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Abstract
The aim of this study is to explore the history of accounting in Indonesia. In this
case, a particular period of Indonesia history the form and the existence of the
accounting system in the Singosari Kingdom era is the focus of the investigation. In the
context of this study, accounting is not simply a method of calculation, but it is a
discipline with complex phenomena in which it influences the individual, organizational,
and social orders. In addition, the range of its aspects is from social, political and
economic point of view.
This study is conducted by using a Foucauldian concept of the relation between
the power and knowledge. The historical accounting researchers use the Foucauldian
approach to show the accounting complexity of the power and knowledge structures
within a society. This approach shows the accounting system as a valuable social science
for disciplining the society and manifesting a comprehensive political power within the
society. Then the major concern of the methodological analyses in the accounting
research is to disclose how accounting becomes a disciplinary power and constitutive
activity of knowledge.
The kingdom of Singosari (1222-1292) was historically closely related to the
foundation of Majapahit kingdom, particularly in the field of public finance and
administrative accountability. There was a fact that during Singosari and Majapahit
kingdom, state-craft stressed the importance of a full treasury for successful
governmental activities. Both kingdoms evolved a regular system of taxation. The
taxation system, in some extent, was a complex system in which it provided the tax for
merchandise in various tariffs and different types of levies based on the commodities and
the problems occurred. The complex system of the taxation would not be possible
without involving the accounting in term of calculability. One of the particular
developments of the accounting system in form of writing during the Singosari kingdom
was related to the mechanism in which writing was used for the purpose of administration
and accountability of the tax collection in the royal court of the Singosari kingdom. The
records of tax collection were reflected in simple forms. For instance, the Inscription of
Turyyan mentions that the earning of the society in a year was equal to 1 kati and 3 gold
swarna.
Then it can be concluded that the development of accounting in Indonesia is not
an instant process, but it emerged through a long and complex process of the history. The
kingdom of Singosari used accounting as a technique to discipline the subjects under the
kingdoms territory. Through this study, it is clear that accounting had a significant role as
a supporting means of the Singosari kingdom development. It did not merely provide the
technical calculation, but also the diverse roles in social, economic, and political life.
I. INTRODUCTION
Accounting in the Golden Age of Singosari Page 2
From the beginning of its emergence, accounting has shown its role and function in the
society as a system which processes and provides financial information. It develops continuously
in a line with the change in the society, especially in the business society. Furthermore, during
these days accounting is considered as a study concerning the money and number in which both
things are the main points in the calculation. Moreover, accounting cannot also be separated to
the time. We cannot stop and turn every event back; we cannot know the consequence of each
event before it is done or we cannot also know before the event happens. Then we call it the past,
the present, and the future time (Chambers, 1998). The past events in accounting are usually
called the history of accounting; the present time is the time where accounting exists; meanwhile
the future time is called prediction (Sukoharsono, 2005).
Then the focus of the research here has a close connection to the past time of accounting
or the history of Indonesian accounting. Therefore, it can be said that accounting exists in the
social dimension, from the smallest, an individual up to the biggest one, a company and country.
Even, it was started in the past continued to the present and the future time. The practice of the
accounting system is influenced by the surrounding factors (social, economic, and political) in
which accounting is run and passes a unique development on the basis of the economic, social,
and political development of a certain country.
Furthermore, the emergence of accounting system in Indonesia can be seen from the
recording of every event (Sukaharsono and Gaffikin, 1993). It can be seen in the inscription
recording financial transaction such as taxation or other transactions written in the old Javanese
form (Sanskrit). In Indonesia, Sukoharsono and Gaffikin (1993) study the accounting emergence
during the Dutch colonialism era (at the beginning of 17th century). On the basis of that research,
it can be inferred that the first token of the accounting system application in Indonesia was from
the implementation of the Dutch colonialism system. It can be proved by a surveillance of the
colonialism system in specifying the controlled individual in the social, economic, and political
life. Then accounting held a significant role during the Dutch colonialism era in relation to the
price, cost, and profit. However, it also has a different role in the social life of the society.
By the developing of the new perspective in the accounting research, the history of
accounting is not seen as a simple calculation anymore in which it was in form of chronological
evolution. Miller and Napier (1993) give the new perspective in viewing the development of
accounting such as viewing the external factor and stressing on the essential of the accounting
Accounting in the Golden Age of Singosari Page 3
changing in responding to the factor the internal factor is the knowledge of accounting itself.
Meanwhile, the history of traditional accounting, in the difference of its problematical matter
between external (organization, economy, and society) and internal (the accounting knowledge),
is seldom to ask accounting for its emergence and development as a power and discipline.
The pattern forming accounting in the Singosari era can be identified by the existing of
the recorded economic transaction. The conceptual problems having the important point on the
existing of the accountants refer to the kind of transaction which should be recorded and the kind
of monetary value which should be enclosed. The operational mechanism of the tax collection in
the Singosari kingdom shows the kingdom financial form and the administration accountability.
The kingdom arranged the taxation rules which obligatory paid to the kingdom. In addition, there
were also types of the tax rates and the kind of taxes which could be collected by the kingdom.
The decision of the kingdom to collect the tax was not a trifling matter, but it was a foundation of
accounting.
Based on the description above, it is clear that the focus of this research is to disclose the
accounting form used in the Singosari kingdom era by using etnoarcheology approach in
collecting the historical object and applying a Foucauldian perspective concerning the idea
history in which it is used as a means in analyzing the creation of accounting form.
phenomenon which sees that human interest also influences the accounting activity. This new
phenomena gives a scope to analyze the relation between accounting and many organizational
issues also with the social relation (North, 1985).
works.
If Walsh and Stewart (1993) focus their research on the factory system in the past to
support Foucaults perspective, Miller and OLeary (1987) study another period of time to see
why the application of standard cost determination and budgeting became very popular in the
United States during the turnover of the 20 th century. Their findings support Foucaults
perspective and they also discover the specific dimensions of the period studied at once in which
they may be gone through the researchers attention.
Faucauldian perspective gives more understanding toward the accounting phenomena as
a disciplinary power form and constitution activity in which it gives an alternative perspective in
viewing the emergence and the role of accounting in relation to the organizational scope and the
accounting social. Accounting is not considered as a matter getting through the evolutionary
development anymore based on the positivistic point of view. However, it tries to study the
changing of accounting on the basis of the history condition at that time proven as an activity
which has a specific interest. Furthermore, it does not merely reflect its context, but also
influences the context.
3,000 BC. He further explains that there was evidence related to the form and writing style that
made accounting as a writing root. On the basis of the archeology consideration toward the ideas,
it can be inferred that the writing development, in term of a science, can be useful to transform
abstract knowledge in the symbolic and recorded form. However, whatever the old writing form,
its effect toward the modern accounting system had ever delayed for a long time until the finding
of Latin letters (except Y and Z letter) in Cicero time (106-43 BC) (Hooker, 1990). Then by the
influence of upsilon and zeta in Greece pronunciation during the first century, the letters Y and Z
were added to the alphabetical order. The social impact of this alphabetical system was very
limited at that time. Nevertheless, it became more popular in the formal education at universities
in Europe during 11th and 12th century. As a consequence, there were many disciplines occurred
including the new perspective issued by a cathedral school in the middle ages. Today, the
Alphabetical system is widely known and becomes an integral part of the custom.
development of the budget determination, financing and planning standard has provided the
coordination of the department activities in the company. The social problem concerning social
environment efficiency has been considered as an accounting discipline.
order of the events. The history science is a method to know, from the record and report, what
happened in the past time period (Marshall and Rossman, 1999 as quoted by Berg, 2004:233).
continuation of the past culture development. It means that the characteristic of todays
culture reflects the formerly developed cultural inheritance. In doing this approach
there should be an observation towards the the society which has direct history in the
same area between the archeological data (object of study) and the ethnographical data
(object of comparison)
2. General comparative approach or also called new analogy
Actually, this approach is based on the perspective that the relation between
archeological culture which has lost its supporters and the existing culture today is the
relation of form. Therefore, this approach does not oblige the existence of historical
continuation in the same area. Nevertheless, it demands the sameness of cultural form
and the environmental background.
The result of the ethnoarcheological study does not show whether the hypothesis is true
or false since it is not a test of inductive conclusion drawing. This study is just an extension of
the induction process itself. As a result, the study of ethnography does not explain the current
observed symptoms (ethnographical data), but it gives a picture of a possible similarity between
the past and todays culture symptoms, or as a connector argumentation. The ethnoarcheological
study tries to understand two aspects which are:
1. What aspect to do. It is understood by an observation. The purpose of the observation
of what aspect to do is to obtain knowledge about location, situation, transaction, etc.
2. The known aspect. This is done by interview to find out the social behaviour which
formed the accounting in the Singosari era.
Hopefully, the study of ethnography may give a picture of the existence and the form of
accounting in the social structure of Singosari kingdom. In addition, it may give a shape of the
social life practices to obtain the description of a more complex and richer nuances accounting.
b. Foucauldian Perspective as an Instrument of Analysis
This research uses Foucaults thoughts as a model to analyze data. The thought is divided
into two chronological stages. The first stage is the historical studies or is called archeology. This
study analyzes the condition which may cause the emergence of modern humanities fields with
historico-power-knowledge relation as its archelogical project. The next stage is geneology
which develops more accounting history towards the emergence of human knowledge and
directly headed to a certain way to solve the historical analysis about the system of thoughts. In
Accounting in the Golden Age of Singosari Page 10
the study, these two stages are similar and completing each other. Archeology focuses on the
existing historical condition while geneology questions the process of the history itself. In a more
precise way, geneology offers a process relation concerning the discourse network. On the other
hand, archeological approach gives a slice through the link of discourse.
In his viewpoint, Foucault is having a problem to differentiate archeology of science from
the excessively stable domain known as the history of ideas. The big theme of the history of idea
is the birth of ideas, its continuity of time, and its totality such as the spirit of the era. By refusing
the investigation of the origin or the birth of an idea, Foucault is interested in the difference and
the contradiction of an idea as well as the continuity issue, and in analyzing the detail statement
compared to global generalization of totality.
Faucault perspective concerning the relation between knowledge and power brings a
revolutionary effect to the social discipline and gives a unique contribution of reciprocal
relationship between knowledge and power. It is about the power articulated into knowledge, and
vice versa. Faucault concept brings a consequence in which if we want to know the power
production, we must also investigate the knowledge production of it or to be exact, we must
investigate the power itself.
The text written on Simpang inscription in 1289 AC indicates that the written form was used to
give and to keep the information derived from holy events. The text on the Joko Dolog statue
portrays Kertanegara, the last king of Singosari kingdom who was considered as the highest of
Aksobya, was the highest figure in Buddhist. Moreover, it is the only inscription stating about
the unification of Jengagala and Panjalu by Wishnuwardana king in which later on was under
Kertanegara king territory. The emergence of Jenggala and Panjalu was because of the political
kingdom separation done by Erlangga king in 1403. Actually, the separation of Singosari
kingdom after the death of Rejasa in 1227 followed that pattern (Slametmulya, 1979:76). This
illustration gives information that all texts contain the knowledge of religion, law, moral, and the
economic aspect of the society happening in the past. Therefore, it can be proved that there was
the existing of the past time information. Another evidence of the use of the letters is the type of
Accounting in the Golden Age of Singosari Page 12
the Singosari letters developed and continued until Majapahit era including Sutasoma written by
Mpu Tantular (Darmosoetopo, 1993:57-57)
The use of old Javanese numbers in the inscription shows the existing of transaction
recording, especially trading transaction in the market. In the Singosari era, the sellers only
arranged their account for the sake of their own documentation by using a language which was
easy to be understood. In addition, they used an easy written medium, so they could know the
cost and the profit easily. This kind of recording system makes them easier to make a decision in
relation to the future of their business.
Silver money (atak) was called kati, dharana, masa, and kupang
The value of the money were:
o 1 kati = 20 Dharana/Swarna
o 1 Swarna= 16 masa
o 1 Masa= 4 kupang
The transaction mentioned in the inscriptions was trading transaction and land pawning.
The media used in the transactions were gold and silver money. From the explanation above, it is
obviously seen that both kinds of currency had high value, so it was impossible if they were used
to buy the goods which did not have a high value such as daily needs. It is proved by the
inscriptions stating that the numbers of gold and silver money were about tens, while coins were
about thousands (Nastiti, 2004:101).
One of the currencies used in the markets in the Singosari era was Chinese Copper Coins
in which it also had a significant role as the medium of transaction in Singosari and its
surrounding. According to Amelia (1986:92-95), Java imported Chinese Copper Coins which
were used as a legal currency at that time. It was because China imported pepper from Java, so
there were many Chinese copper coins in Java that caused the decreasing of coins stock in China.
The coins were from Tang (618-907); Song (960-1279); Ming (1368- 1644); Qing Dynasty
(1644-1911). From those the most coins found in Trowulan were from Song Dynasty. Therefore,
it can be said that the money used in the Singosari era was the coins from Song Dynasty (960-
1279). Furthermore, if it is seen from the shape, the size and the hole of the saving box, it can
also be said that there was a saving tradition in the Singosari era. It is strengthened by the
evidence that there was a hole in the saving box meaning that the saved money was the coins.
5. Kertanegara (1268-1292)
4. THE HIERARCHY OF 1. The king was in the highest level in the
THE GOVERNMENT kingdom
2. Rakyanamantri Katrini had a power as the
king advisor in which the kings order was
socialized for the first time. It consisted of:
Rakyan I Hino
Rakyan I Halu
Rakyan I Sirikan
3. Rakyan Para Tanda who had the duty as the
executives of the kingdom in which the three
of them led by Rakyan sang Ramapati.
Rakyan Patih held by Kebo Arema
Rakyan Demung held by Mapanji
Wipaksa
Rakyan Kanuruhan held by Mapanji
Anurida
4. Five Pamegat did the kingdom duties which
were more specific. They consisted of
Pamegat Tirwan
Pamegat Kandamuhi
Pamegat Nanghuri
Pamegat Jamba
Pamegat Pajangjiwa
5. Darmadyaksa was the official in law and
religion. The two government bodies who
took the charge of it were:
Darmadyaksa Ring Kasaewan for
Hindus
Darmadyaksa ring Kasogatan for
Buddist
5. THE GOVERNMENT Citralekha (office clerk)
ADMINISTRATION Panurung (managing the tax)
OFFICIAL IN THE Pratyaya (Managing the income)
SINGOSARI KINGDOM
Parujar (spokesman)
6 LANGUAGE Sanskrit (People in Java usually called it the old
Kawitan, but later on it became Kawi)
7. LETERS Pallawa-Kawi (Dewanagari letters)
Accounting in the Golden Age of Singosari Page 15
Fishery area
Industrial area
14 TRANSPORTATION Land transportation: the merchants who
SYSTEM brought a lot of goods used a cart, while
those who brought little goods used a horse
or cow.
River transportation: they used a boat.
16. ARCHITECTURE IN THE Temples. In the Singosari era, temples were
SINGOSARI ERA used as the the king family funeral.
17. THE NTERACTION In the Kartanegara king era, Singosari was in the
WITH OTHER development and prosperity period. In order to
KINGDOMS stabilize and develop Singosari territory, and to
unite the islands and other kingdoms under
Singosari kingdom, Kertanegara did political
archipelago unity by sending Pamalayu
expedition in 1275 and wide spreading its
influence in Pahang, Gurun, Bakulapura.
18. THE AUTHORITY In the Wisnu Wardhana era, the region
REGION included: Daha, Mening, Gelang-gelang, Lwa,
Maura, Marono, and Lumajang.
Meanwhile, in the Kertanegara era, the
authority region became wider including
Canggu, Tuban, Bali, Seram Island, Menjalin,
Melayu, Darmasraya kingdom (Jambi), Pahang,
Bakulapura.
V. CONCLUSION
a. Conclusion
This research is conducted to find out the accounting form in local Indonesia, especially
in the Singosari kingdom era. Language, writing, number, and calculation are very needed in
every accounting form. The letters used in the Singosari kingdom era were Pallawa-Kawi
(Dewanagari letter). It is proved by the existing of Singosari special letters which was developed
and continued in the Majapahit era including a book written by Mpu Tantular entitled Sutasoma
(Darmosoetopo, 1993:57-57). One of the facts of accounting development in the written form
during the Singosari kingdom era is that it is related to the mechanism used for administration
purpose and accountability in tax imposition.
Then in relation to the writing, there are many materials used to write (Gaur, 1987:35).
In the Singosari kingdom, the writing medium used were palm leaves, stones, copper, gold and
Accounting in the Golden Age of Singosari Page 17
silver sheet. The speech of the king written in palm leaves was copied by using stones in which it
is known as the inscriptions. However, the physical evidence of the palm leaves used in the
Singosari era cannot be found by the researchers. It is because of the characteristic of palm
leaves in which they do not have a good tenacity as stones. Another reason is that the condition
of Indonesia, epecially in Eat Java, which is susceptible to natural disaster such as mountain
eruption, flood, and earthquake, makes the finding of the written evidence of writing medium
much more difficult. In addition, the long time condition is also the reason of the historical
disobedience. Thus it shows nothing about the written evidence.
Furthermore, the people in the Singosari kingdom era had known money as the exchange
medium in trading. Nevertheless, it is very difficult to find out the physical evidence of the local
currency used at that time. Meanwhile, in the old Java era, people used gold and silver as the
exchange medium. Thus it can be inferred that the local currency used in the Singosari era was
almost the same as it was found in the old Java era. In another side, Chinese Copper Coins could
be found in the Singosari kingdom era. Moreover, they took the important role as the transaction
media in trading in Singosari and its surrounding. The evidence of this finding is that Java had
imported Chinese Copper Coins that could be used as the legal payment media. Those coins
derived from Tang (618-907); Song (960-1279); Ming (1368-1644); and Qing Dynasty (1644-
1911). From all those coins, the most coins found in the Trowulan were from Song Dynasty.
Therefore, it can be said that during the Singosari era, the currency used was Chinese Copper
Coins from Song Dynasty (960-1279).
The first information related to the levied tax on the inscription was found on the
sentences in which they gave information concerning the determination of a region to be a sima.
It was a special region freed from payment taxes given by the king to the kingdom official or
inhabitant as a meritorious person toward the kingdom, or the place for sacred place. The
determination of Sima was management changing decision of the kingdom wealth that was the
handover of tax levied in which at the beginning it was for the kingdom. Then it was changed to
fulfill Sima needs. This information included administration, social-economic activity, and every
part of exertion which had a close connection to the kingdom income.
accounting form at that time, is not thoroughly studied. This research only intends to view one of
the actualization processes of accounting form from the basis of writing style, number, and
writing medium. Meanwhile, another activity that shaped accounting is only viewed from the
market and taxes levied by the kingdom. However, this research basically does not yet include
the real accounting form in the Singosari kingdom era toward the impact for the modern
accounting used nowadays.
The result of the accounting form used in the Singosari era cannot actually be proved yet
since the writers relate the research to the events which did not thoroughly happen in the
Singosari era. It means that during the writers did the research, the half of the findings got cannot
provide a thing that portrays the accounting form in the Singosari era. Actually, these findings
had been predicted before by the development of ideas. This fact is due to the limitation of the
research time.
For the next researchers, it would be better if they could compare the accounting
development with other local regions. The comparison study is applied by viewing the similarity
and the difference of accounting practices which were different from one place to another place
in Indonesia. Thus it can develop a new perspective concerning the accounting role in the
organization and society.
Furthermore, this study uses Faucouldian concept concerning the relationship between
knowledge and power. Faucouldian concept, as a part of new historical research in accounting,
stands significantly in facing the discipline chalanging of accounting history in Indonesia. First,
this study is an evidence of the accounting history plurality focused on economic, social, and
political scope. The history of accounting is not viewed as a single story anymore which takes
much attention to the evolutionary history. Faucouldian concept provides a better understanding
in telling the history and asking for new questions about accounting. In addition, it also provides
the knowledge of how accounting is practiced. Second, Faucouldian concept brings a new
epistemology of how we can understand the past time. The emergence of accounting in Indonesia
is not understood as an evolutionary development; but it is the practice and knowledge related to
accounting scope formed. By using this scope, accounting in Indonesia is not merely connected
to the economic and technical facts, but it is also connected to the social and political activities.
Although Faucouldian concept, which is from the relation between the power and knowledge,
provides a rich portrayal in analyzing the development of accounting in Indonesia, it is not the
only way to analyze in order to provide a vivid explanation of how accounting is practiced based
on the history. The various approaches are also needed to make sure a non dogmatic view of
accounting history.
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