial
risk (Celia A. Harvey, 2013).
Developing adaptable, productive agricultural systems that are resilient to the risks and shocks
associated with long-term climate variability is essential to maintaining food production into the
future. Climate-smart agricultural systems of conservation agriculture also need to protect and
enhance natural resources and ecosystem services in ways that mitigate future climate change
(ICIPE, 20009).
4.5 Water use Efficiency
It is generally claimed that a major benefit of CA technologies is the conservation of water
through reduced soil evaporation and water runoff as a result of mulching with crop residues,
giving rise to higher water-use efficiencies and better yields (Hobbs, 2007; Kassam et al., 2009).
According to the (Corbeels, 2013) mulch of surface residue affects soil water content through
three processes: (1) rainfall interception and subsequent mulch evaporation; (2) radiation
interception with associated reduction of soil evaporation, and (3) reduction of water runoff.
Rainfall generally increased over the 20th century in eastern parts of North and South America,
northern Europe and northern and central Asia. Drying has been observed in the Sahel, the
Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia (IPCC, 2007).
Thierfelder and Wall, 2012 suggest that CA systems have a higher adaptability to climate change
because of the higher effective rainfall use due to higher water infiltration and therefore

14
minimum surface water runoff and soil erosion as well as greater soil moisture holding capacity.
A mulch of crop residues protects the soil surface from direct impact by high-energy raindrops, it
prevents surface-sealing, improves soil surface aggregate stability and permeability and thus
enhances the infiltration capacity of the soil (up to 50% - e.g. Scopel et al., 1998) while at the
same time minimizing soil evaporation (up to 25% - e.g. Allen et al., 1998).
In sum, through their effects on soil water conservation, CA systems can reduce crop yield
variations and productive risk making the crop production system more reliable. As such, CA
systems represent a potential strategy to cope with climate variability and may make farmers less
vulnerable to climate change (Corbeels, 2013).
5. Challenges for conservation agriculture in case of Africa farmers
Conservation agriculture has the potential to change the face of Africa. But its success is not
automatic. It faces various challenges in case of Africa farmers
5.1 Crop residues: Keeping the soil covered is important in conservation agriculture. But it can
be difficult. Farmers have many uses for crop residues: as fodder, fencing, roofing and fuel.
Livestock keepers let their animals graze on stubble. In drier areas, it is impossible to grow a
cover crop in the dry season, and crop residues are a vital source of animal feed. Above all, the
covering of land with crop residues is difficult in connunal grazing areas and the livestocks are
grazing freely and damage the crop residues by grazing (Photo 6).

Photo-6 open grazing

5.2 Land tenure Farmers can go a long way towards adopting the principles of conservation
agriculture with a minimum of investment on their farms. But they may be reluctant to do so if
they do not have clear rights to the land they cultivate (FAO, 2005).

15
5.3 Socioeconomic: Poverty, culture, income levels, education, institutional capacity, and land
tenure impact the effective adoption of different agricultural practices and land-use decisions by
farmers (FAO, 2014). Above all, Farm subsidies and national level policies do not incentivize
farmers to adopt conservation agriculture and integrated landscape management. High
investment, risks for food security and household well-being, and the lack of knowledge and
technical support limit farmers to participate in conservation agriculture (Celia A. Harvey, 2013).
5.4 Other challenges: It can be hard to find seed (particularly of cover crops), inputs such as
herbicides, and equipment. Crops such as teff, which has very small seeds, can be difficult to
sow without disturbing the soil. And for various reasons, it can be difficult for farmers to work in
groups, form organizations or get the support they need to begin practicing conservation
agriculture. Small farmers are in developing countries difficulties in access to capital and
technical information, particularly smallholders, to adopt new practices and diversify agricultural
landscapes (Celia A. Harvey, 2013).
6. Conclusion and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusion
Conservation agriculture is only alternative practices to achieve sustainable development and to
intervene within environment, development and social aspects. CA is builds a more integrated
and holistic approach of natural resource conservation onto soil management and soil
productivity improvement, fertilizer, organic matter, water management, field preparation and
other critical ecosystem which is more environmental as well as economical attractive
agricultural practices.
6.2 Recommendation
Small farmers are bases for application CA principles in developing countries; they
should supported technical and subsidized them via training, rewards, certification and
project development.
The three principles of CA encourage farmers to disturb soil in minimum level, mulching
and mixed farming. But, seldom attention is given for native tree integration in the
farming fields. Thus, concerned body should encourage small farmers to ecological
friendly trees in their landholdings.

16
 Mulching and cover the soil by biomass is critical principle of CA. but, the farmers
refused to perpetuate cover the soil with crop byproducts due to the usage of it for
firewoods. Thus, the concerned body should supply the alternative energy.

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