Government of Karnataka

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SCIENCE

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Ninth Standard
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2015
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Karnataka Textbook Society (R.)

100 Feet Ring Rood, Banashankari
3rd Stage, Bengaluru - 85
 PREFACE

The Textbook Society, Karnataka has been engaged in producing

new textbooks according to the new syllabi which in turn are designed
on NCF 2005 since June 2010. Textbooks are prepared in 12
languages; seven of them serve as the media of instruction. From
standard 1 to 4 there is the EVS, mathematics and from 5th to 10th
there are three core subjects namely mathematics, science and social

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science.
NCF 2005 has a number of special features and they are:

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connecting knowledge to life activities
learning to shift from rote methods

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enriching the curriculum beyond textbooks
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learning experiences for the construction of knowledge
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making examinations flexible and integrating them with

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classroom experiences
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caring concerns within the democratic policy of the country

making education relevant to the present and future needs.

softening the subject boundaries- integrated knowledge and
the joy of learning.
the child is the constructor of knowledge
The new books are produced based on three fundamental
approaches namely,
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Constructive approach, Spiral approach and Integrated approach.

The learner is encouraged to think, engage in activities, master
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skills and competencies. The materials presented in these books are

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integrated with values. The new books are not examination oriented
in their nature. On the other hand they help the learner in the all
round development of his/her personality, thus help him/her become
a healthy member of a healthy society and a productive citizen of this
great country, India.
We live in an age of science and technology. During the past five
decades man has achieved great things and realized his dreams and
ii
 reached pinnacle of glory. He has produced everything to make life
comfortable. In the same way he has given himself to pleasures and
reached the stage in which he seems to have forgotten basic sciences.
We hope that at least a good number of young learners take to science
in higher studies and become leading scientists and contribute their
share to the existing stock of knowledge in order to make life
prosperous.
Ample opportunity has been given to learners to think, read,

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discuss and learn on their own with very little help from teachers.
Learning is expected to be activity centered with the learners doing

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experiments, assignments and projects.
The Textbook Society expresses grateful thanks to the

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chairpersons, writers, scrutinisers, artists, staff of DIETs and CTEs
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and the members of the Editorial Board and printers in helping the
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Textbook Society in producing these textbooks.
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Prof. G. S. Mudambadithaya Nagendra Kumar

Coordinator Managing Director

Curriculum Revision and Karnataka Textbook Society

Textbook Preparation Bengaluru, Karnataka
Karnataka Textbook Society
Bengaluru, Karnataka
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 CHAIRPERSONS NOTE

NCF 2005 has made it clear that the emphasis should be laid on
stimulating the student to apply his/her mind and think for him-
self/herself. Accordingly we have taken special care to provoke the
student to use his brain rather than the routine mugging up infor-
mation and presenting it without understanding what it is.
The syllabus is competitive and we had to spend quite a lot of

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time to live upto the stipulations of NCF. It is easy to write a book to

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higher classes but it is very challenging to do the same to lower classes.
We have concentrated on building up concepts wherever possible. In
a few cases the subject had to be descriptive, particularly in biology.

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The teacher has to sit tight for a while to prepare for the class and
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think what he has to teach and how much he has to teach.It is said
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that one diagram is equal to one hundred words. Accordingly we
have added a number of useful and attractive diagrams wherever pos-
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sible so that the student can grasp the concept easily and clearly by
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looking at them. The exercises are well graded and stimulate the
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thinking of the student. Latest developments in the subject concerned

have been incorporated to stir the imagination of the student.

In this great work we had the regular guidance and inspiration

from Prof. Mudambadithaya, the coordinator. We had the active co-
operation from writers, scrutinizers, editorial committee members,
teachers and translators.Their constructive participation at various
levels was a source of inspiration to us and made our work much
easier. On the whole, it was the teamwork with free and frank discus-
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sions among the members at various stages which enabled us to

prepare this text book. The staff of the Karnataka Text Book Society
and DSERT have very enthusiastically co-operated with us in this
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endeavour.
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If you have constructive, creative suggestions to offer, please feel

free to pass them on to us. We shall try to incorporate them in the
next edition.

Dr. M. J. Sundar Ram

Prof. H. S. Lakshminarayana Bhatta

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 TEXTBOOK COMMITTEE
Chairpersons :
Dr. M.J. Sundar Ram - Prof. of Zoology (Rtd.)
Prof. H.S. Lakshminarayana Bhatta - Prof. of Physics (Rtd.)
Members :
Smt. H.S. Gayathri - Vice Principal, Vagdevi Vilas School, Varthur, Bengaluru.
Sri Aruna Kumara C.B. - Asst. Teacher, G.H.S, Kalluru Naganahalli, Mysuru
Taluk.
Dr. Praveen R. - Principal, CMR College of Education, Banasawadi, Bengaluru.
Dr. M.R. Lakshminarayana - Associate Professor, BES College of Education,
Jayanagar IV Block, Bengaluru.

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Dr. H.R. Sudha - Lecturer, Al-Ameen College of Education, Hosur Road,
Bengaluru.

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Dr. Sandhya D.N. - Asst. Mistress, Government High School, Jalahalli,
Bengaluru.
Dr. Indira J. - Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics University College, Mangaluru.

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Sri G. Satish. - Asst. Master, R.V. Girls High School, Jayanagar, Bengaluru.
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Sri G. Nagesh Gouda - Drawing Teacher, G.H.S. Kallur, Manvi Taluk, Raichur District.
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Sub Committee Members :
Smt. Anithanarayan - Asst. Mistres, Little flower public school, Banashankari
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3rd Stage, Bengaluru.

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Smt. Parvathi - Technical Asst, Karnataka Textbook Society, Bengaluru.
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Sri Venkatanarayan K.V. - Rtd. Teacher, National High School, Basavanagudi,

Bengaluru.
Sri Manjunath R - Senior Assistant Director, DSERT, Bengaluru.

Smt. Savitri - Asst. Mistress, Government PU College (High School section)

Peenya, Bengaluru.
Smt. Jayashree - ECO, BEOs office, Bengaluru South-2
Scrutinizer :
Dr. H.V. Vamadevappa - Principal, M.M. College of Education, Davanagere.
Prof. Govind A.S. - Associate prof. in Physics, Vijaya College, Basavanagudi,
Bengaluru.
Editorial Board :
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Sri S. Hiriyanna - Head, GEOSAT, PMO, ISRO Satallite Centre, Bengaluru.

Dr. K.S. Sameera Simha - Professor (Retd.), Vijaya Teachers College, Bengaluru.
Dr. Katre Shakunthala - Professor of Zoology (Retd.), Bengaluru University,
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Bengaluru.
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Chief Co-ordinator :
Prof. G.S. Mudambaditaya, Co-ordinator, Curriculum revision and
text book preparation, KTBS, Bengaluru.
Chief Advisor :
Sri Nagendra Kumar, Managing Director, KTBS, Bengaluru.
Sri Panduranga, Deputy Director(incharge), KTBS, Bengaluru.
Programme Co-ordinator :
Smt. Bharathi S. - Senior Assistant Director, KTBS, Bengaluru.
v
 CONTENTS
SL. CHAPTERS PAGE No.
No.

1. NATURAL RESOURCES 1
2. FOOD 22
3. HEAT 37

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4. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS 55

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5. NATURE OF LIGHT 83
6. THE WORLD OF MICROBES 91
7. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 100

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8. PROPERTIES OF MATTER 110
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10. LENS bl
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS 117
127
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11. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS 141
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12. LIFE PROCESSES 155

13. CHEMICALS IN OUR DAILY LIFE 166

14. CELL DIVISION 175

15. REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 191
16. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 212
17. CIRCULAR MOTION 223
18. ELECTRONIC COFIGURATION 232
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19. CHEMICAL BONDING 242

20. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 261
21. BASICS OF COMPUTER 275
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22. GRAVITATION 289

23. PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT AND LASER 299
24. ELECTRICITY 317
25. EVOLUTION OF LIFE 341
26. RADIO ACTIVITY 356
27. THE SUN 366

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 Chapter 1
NATURAL RESOURCES
After studying this chapter you
recognize the metallic ores of Karnataka.
explain the byproducts of coal.
suggest the processes/ways of conserving natural resources like
water, soil, forest, wildlife and fossil fuels.

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state the various environmental laws passed to conserve the
natural resources.

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give reasons for the depletion of natural resources.

We are already aware of a large number of natural resources,

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both renewable and non-renewable. They are also called inexhaustible
and exhaustible resources respectively, based on their availability
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and continuous usage. A nations natural resources often determine
its wealth and status in the world economic system. So, it is very
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important to know the wealth of our state in terms of ores,
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metals etc.
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Fig 1.01 Distribution of Minerals in Karnataka

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 Know this : If renewable resources are consumed at the rate
that exceeds their natural rate of regeneration, the standing stock
will diminish and eventually run out. Many environmentalists have
suggested a tax on consumption of non-renewable resources like
ores, mineral oils etc.
Table 1.1 : Some important ores/metals and their availability in
various districts of Karnataka is given below:

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No Ore/metal Districts

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1 Iron ore Bellari, Chikkamagaluru, Chitradurga,
Bagalkot, Tumakuru, Uttara Kannada,
Dakshina Kannada, Gadag, Mandya

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2 Manganese ore Bellari, Uttara Kannada Districts
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Belagavi (Karnataka is the second
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highest producer of manganese ore in

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India next to Orissa)
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3 Bauxite Belagavi, Udupi and Dakshina Kannada

Chikkamagaluru and Uttara Kannada

districts (Bauxite is the main source of
Aluminium)

4 Chromite Hassan, Mysuru, Chikkamagaluru,

chitradurga and Shimoga (Karnataka is the
second highest producer of Chromite in
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India next to Orissa)

5 Copper Chitradurga, Hassan, Kalaburagi

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6 Gold Kolar, Raichur, Gadag, Kalaburagi, Tumakuru

and Yadagir (Kolar Gold Mine is the
second deepest mine in the world)

7 Silver Raichur (Hutti Mines) (Karnataka is

second in India in the production of silver
next to Rajasthan)

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 8 Magnasite Mysuru, Kodagu, Ballari and
(MgCO3 ) Hassan (Karnataka is the third leading
producer of Magnasite in India next to
Tamilnadu and Uttarakhand)
9 Kyanite Mysuru, Hassan, Chikkamagaluru and
(Aluminium Chitradurga
Silicate)
Al2(SiO3)3

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By-products of Coal

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You are already aware of different allotropic forms of carbon. Which
of the amorphous forms of carbon is used as the main source of

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energy? What products are formed when it is burnt?
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The by-products of coal gas manufacture included coke, coal tar,
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sulphur and ammonia and these are all useful byproducts. Dyes,
medicines such as sulpha drugs, saccharine and sugar free soda drink,
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and dozens of organic compounds are made from coal gas.
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Fig 1.02 Some important by-products of coal

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 A resource is any natural or artificial substance, energy or
organism which is used by human beings for their welfare. All that
the nature has provided such as soil, air, water, minerals, coal,
sunlight, animals and plants etc., are known as natural resources.
We use them directly or indirectly for survival and welfare of living
beings.
Conservation is the proper management of natural resources to
prevent their exploitation, destruction or degradation and it is also

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the sum total of all activities that can derive benefits from natural

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resources at the same time prevent excessive use leading to their
destruction or degradation.
We know that nature provides us all our basic needs but we tend

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to overexploit it. If we go on exploiting the nature, there will be no
more resources available in future. There is an urgent need to conserve
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nature. Some of the needs are:
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1. To maintain ecological balance for supporting life.

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Kaveris mother believes that she can make good chapaties if wheat
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grains are dried under sunlight for some time. She dries them under
the sun and takes care to see that sparrows do not come and eat

away the grains. But to her surprise she does not see any sparrow
coming to eat the wheat grains. Why is it so?
2. To preserve different kinds of species.
3. To make the resources available for present and future
generations.
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4. To ensure the survival of biodiversity.

You all know that water is the most important natural resource.
You know very well that water is essential for survival of living
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organisms. It is the most important component of life forms and

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necessary for sustaining life. It regulates climate, generates electricity

and is also useful in agriculture and industries.
Activity 1.01
Make a list of animals which have become extinct and which are
on the verge of extinction

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 You are perhaps aware that 22nd March is celebrated as the World
Water Day. Schools and colleges celebrate the day by various types
of activities which create awareness on water conservation.
Activity 1.02
List out various activities that can be conducted in your school to
develop awareness on water conservation.
Rahim goes to his uncles house for summer vacation every year.

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He enjoys his stay there. This year he feels a little uncomfortable
because of acute shortage of water which was not there before. His

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uncle tried to get water by digging a bore well but in vain. This is
because of depletion of undreground water table. When he asks his
uncle about the reasons for the problem, he came to know that water

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table is not replenished as the surface area on earth to absorb water
has been remarkably reduced.
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Think ! The surface area on earth for water percolation is
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drastically reduced. Why?
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Conservation and management of water are essential for the

survival of mankind, plants and animals. This can be achieved by

adopting the following methods:
1. Growing vegetation in the catchment areas which will hold water
in the soil and allow it to percolate into deeper layers and
contribute to the formation of ground water.
Take a potted plant with a hole, keep it on a stand and place a
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trough below the pot and pour water to the pot. Observe that excess
of water flows out through the hole in the pot and is collected in the
trough below.
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2. Constructing dams and reservoirs to regulate supply of water to

the fields as well as to enable generation of hydroelectricity.
3. Sewage should be treated and only the clean water should be
released into the rivers.
4. Industrial wastes should be treated to prevent chemical and
thermal pollution of fresh water.
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 5. Judicious use of water in our day-to-day life.
All of us waste water knowingly or unknowingly while brushing
teeth, bathing, washing and during many other activities. Leaking
taps is another source of huge water wastage.
6. Rainwater harvesting should be done by storing rainwater and
recharging the groundwater.

You might have observed on television that a

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thirsty monkey quenches its thirst by drinking

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water and closes the tap immediately. What
is the message that you get from this?

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Why has the Government made it
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compulsory to install rain water harvesting
system in every house?
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You have seen that most of the water that
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we get as rainfall just flows away. This is a

waste of precious natural resource. This

rainwater can be used to recharge the

groundwater.
Observe if the buildings in your neighbourhood
have rain water harvesting systems installed
and do you also want to have water harvesting Fig 1.03
plant to be installed and why? See how it Rainwater harvesting
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helps in the conservation of water.

Just as water is precious, soil is also important for the plants to
grow. Soil is the uppermost layer of the earths crust, which supports
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growth of plants. It is a complex mixture of mineral particles, humus,

mineral salts, water, air and living organisms.
Know This : Humus is a brown or black organic substance
consisting of partially or wholly decayed vegetable or animal matter
that provides nutrients to plants and increases the ability of soil to
retain water.

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 Activity 1.03
Prepare a model of rain water harvesting device.
Soil is a renewable as well as a non-renewable resource. It is
because its productivity can be maintained with fertilizers and
manures rich in humus. It is practically non-renewable because
formation of new soil may take hundreds and thousands of years.

We are aware of various causes of soil erosion.

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Fig 1.04 Figures showing soil erosion
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Activity 1.04

Collect information about soil erosion and make notes on the causes
of soil erosion.
Soil loses its fertility during the erosion, so we need to conserve
the soil. Soil conservation means checking soil erosion and improving
soil fertility by adopting various methods. Let us know some of these
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methods.

Think ! Farmers use fertilizers to grow crops. Why?

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Dicot plants and monocot plants are grown alternatly. Why?

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1. Maintenance of soil fertility: The fertility can be maintained by

adding manure and fertilizers regularly as well as by rotation of
monocot and dicot plants.
2. Reforestation: Planting of trees and vegetation reduces soil
erosion by both, water and wind.

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 Soil erosion is Soil erosion is

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less in the soil
more in open
protected by
soil. green cover.

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Fig 1.05 Figures showing soil erosion

Think ! The amount of soil and water that have collected in the

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first beaker are more than the soil and water that have collected in
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the second beaker above. Can you guess ? Why?
3. Terracing: Flat fields with bunds are made on slopes by
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constructing steps in order to prevent soil erosion.
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Fig 1.06 Terracing

Why contour ploughing is followed to check soil erosion?

Contour ploughing: Ploughing at
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transverse direction to the slope allows

the furrows to trap water and check soil
erosion by rain water.
Contour ploughing or contour
farming is the farming practice of
ploughing across a slope following its
elevation contour lines. The rows formed Fig 1.07 Contour Farming
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 slows down water run-off during rainstorms and allows the water
enough time to seep into the soil and prevents soil erosion. In contour
ploughing, the ruts made by the plough run perpendicular rather
than parallel to slopes, generally resulting in furrows that curve around
the land. A similar practice is contour bunding where stones are
placed around the contours of slopes.

Conservation of forests

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Forests are important natural resources of every state. They have
a moderating influence against floods and thus protect the soil against

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erosion. Forests also influence climate and rainfall. They provide raw
materials to a number of industries. They prevent landslides, reduce
flood havoc and provide protection to wildlife. In spite of these uses,

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destruction of forests (deforestation) is taking place and is caused by
increased industrialization, urbanization, mining, overgrazing and
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extension of agricultural activities. The effects of deforestation are
desertification, unfavourable climatic conditions and dwindling of the
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wildlife habitat.
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Activity 1.05

Animal life is also affected by deforestation. How? List the points

and discuss them in your class.
The Forest Conservation Act 1980 was enacted to help conserve
the countrys forests. It strictly restricts and regulates the de-
reservation of forests or use of forest land for non-forest purposes
without the prior approval of Central Government.
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These are some measures for conservation of forests;

1. Restricting unnecessary cutting of trees.
2. Afforestation (Tree planting programme), reforestation,
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community forestry.
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3. Controlling natural disasters in forest.

4. Educating public about alternate sources of furniture and
minimizing the use of timber.
5. Recycling of forest products.
6. Adopting modern management practices such as social
forestry, agricultural forestry etc.

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 Afforestation : the method of growing a new forest
Reforestation : the method of restoring the forest area.

Activity 1.06
Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you
can save paper.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927 consolidates the law relating to forests,

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the transit of forest-produce and the duty leviable on timber and
other forest-produce. Keeping in view the importance of forests in

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our life, people all over the world have stopped unnecessary
deforestation. Our Government has also made laws to prevent
unnecessary felling of trees. Government has decided to declare

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certain forests as protected areas. There are about 150 wildlife
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sanctuaries in India. People come from all over the world to see these
sanctuaries. Sanctuaries consist of some of the most beautiful and
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rare animals and plants.

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Activity 1.07
Make a list of forest produce that you use.

What forest produce do you think a person living near a forest

would use?
Discuss with your classmates how these needs differ or do not
differ and the reasons for the same.
Activity 1.08
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Find out about two forest produces that are the basis for an
industry.
Discuss whether this industry is sustainable in the long run, or
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do we need to control our consumption of these products.

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The Government has made plans to grow more trees.

Vanamahotsava is celebrated every year to plant more trees.
Thousands of school children participate in Vanamahotsava and plant
trees every year. Chipko Movement and Narmada Bachao Andolan
are some of the movements to save forests and wild life in India.
Chipko Movement was started by Sunderlal Bahuguna in Tehri District
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 of Uttar Pradesh. The women of a village in Tehri, clung to the trees
and protected them from being cut down. Medha Patkar started a
movement named Narmada Bachao Andolan to save the forests and
wild life in the Narmada region. Saalumarada Thimmakka has
planted and nurtured many trees between Kudur and Hulikal of
Ramanagar district in Karnataka.
Different flora and fauna like Neem tree, Peepal tree, Tulsi, Cow,
Eagle, Snake, etc. are worshipped in Indian tradition. Even today we

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can see Nagavanas, Bawalivanas etc. in some parts of our country.

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There are separate grazing areas for cattle (gomaala) in some of the
rural areas. What is their importance? What are the reasons behind
them? Discuss.

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Fig. 1.08 Fig. 1.09

Chipko Movement Saalumarada Thimmakka

Activity 1.09
Try to identify the flora and fauna of your area and list them.
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Activity 1.10
In order to meet the ever increasing demand in factories and for
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shelter, trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for
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such projects? Discuss and prepare a brief note.

Dear students, now a days we are seeing in mass media very
frequently the animals like elephants, leopards, bison etc., entering
and encroaching human habitats in towns and cities. We also see
such wildlife being killed by people or otherwise people killed by
animals. Why is it happening ?
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 You have already learnt about the meaning of wildlife in your
previous class. The plants, animals and micro organisms other than
the cultivated plants and domesticated animals constitute the wildlife.
Here animals and plants living in their natural habitat constitute
wildlife. This plays a major role in maintaining ecological balance.
We also often see people caught in airports or in markets while
smuggling and selling (Wildlife trafficking) rare wild life species like
two-headed snakes, star turtles, crocodiles, Varanus etc.

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Why do people do so? Can you think? It is not good for wildlife
and we should conserve wildlife to

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1. maintain ecological balance for supporting life.
2. preserve different kinds of species.

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3. preserve economically important plants and animals.
4. conserve the endangered species.
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5.
6.
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promote afforestation.
prevent the extinction of species.
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Think ! Now a days individual dissection of animals is prohibited
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by law in schools and colleges. Why?

Endangered species are those plants and animals whose

population is so low that there is a danger of them becoming extinct
in the near future. A few of them are given below. Some animal species
are Himalayan Wolf, Kashmir Stag, Flying Squirrel, Blue Whale,
Indian or Asian Elephant,Wild Water Buffalo, Woolly Flying Squirrel,
Slow Loris, etc. Some of the plant species are Peritha, Nannari, Pitcher
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plant, Mahagony, Red sandalwood, Myristica malabarica, M.

magnifica (of Western ghats ) etc.
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The Bengal Tiger Dhole Nannari Pitcher Plant

Fig. 1.10 Some endangered species

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 The species which already extinct from the earth are called extinct
species. Example for extinct organisms are woolly mommoth, Dinosaur,
pink head duck etc.

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Woolly Mammoth Dinosaur

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Pink Headed Duch
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Archeopteryx - the Reptile Bird

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Activity 1.11
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Collect some pictures of endangered species and display in your

classroom.

For our survival, biodiversity is essential. There are two basic

strategies for conservation of biodiversity.
(a) In-situ conservation: conservation includes the protection of
plants and animals within their natural habitats or in protected
areas. Protected areas are areas of land or sea dedicated to
protection and maintenance of biodiversity.
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(b) Ex-situ conservation : It includes plants and animals outside

their natural habitats. These include Botanical Gardens, Zoo,
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Gene Banks, Seed Banks, Pollen Banks etc.

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Conservation of wild life

On the occasion of mothers day Ranjani wants to present a
beautiful shawl to her mother made out of shahtoosh wool which is
obtained from the soft undercoat of the Tibetan Antelopes. It is
required to kill three to four Tibetan Antelopes to make just one
shawl. Each shawl can cost several thousand dollars in the
international market. What is your opinion about it?
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 Activity 1.12
List the bird sanctuaries, zoos and National parks in the state of
Karnataka
We can conserve the wildlife by adopting various means like:
1. Establishing biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.
2. Afforestation, reforestation, social forestry, community forestry
3. Special schemes for preservation of endangered species.
4. Improvement of natural habitats of wildlife

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Project Tiger, an initiative by the Central Government, launched

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on April 1, 1973, has become one of the most successful conservation
ventures in modern history. The project aims at tiger conservation in
specially constituted tiger reserves which are representative of

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various bio-geographical regions falling within India. It strives to
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maintain a viable tiger population in their natural environment.
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Today, there are about 27 Project Tiger wildlife reserves in India
covering an area of about 37,761 Km.
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Activity 1.13
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List the endangered animals and the projects introduced to

conserve them.

Activity 1.14
Collect information on special projects launched by the government
to save the endangered species.
Activity 1.15
Visit a zoo and list the animals you see there.
Observe the conditions provided to the animals.
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Was the arrangement suitable for the animals?
Can animals live in artificial setting instead of their natural
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habitat?
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In your opinion are animals comfortable in a zoo or in their

natural habitat?
5. Restriction of hunting, poaching of animals by strict regulation.
6. Educating people about the need and methods of conservation of
wildlife
7. Enforcing legal Acts and Regulations to prevent poaching (illegal
killing animals) for sports and money.
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 Activity 1.16
Collect information on Red data book
Organizations involved in wildlife conservation
1. IBWL-Indian Board of Wild life
2. BNHS-Bombay Natural History Society
3. WPSI-Wildlife Preservation Society of India
4. WWF-World Wild-life Fund

d
5. SBWL-State Boards for Wildlife

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6. NWAP-National Wild-life Action plan
7. IUCN- International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
resources

is
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8. WCU - World Conservation Union
9. CITES - Conservation of International Trade in Endangered Species
B
bl
Protection of Wildlife is not possible only by laws and Government.
be T
pu
Despite all of these laws and efforts, destruction of wildlife, illegal
trade and poaching continues. Active cooperation from the common
K

public is also necessary. It is now high time for us to understand the

gravity of the situation and act on appropriately. And this can only be

achieved by our awareness and through further stringent laws by

the Government. We must not lose the national treasures in our rat
race of urbanization and modernization.
Know this: Wildlife week has been observed in India in the first
week (2nd to 8th) of October every year since 1995. It aims at creating
awareness among people about the importance of wildlife and
to

highlight the conservational and management needs of wildlife.

Conservation of fossil fuels
t

Balaji is in a hurry to go to his office. He goes to his office in

No

his two wheeler and he does not turn off his vehicle when the
signal is too long. If you were to be in his position what you would do
and why?
Suhas is in a hurry to reach his school in time, but he got stuck
in the heavy traffic. The reason for the heavy traffic is that most of the
people commute to their working place either by their car or on their

15
 two wheeler and they dont use public transport. Dont you think the
traffic can be minimized to great extent if people resort to public
transport? This is how petroleum can be conserved.
Fossil fuels are the fossilized remains of plants and animals, which
over millions of years have been transformed into coal, petroleum
products and natural gas. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel. It is
widely used for combustion and in industrial activities. There are
different types of coal products such as coal gas, coal tar, benzene,

d
toluene, etc., which are used for various purposes. Since these fuels

he
take long duration to form and are non renewable it is very important
to use them judiciously and it is advisable to use alternative sources
of energy like solar energy, wind energy, thermal energy, tidal energy,

is
nuclear energy etc.,
re S
In addition to this since fossil fuels are non renewable, instead of
B
bl
using fossil fuels for energy, switch to renewable sources such as
be T

solar panels to provide light and heat to your home and obtain
pu
electricity. Solar panels are made up of arrays of photovoltaic cells
K

which collect solar energy rather than using up fossil fuels.

Steps to conserve fossil fuels

Use public transport, try cycling or walking to your destination
Use solar panels
Try not to use much plastic
Follow 3Rs (Reduce, Recycle, Reuse)
Switch off lights when not in use
to

Influence others to follow eco-friendly lifestyles.

We all know that Oil is commonly transported by barges, tankers,
t

pipelines, and trucks, each of which has its own imperfections that
No

can lead to an oil accident. What would happen if such accidents

occur and oil spills?
Activity 1.17
Observe what would happen if the fish tank gets dirty and is not
maintained in a proper way. Write your observations. Oil in large
water masses can also have the same effect.

16
 Proper care should be taken by the oil transporters through the
ships and leakages and spilling should be avoided. This prevents
wastage of fuel and also saves aquatic animals.

Know this : Oil spill prevention and clean-up procedures are

monitored by organizations such as the Environmental Protection
Agency and the United States Coast Guard. Such organizations
enact policies aimed at preventing spills, training for oil clean up
and making companies accountable for accidents

d
he
Table 1.2 A few National Parks of India

No Name of the State where Animals found in the

is
National Park located National Park
re S
1 Kaziranga Assam Elephants, Wild Buffalo, Deer,
B
bl
National Park Barking deer, Chinkara, Bears,
be T

Leopards, Wild Bears, single horn

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rhinocerus
K

2 Himalayan Himachal Wild Mountain goats, Brown deer,

National Park Pradesh Snow leopards, leopards.

3 Pin-Valley Himachal Siberian Ibex, Snow leopard,
National Park Pradesh Hare, Tibetan wolf, Red fox,
Snow cock
4 Hemis Jammu and Snow leopard, Tibetan Ibex,
National park Kashmir Tibetan antelope
to

5 Kashtwar Jammu and Brown bear, Snow leopard,

National park Kashmir Himalayan musk deer, Wild boar
t

6 Ranthambore Rajasthan Tigers, Sambhar

No

National Park
7 Sariska Rajasthan Tigers, Cheeta, Indian Porcupine,
National Park Striped hyena, Leopard
8 Gir Gujarath Asiatic lion, Chinkara, Wild boar,
National Park Striped hyena, Jackal, Common
langur, Porcupine

17
 9 Silent Valley Kerala Butterflies
National Park

10 Ernakulam Kerala Elephants, Sambars, Gaurs,

National Park NilgiriLangur, Tigers, Leopards

11 Bandipur Karnataka Tiger, Nilgirilangur, elephant,

National Park Wild boar, Golden jackal,
Mangoose, Hanuman langur,

d
Giant flying squirrel, Indian

he
pangolin

12 Nagarahole Karnataka Tiger, Elephant,Leopard, Wild

is
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National Park dog, Bear, Hyena, Spotted deer,
Barking deer, Four horned
B
bl antelope, Wild boar
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13 Corbett Uttaranchal Tiger, Himalayan black bear,
K

National Park Grey National Park mongoose,

Porcupine, Elephant, Antelopes

14 Hazaribagh Jharkhand Wild boar, Sambar, Bear, Tiger,

National Park Panther

15 Nandan-Kanan Orissa White tigers

National Park
to

Table 1.3 A few Sanctuaries of India

No Name of the State where Animals found in the

Sanctuary Sanctuary Sanctuary
t

located
No

1 Srisailam Sanctuary Andhra Tiger, Leopard, Deer,

Pradesh Sloth Bear, Hyena, Pangolin

2 B.R. Hills Karnataka Elephants, Panthers,

Wildlife Sanctuary Tigers, Crested eagle,
Sambhars, Chitas

18
 3 Dandeli Wildlife Karnataka Barking Deer, Sloth bear,
Sanctuary Panther, Tiger, Elephant,
Wild dog, Bison,
Jackal,Langur, Giant
flying Squirrel

4 Ranganathittu Karnataka Birds

Bird Sanctuary

d
5 Sanjay Gandhi Maharashtra Spotted deer, Hare,

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Wildlife Sanctuary Barking deer, Porcupine,
Palm civet, Hanuman
Langur, Indian flying fox,

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Python, Crocodiles, Cobras
B
6
bl
Mudumalai Sanctuary Tamil Nadu Langur, Tiger, Leopard,
Wild dog, Hyena, Jackal,
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Bear, Elephants, Deer,
Wild boar.
K

7 Satkosia West Bengal Leopard, Elephant,

Basipalli Sanctuary Himalayan Black bear,

Wild Goat, Red Panda,
Gibbon

8 Wild Ass Gujarath Wild Ass, Blue bull,

Wildlife Sanctuary Chinkara, Wolf, Jackal,
Desert cats, Cranes,
to

Flammingos
t

EXERCISES
No

I. Four alternatives are given to each incomplete statement

/ question. Choose the right answer
1. A byproduct of coal among the following is
a. Nitrogen b. Coke
c. Graphite d. Diamond

19
 2. An extinct animal among the following is
a. Tiger b. Bison
c. Woolly mammoth d. Mongoose

3. In contour farming the field is ploughed ___________ to the

slope of the field
a. Parallel b. Right angle
c. Diagonal d. None of the above

d
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4. Chipko movement was started by
a. Salumarada Thimmakka b. Sunderlal Bahuguna
c. Medha Patkar d. Suresh Heblikar

is
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II. Answer the following questions
B
bl
1. List out the main byproducts of Coal and their uses.
be T
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2. How do you conserve soil?
K

3. How are the wild animals protected?

4. Give suggestions to conserve fossil fuels.

5. What is Vanamahotsava?

6. Differentiate between Afforestation and Reforestation?

7. What will happen if, a) we go on cutting trees, b) the habitat

to

of an animal is disturbed, c) the top layer of soil is exposed

and ignored.
III. Match the following
t
No

1. Rainwater harvesting a. plant more trees

2. Contour ploughing b. conservation of water
3. Solar panels c. conserve fossil fuels
4. Vanamahotsava d. Prevent soil erosion.
e. terracing
20
 IV Fill up the blanks
1. Soil loses its fertility mainly due to _____________.
2. An organic material consisting of decayed vegetable or animal
matter which provide nutrients to plants is called ____________.
3. Expansion of WWF is ________________________.
4. Biodiversity is essential for maintenance of _______________.

d
he
How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of
your locality? Make a list of actions taken by you.
Plant at least five different plants in your locality during this

is
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academic year and ensure their maintenance till they grow.
B
bl
be T
pu
K

Climbing to the top demands strength, whether it is to the top

to

of Mount Everest or to the top of your career.

Abdul Kalam
t
No

21
 Chapter 2
FOOD
After studying this chapter you
define food.
classify constituents of food, based on their composition.
explain the meaning of deficiency disorders.
identify the symptoms of deficiency disorders.

d
realise the importance of food protection and preservation.
explain food adulteration.

he
list the ill effects of food adulteration.
conduct tests to detect food adulteration .
recall the different food quality control agencies of our country.

is
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appreciate the role of quality control agencies
B
bl
As you know food is the basic source of energy required for growth
and development of living organisms. It helps to repair and replace
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the worn and torn tissues of the body. It is also necessary to maintain
a good health and fitness. Food is any substance consumed to provide
K

nutritional support to the body. The different constituents of the food

can be classified into the following groups based on their chemical

composition. They are: 1) Carbohydrates 2) Protiens 3) Lipids

4) Vitamins 5) Minerals 6) Water 7) Roughage. These are also
termed as nutrients.
One day Ram visited a dentist and complained of bleeding gums.
He also complained about swelling in his legs and his general
weakness. The dentist suggested him to consume plenty of citrus
to

fruits regularly. The dentist diagnosed that Ram was suffering from a
deficiency disorder called scurvy.
You might have heard grandmothers
t

saying that infants should be given a sun-bath

No

early in the morning regularly. Do you know

why? It promotes development of bones and
teeth. It also regulates normal growth.
Insufficient exposure to sunlight for a long time
may lead to rickets. The sunlight initiates the
synthesis of vitamin D in our body. Therefore, Fig 2.1
Sources of Vitamins
it is known as sunshine vitamin.
22
 When diet is wrong, medicine is of no use,
When diet is correct, medicine is of no need
- Ayurvedic proverb

The following table shows different deficiency disorders, their

causes and symptoms.
Table 2.1: Deficiency disorders, their causes and symptoms

d
No. Defficiency Deficient Symptoms
Disorder component

he
1 Phrynoderma Fat eruption of skin of limbs, back,
buttocks

is
skin becomes dry and thick
re S B
bl
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2 Kwashiorkor Proteins retarded growth
K

swelling of abdomen, legs and

arms (oedema)
muscle wasting

discolouration of skin and hair

mental retardation

3 Nutritional Proteins and retarded growth

Marasmus Carbohydrates Thin legs and arms
discolouration of skin and hair
to

loose folding of skin due to muscle

wasting
t
No

4 Night Vitamin A unable to see in dim light

Blindness (Retinol) dryness of eyes

23
 5 Beriberi Vitamin B1 muscles become weak causing
(Thiamine) cramps, pain, numbness
retarded growth in children
may lead to paralysis

6 Scurvy Vitamin C bleeding in gums and in internal

(ascorbic acid) organs

d
general weakness
anaemia

he
swollen legs

7 Rickets (generally Vitamin D poor growth

is
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seen in children) bow legs and defective ribs, teeth
and skull
B
bl
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pu
K

8 Osteomalacia Vitamin D brittle bones

(generally seen enlarged joints and jaws

in adults) deformation of bones
to

9 Simple goiter Iodine Enlarged throat due to swelling of

thyroid glands
Affected metabolism
t
No

10 Anaemia Vitamin B12 RBC count reduced in blood

cyanocobal armine Haemoglobin volume drops

24
 It is understood from the above table that if the nutrients are not
adequately supplied for a long time, it results in deficiency disorders.
Absence of nutrients in food is generally known as malnutrition.

Know This: Malnutrition is the condition that results from taking an

unbalanced diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, in excess or
in the wrong proportion, a number of different nutritional as disorders
may arise, depending on which nutrients are under or over abundant

d
in the diet

he
Think ! Usually coastal people do not suffer from simple goiter. Why?

Do you know?

is
re S
The term vitamin first came to be used in the 1800s and is a
B
bl
combination of the words Vital and Mineral.
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Vitamin A was given the first letter of the alphabet, as it was the
pu
first to be discovered
K

With increased technology and green revolution there is

a tremendous increase in the food production. The food is to be

supplied for the large population throughout the year. Therefore
storage and preservation are as important as the production
of food.
Food is usually of plant or animal origin and contains essential
nutrients. It gets spoiled and wasted due to two reasons. They are:
to

1) Internal factors, which spoil the food from within.

2) External factors, which spoil the food from outside.
t
No

Internal factors include enzymatic activities and moisture content

of the food.

Activity 2.1
Put a few fresh vegetables in a transparent box and close it tightly.
Keep it aside for seven days. Observe it daily and note down the
changes.
25
 Food contains varying percentages of moisture in it. Moisture
brings about many changes inside the food even during storage.
Moisture encourages growth of micro organisms, which in turn, spoil
the food.
Activity 2.2
Take a few unripe tomatoes and keep them in a dry and cool
area. Observe the changes that occur in tomatoes as days pass.

d
Think ! What happens to fresh fruit juice or milk which is kept

he
outside the refrigerator for two or more days? What is the reason?

Many external factors bring about spoilage and wastage of food.

is
Some of them are;
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1) temperature and humidity
B
bl
2) defective storage devices
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3) microorganisms
K

4) insect pests
5) rodents and birds.

Food substances can be classified into two groups depending on

their shelf-life. They are:
1) Perishable foods having brief shelf-life. Ex: milk and milk
products, vegetables, fruits, cooked food, meat, fish, egg, etc.
2) Non-perishable foods having longer shelf-life. Ex: pulses,
to

cereals, food grains, etc.

Activity 2.3
t
No

List out some perishable and nonperishable food items.

Subbamma prepares papads at home and earns her livelihood.
After the preparation, she exposes the papads to sunlight and dries
them for some days. Why should she sun dry them?
A farmer has grown chillies on a large scale. Unfortunately there
is no market for chillies. What should he do with them?

26
 Think ! Is there any alternative for a refrigerator?

Table 2.2: The following table gives information about some of

the methods of preservation of food

No Method Type of How the food is preserved

Food

1 Chemical Fresh fruits, Minimise the moisture content of food.

d
method vegetables, By adding acid, Sodium Benzoate,

he
fish, meat, Vinegar, citric Sodium metabisulphate,
fruit juice, Potassium metabisulphate Salt, Sugar
squash, jam, etc. Inhibit microbial activity

is
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salad, pickle,
jelly, etc.
B
2
bl
Dehydration Grapes, Removal of water contained in the food
be T
pu
potato flakes, is known dehydration. Following are
K

onion flakes, some types; Sun-drying Ex: cereals,

cereals, dry onions, etc. Vacuum drying Ex:milk

fruits, etc. powder, cheese powder, ice cream

powder and other milk products Hot
air drying Ex: Dry fruits, grapes, potato
flakes, onion flakes

3 Radiation Packed Scientifically packed food is exposed

to

fruits, to gamma radiation for a specified

vegetables, duration. The ionizing radiation
canned food, penetrates through the packed food
t

etc. materials and destroys microbes.

No

0
4 Cold Vegetables, Storing the food in the range of 6 C to
0
storage fruits, meat, 8 C is called cold storage. This slows
fish, milk and down the metabolic rate of the food,
milk products, reducing microbial activities.
cooked food,
etc.

27
 0
5 Freezing Vegetables, Storing the food below 0 C is called
fruits, meat, freezing. Freezing prevents the
fish, milk and microbial activity and hence the food
milk products, can be stored for a longer period.
cooked food,
etc
6 Pasteuriza Milk Destroying the microbes by heat
tion treatment is known as Pasteurization.

d
0
It involves boiling milk at 65 C for

he
about 30 minutes and suddenly
chilling it. (Curdling bacteria -
Lactobacillus - will survive, inactivate

is
0
it, milk is stored below 5 C.
re S B
7
bl
Wrapping / Eggs, Fruits
Coating like apple,
The food is preserved by applying a thin
coat of oil or wax on it. Plastic wrap
be T

etc. and aluminium foil are also used to

pu
preserve food.
K

8 Canning Green peas, Selected food material is stored in

jam, jelly, clean, steamed containers under

fruit juice, pressure and then sealed. The sealed
ready to eat container is subjected to high
food items, etc. temperature and then cooled to destroy
all microbes.

If these methods are not followed properly food gets spoiled and
to

loses some vital ingredients.

Activity 2.5
t

List out some traditional methods of preserving foods with the help
No

of your elders.

The process of lowering the nutritive value of food is called

adulteration. It may be by removing a vital component or by adding
substances of inferior quality. The substance that lowers the quality
of food is called an adulterant.
28
 The act of adulteration may be accidental or deliberate. Accidental
adulteration may be due to negligence or ignorance. The practice of
adulteration is so rampant that almost all food items are adulterated.
Many people resort to willful adulteration to increase their profit.
Example for accidental adulteration are faulty packing of canned
food like fruits, vegetables coated with pesticides and insecticides.
Now let us know different adulterants that adulterate the food
items.

d
Table 2.3: Food and Some Common Adulterants

he
No Food Item Common Adulterants

is
1 Milk and Milk Water, Starch powder
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Products
B
2 bl
Milk Powder Starch and Sugar
be T

3 Ice cream Artificial sweeteners, Unapproved

pu
colours, jelly, animal fat
K

4 Ghee Hydrogenated fats like Vanaspati,

animal fat
5 Cooking (Mustard) Argemone oil, mineral oil, other non
oil edible oils
6 Turmeric powder Coal tar dyes like metanil yellow, yellow
soil, starch powder
7 Pepper Dry seeds of Papaya,
to

8 Pulses Kesari dal, Grit, Soap stones,

9 Mustard Ragi, Argemone seeds
t
No

10 Honey Jaggery syrup, sugar syrup

11 Wheat flour Tapioca flour, talc,
12 Powdered sugar Washing soda
13 Sweets Unapproved colours Ex: Metanil yellow
14 Tea Used and dried tea leaves, iron filings

29
 15 Food Grains and Marble pieces, sand particles, clay grit,
Grams soap stone pieces
16 Beverages artificial sweeteners like saccharine.
17 Coffee powder Tamarind seed powder, used coffee
powder, coloured saw dust.
18 Asafoetida Plant based resins and sticky substances

d
19 Common salt Sand and grit

he
20 Soji Sand, grit, iron filings, chalk powder
21 Coriander Powder Green coloured sand or saw dust

is
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Raju went to a shop to buy pepper. The shop keeper packed the
pepper in a piece of paper and gave it to him. Rajus mother prepared
B
bl
pepper rasam but it was not as spicy and strong as it used to be.
What might be the reason?!!!
be T
pu
If the adulterated food is consumed for a long time it may lead to
K

many health hazards. Argemone oil mixed with mustard oil is very
toxic. It causes a disease known as dropsy. Watery fluid gets collected

in some parts of the body and makes them immovable or paralised.

Turmeric powder which is adulterated with metanil yellow may cause
cancer. Washing soda often mixed with powdered sugar and other
food items may cause intestinal disorders.
Then how to know that a food item is adulterated and how to
detect it?
to

There are some simple tests to detect adulteration. Some of them

are discussed below. You may conduct these tests under the guidance
of your teacher.
t

1. Turmeric powder: Take a small quantity of turmeric powder in a

No

test tube and mix with water. Add a few drops of concentrated
hydrochloric acid. If the solution turns purple then we can
conclude that the turmeric powder is adulterated with metanil
yellow.
2. Ghee: Take 5 ml of molten ghee in a test tube. Add equal quantity
of concentrated hydrochloric acid and stir with a glass rod. After

30
 five minutes if crimson red colour appears in the lower layer having
ghee then it indicates the presence of vanaspati.
3. Tea powder: Spread tea powder on a paper. Draw a magnet
over it. The iron filings if present are attracted by the magnet.
The same method can be followed to test the presence iron
filings in soji.
4. Common salt: Add a tea spoon of common salt into a glass tumbler
containing water. Salt dissolves and sand or grit if present settles

d
at the bottom of the tumbler.

he
5. Soji : Add a tea spoon of soji into a glass tumbler containing
water. Soji floats and if chalk powder is present then the water
becomes turbid.

is
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6. Coffee powder: Sprinkle one or two pinches of coffee powder
over water in a container. Coffee powder floats. If it is adulterated
B
bl
with tamarind seed powder, the adulterant will sink.
be T

7. Food grains like rice, wheat, ragi, etc.: They have visible
pu
adulterants like sand grit, marble, soap stones etc. These are
K

removed by sorting, hand picking, washing etc.

8. Cooking oil (mustard oil): Take 5 ml of mustard oil in a test

tube. Add same quantity of nitric acid to it. If a reddish brown

ring appears it indicates the presence of argemone oil in the
cooking oil.
9. Skimmed milk: Lactometer is used to measure the density of milk.
The unadulterated milk shows a reading of 1.026 in the lactometer.
Conduct all these tests in the science laboratory of your school
to

and maintain a practical record.

Activity 2.6
t

Visit the food adulteration testing centre.

No

Learn the other methods of detection of food adulteration.

One day Madhu went to a shopping mall with his mother. He
demanded for packed fruit juice and took the pack into his hand.
The following was the conversation between them.
Madhu : Mamma I want this packed fruit juice.

31
 Mother : No Madhu. Dont buy this unless you read the label
carefully on it.
Madhu : Tell me mamma, what important information I need to
notice.
Mother : First of all are the date of manufacturing and expiry date
printed on it?
Madhu : Yes, they are. Next?
Mother : Does the packet carry ISI, AGMARK or FPO label on it?

d
Madhu : Oh yes! What next?

he
Mother : Have the ingredients names printed?
Madhu : Certainly.

is
Mother : Are the weight and storage details mentioned on the label?
re S
Madhu : They have also mentioned the price along with the
B
bl
manufacturers details mamma.
Mother : With all these details I allow you to buy this fruit juice
be T
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pack. But still I will be happy if you go for fresh fruit juice
K

or fresh cane juice or tender coconut as they do not have

any preservatives and artificial colours.

Madhu : Mamma as you wish, I will go for fresh tender coconut.

From now onwards I will not demand for chocolates, packed
fruit juices or candies. My slogan will be go for fresh and
be fresh.
Mother : That is like an intelligent child.
Play this as a skit on your school day.
to

The most difficult question is how to prevent adulteration of food.

Deliberate adulteration is an anti-social act. The Government of India
t

has promulgated an Act called the Prevention of Food Adulteration

No

Act in the year 1954. Minimum standards of quality for food and
stringent hygienic conditions for its sale are clearly outlined in this
Act. The Act is periodically amended to check dishonest practices of
traders.
Know This: Hang the adulterators on the nearest lamp post and
adulteration will disappear was a slogan soon after independence.

32
 There is a provision under Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
and Rules that in extreme cases, life imprisonment could be awarded
to those who commit food adulteration.

Quality Controlling Agencies enforce minimum standards for the

consumer products. Some of them are Indian Standards Institutions
(ISI), Directorate of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection (AGMARK),
Fruit Products Order (FPO) and the local health departments in the

d
Corporation.

he
Activity 2.7

is
Collect and exhibit Jago Grahak Jago advertisements and
re S
informations from Newspapers.
B
bl
ISI, Indian Standards Institution (now known as Bureau of Indian
be T
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Standard (BIS) is a registered society working under the Ministry of
K

Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, Government of India.

It mainly deals with the development of technical standards, product

quality and management system certifications and consumer affairs.

AGMARK means Agricultural Marketing. It is used to certify

the food products for quality control. It commonly deals with
adulteration-prone commodities such as butter, ghee, vegetable oils,
honey, wheat flour etc.
to

FPO, Fruit Products Order: The Union ministry of Food

Processing Industry has developed a licensing and monitoring system
t

to cover fruit products. This helps quality production, packaging,

No

inspection as well as monitoring of production and exports of processed

fruits and vegetables.

Think ! Why should we not buy and use food items or medicines
which have crossed the expiry date?

33
 Follow these steps to control adulteration
Observe the manufacturing date and expiry date.
Do not purchase them, if they have crossed the expiry date
and bring it to the notice of the shop owner.
Take the help of food adulteration testing centre and lodge
complaints to the concerned authorities if adulteration is
detected.
Make sure that food packets carry either ISI or AGMARK or

d
FPO labels before buying.

he
REMEDY FOR ANAEMIA
Foods rich in iron are effective in curing anemia. Liver, green

is
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leafy vegetable, beet, dry fruits, oysters, brawn rice, lentils,
B

bl
molasses, raisins etc. have high iron content.
The Proverb An apple a day keeps the doctor away is suitable
be T
pu
in case of anemia. Apples have rich iron content and thus, are
K

helpful in treating anemia.

Vitamin C is required for the absorption of iron. Try to include

lots of citrus fruits in your diet, such as orange, lemon, etc.

Consumption of beetroot, as a cooked vegetable or in salad, is
one of the best home remedies for anaemia. You can also
consume beetroot juice for the purpose.

REMEDY FOR GOITER

to

One should go for iodine in its organic form. The foods which
contain iodine are garlic, carrots, turnips and salt. It is the most
common natural cure for goiter.
t
No

Try to increase pineapples, tomatoes, guavas in your diet.

Functions of thyroid gland will be increased with exercises. Try
to do it regularly.
For a child, mothers milk is the best natural remedy for
preventing the thyroid malfunction.
To stimulate the thyroid, one can have oats and bananas daily.

34
 EXERCISES

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following

incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer

1. The sunshine vitamin is

a) Vitamin A b) Vitamin B
c) Vitamin C d) Vitamin D

d
2. The internal factor that spoils the food among the following is

he
a) Defective storage structure
b) Enzymatic activity

is
re S
c) Micro-organisms
B
bl
d) Humidity
be T

3. Destroying the microbes by heat treatment is

pu
K

a) Pasteurization b) Radiation
c) Dehydration d) Freezing

4. Nutritional marasmus is caused due to the deficiency of

a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins
c) Vitamins d) All the above.

II Fill in the blanks with suitable answers

to

1. The expansion of AGMARK is _________________________.

t

2. The adulterant present in honey is ______________.

No

3. The major vitamin in citrous fruits is ___________________.

4. The adulterant responsible for dropsy is ______________.

5. The deficiency of iodine in food leads to a disorder called

___________.

35
 III Match the following
A B
1. Turmeric powder a. Dried papaya seeds
2. Red chilli powder b. Metanil yellow
3. Pepper seeds c. Ragi seeds
4. Mustard d. Coloured saw dust
e. Talcum powder

d
IV Answer the following questions

he
1. What is malnutrition?
2. An apple kept in a moist place gets spoiled in a few days.

is
Why?
re S
3. Explain the role of salt and vinegar in preserving food.7
B
bl
4. What is food adulteration?
be T
pu
5. Explain a simple test to identify adulteration in
K

a. Turmeric powder b. Salt

c. Coffee powder d. Ghee

6. Name the quality control agencies. Explain their role in

preventing food adulteration.
7. List the specific symptoms of the following deficiency disorders
a. Kwashiorkor b. Night blindness
c. Rickets d. simple goiter
t to
No

An error does not become truth by reason of multiplied

propagation, nor does truth become error because nobody
sees it.
Mohandas Gandhi

36
 Chapter 3
HEAT
After studying this chapter you
identify the effects of heat in everyday life.
know the application of thermal expansion of solids, liquids and
gases.

d
know application of bimetallic strip in thermostat.

he
know the relation between coefficient of linear, superficial and
cubical expansion.
know the anomalous expansion of water and its consequences.

is
re S
define specific heat and heat capacity.
B
bl
illustrate the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization.
be T

To keep your body warm during winter, you usually rub your
pu
palms. When you exercise vigorously, your body gets warmer. In an
K

electric heater, when electric current is passed through the metallic

coil, the coil gets heated up. You know that in all these situations

heat is produced. When you rub your palms, mechanical energy is

converted to heat. So in ancient times, people produced heat by
rubbing two stones or wooden pieces which led to the invention of
fire. When electric current is passed through the coil, heat is obtained
from electrical energy. In this way heat is produced from the
conversion of different forms of energy and heat is also a form of
to

energy.
Effects of heat
t

Activity 3.1
No

Take a piece of plastic pipe. Heat it slowly by holding it over a hot

plate. Observe the changes taking place in the plastic pipe.

When you heat a substance many properties of matter change with

temperature. Physical state of the substance also changes with the
temperature. For example when iron is heated red hot, it becomes soft.

37
 Activity 3.2
Take a glass of water and freeze it. It turns to ice. When water is
heated, it changes to steam. Can this be reversed?
The composition of many substances, when heated, is changed
altogether. For example, when sugar is heated in a test tube, it is
turned into carbon and water. Carbon is left at the bottom of the test
tube and water vapour condenses at the top of the tube. When paper
is burnt, it turns into ash. The chemical composition of paper and

d
ash are not the same. So, heat can bring about chemical change in a

he
substance.
You may be aware that to loosen the metal lid which is fitted

is
tightly to a glass bottle, lid is slightly heated. Sometimes if you want
re S
to remove the metal cap of your pen you slightly heat the cap and
B
bl
then loosen it. Why does cap loosen on heating? This is due to the
expansion of solids when they are heated. This is called thermal
be T
pu
expansion. Every substance whether solid, liquid or gas in general
K

expands on heating and contracts on cooling. Change of dimension

takes place in a substance when heated.

Activity 3.3
Take two stands as shown in the figure 3.1. Slip the curtain ring
through a piece of metallic wire and stretch the wire tightly between
the stands. Heat the wire using the burner and observe what happens.
The tight wire becomes loose as indicated by the hanging ring.
t to
No

Fig 3.1 Curtain ring experiment

38
 In this activity you see that the length of the wire increases on
heating. This increase in the length of a solid on heating is called
linear expansion.

Consider a wire or rod or pipe of length L1 at temperature T1 and

L2 at temperature T2 (T2>T1).
Let (L2-L1) be the increase in the length of rod and (T2-T1) be the
increase in temperature, then increase in the length of the rod,

d
(L2- L1) is proportional to its original length (L1).

he
(L2-L1)is directly proportional to L1

(L2-L1) L1

is
re S
The increase in the length of the rod is also proportional to the
increase in temperature.
B
bl (L2-L1)is directly proportional to (T2-T1)
be T
pu
(L2-L1) T2-T1
K

(L2-L1) L1 (T2-T1)

(L2-L1)= L1 (T2-T1)
Where is proportionality constant called the coefficient of linear
expansion of a solid.
( L2-L1)
=
L1 (T2-T1)
to

If length is measured in metre. The temperature is measured in

kelvin or degree celsius, and then has unit of K-1(per kelvin).
t

The coefficient of linear expansion (or linear expansivity) has

No

different values for different solids.

When a solid in the form of a lamina or sheet is heated, the

increase in its length and breadth is more prominent than its increase
in thickness. Thus for a solid in the form of a sheet or lamina, the
expansion in its area is considered as superficial expansion.

39
 is called coefficient of superficial expansion of a solid.
( A2-A1 )
=
A1 (T2-T1)
Where A1 = area at T1 K, A2 = area at T2 K.

The unit of coefficient of superficial expansion is also K-1(per kelvin)

d
Activity 3.4

he
Demonstration of cubical expansion:
Set up an experiment as shown in figure 3.2a.Take a metal ball
and a metal ring of suitable radius, such that the ball can just pass

is
re S
through the ring when both are at the same temperature (room
temperature). Then heat the metal ball and try to pass it through ring.
B
bl
See whether the ball passes through the ring. It will not pass through
be T

the ring, since it has expanded after heating. Keep the metal ball on
pu
the ring for some time, and then it will fall through the ring, since on
K

cooling it contracts.
t
to
No

Fig 3.2 a Fig 3.2 b

On heating the metal ball there is a corresponding increase in

the diameter of the ball.
The increase in the volume of the solid on heating is called cubical
expansion.

40
 is called coefficient of cubical expansion of a solid.
( V2-V1 )
=
V1 (T2-T1)

Where V1 = Volume at T1 K, V2 = Volume at T2 K

The unit of coefficient of cubical expansion is also K-1(per kelvin).

When a solid is heated it expands in all dimensions. The expansion

d
is considered, in any one dimension, it is called linear expansion.

he
The expansion in two dimensions causes change in area and is called
surface or superficial expansion. The expansion in three dimensions

is
results in increase in volume and is called the volume or cubical
re S
expansion.
B
bl
The coefficient of linear expansion , The coefficient of
be T

superficial expansion and coefficient of cubical expansion are

pu
related as
K

= 2, = 3, that is :: = 1:2:3

Table3.1: Coefficient of lineal expansion of different metals.

Substance x (10-6K-1)
Aluminium 22.5
Brass 18.7
to

Copper 16.7
Iron or Steel 12
t
No

Lead 29
Silver 19

Practical examples of expansion of solids

In many cases, precautions have to be taken against expansion
or contraction of metals due to change in temperatures.

41
 1. Similarly allowances are made for expansion in mounting
girders for iron bridges.
2. In riveting boiler plates, red hot rivets are used, since on
cooling they contract and grip the plates tightly making joints
steam-proof.
3. We take thin bottomed glass to drink water, since thick
bottomed drinking glasses frequently crack if hot water is
poured into them. Glass is a bad conductor of heat. So it fails

d
to transmit heat evenly from the neighboring parts to equalize
the temperature in different portions. Because of this, there

he
is unequal expansion of inner and outer layers resulting in
cracks.

is
4. Electrical wires are hung up slack in the hot summer weather
re S
so that they do not pull the Electric poles over when they
B
bl
contract in the winter.
be T
pu
K

Fig 3.3
5. Concrete roads are laid in sections with soft pitch between
the sections.
to
t
No

Fig 3.4

42
 6. Glass vessel to be used for heating has to be of a low expansion
type such as Pyrex. Otherwise it would shatter as it gets hot.
7. Thermal expansion is the principle to be used could be used
to fit metal axles on to wheels. The metal axle is first cooled
so that it contracts. It is then placed through the hole of wheel
so that when it warms up and expands, it forms a tight grip
on the wheel.

d
8. You might have observed a wooden cart wheel which has a
flat iron ring fixed to it. The property of thermal expansion is

he
used in this case. First the metal ring is heated to expand.
Then the expanded ring is carefully slipped into the wooden

is
cartwheel and cooled by pouring water on it. The ring
re S
contracts and holds the wooden wheel tightly.
B
bl
Think! Simple Pendulum clocks go slow in summer and fast in
be T

winter. Why? What is the remedy? Use simple pendulum made of

pu
Invar steel.
K

Activity 3.5
Place a coin in the slit of a razor blade A. Slide a second blade B
so that the coin just passes through the slit. Firmly clamp the blades
together with pegs or clips. Now remove the coin and heat it in a flame
and try to pass it through the slit again. Were you able to do it? Why?
Caution : This experiment is to be carried out under the supervision
to

of parents or teachers.

A
t

B
No

Fig 3.5

43
 Bimetallic strips
You know that the coefficient of linear expansion is different for
different metals (table 3.1). When two strips made of different metals
are joined together and then heated, one expands more than the
other.
a.

d
b.

is he
c.
re S B
bl Fig 3.6
be T
pu
The bimetallic strip is made by joining a metal iron (lower
K

coefficient of linear expansion) and a brass (higher coefficient of linear

expansion) as shown in (figure 3.6a). Unequal expansion (or

contraction) of the two materials, force the bimetallic strip to bend.

The brass expands more than the steel when the bimetallic strip is
heated (figure 3.6b). As the strip is cooled, the brass contracts more
than the iron (figure 3.6c).
Activity 3.6
Take a strip of copper and a strip of iron of the same dimension.
to

Weld the two strips to form a single bar and attach it to a wooden
handle. Heat the metal bar and observe bending of bar. Keep the
metal strip in an ice tub and observe the bending.
t
No

Applications of bimetallic strips

When you are pressing your clothes with an automatic electric
iron, you must have observed that the electric iron switches off by
itself when it is over heated. It switches on again when the temperature
is lowered. There is a switch called thermostat switch which regulates
the temperature of the electric iron.

44
 Thermostat is a device which keeps the temperature
approximately constant. In a thermostat a bimetallic strip is part of
an electrical circuit. When the temperature reaches certain value
(i.e. set value of the thermostat) bimetallic strip curves and breaks
the contact, thus switching off the current into the heater. When
the temperature drops below the required value the strip curves in
the opposite direction and remakes contact switching on the heater.
The temperature at which the thermostat off and is adjusted by the
control screw (figure 3.7)

d
is he
re S B
bl Fig. 3.7
be T
pu
These thermostats are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, ice
K

plants, electric iron etc.

Bimetallic strips are also used in thermometers. In this, bimetallic

strip is coiled into a helix attached to a needle on the dial. That winds
and unwinds as the temperature changes and the needle moves on
the dial.
Expansion of liquids
You might have used clinical thermometer to measure the
temperature of the body. The level of mercury in the thermometer
to

rises when its bulb is in contact with a hot body.

The coolant in the radiator of vehicles overflow when the engine
t

is over heated.
No

If you analyse the above instances you can conclude that liquids
also expand on heating. Generally liquids expand by larger volume
than solids.
You have learnt that liquids have no definite shape, they take the
shape of the container. When a liquid is heated, the expansion of the
solid container also occurs along with the liquid. But the expansion

45
 of container is negligible when compared to the expansion of the
liquid. If we ignore the expansion of container and only consider the
expansion of the liquid, it is apparent expansion. Real expansion is
calculated by taking into account the expansion of container with
the expansion of liquid.
Anomalous expansion of water: In
cold zones the marine life survives
even if the temperature falls below 00C.

d
V
This is due to an interesting and O
peculiar behavior of water. Generally L

he
U
you observe that all liquids expand on M
heating. But water behaves differently. E

is
re S
You know that solids or liquids 0 4
Temperature (0C)
cotract on cooling. So, as the
B
bl
temperature of liquid decreases, its
Fig 3.8

volume also decreases. The volume of water decreases upto 4 C.

be T
pu
But it starts to increase below 4 C as shown by a curve in figure 3.8.
K

The volume of water is least at 4 C. Hence the density of water is

maximum at 272 C. Thus denisity of ice at 00C is less that that of

water.
This special natural property Air below 0
of water gives a good protective ICE 0 0C

cover for the aquatic lives in the Water at 4 0C

polar region where temperature
falls below freezing temperature.
to

As the water on the surface is

cooled from say 10 o C to the Fig. 3.9
freezing point it becomes denser
t

than the water below and sinks to the bottom. Below 4 oC however,
No

further cooling makes the water on the upper surface less dense
than the lower water, so it stays on the surface until it freezes. It
stays over water as a special cover of safety. Ice is a bad conductor of
heat. Hence the temperature of water down the ice layer does not go
below 4 oC. So it does not freeze and remains as liquid. It keeps
aquatic life in a safer position (figure 3.9).

46
 An adverse effect of the anomalous expansion of water is the
bursting of water pipes in very cold conditions When water at 00C
changes into ice, the volume increases. If there is no sufficient space
for expansion it exerts enormous force. As a result the water pipe
may or damage the joints.

Know this: Greenhouse gases like Carbon dioxide, methane, and

nitrogen oxides do not allow the excess heat from the Earth to escape

d
which results in an increase in the Earths temperature and this is
called global warming. As the temperature increases, melting of

he
ice and thermal expansion of water will cause the sea level to
rise. Rising sea level due to global warming will be devastating

is
and cause floods in the coastal areas which affect humans and
re S
other organisms severely .
B
bl
Think ! The water bottle should not be filled completely before
be T
pu
keeping it in the freezer. Try experimenting filling water fully in
K

various shaped steel cups.

Expansion of Gases

Activity 3.7
Take a glass bottle and fill it with ice cold water. Pour the water
out when the bottle is cooled. Wet a cork sheet and place it on top of
the bottle. Place your palms around the bottle and observe what
happens.
to

The cork sheet pops up. This is because, the air inside the bottle
gets warms and expands pushing the cork sheet up.

Thermal expansion occurs in gases similar to that in solids and

t
No

liquids. The expansion of a gas is much larger than that of a liquid

and solid. In expansion of gases you should consider pressure of the
gas along with volume and temperature. In mathematical language
we say that gases have three variables, pressure (P), volume (V) and
temperature (T). About the behaviour of gas at different pressure,
volume or temperature, keeping one of them a constant, you will
study from Gas Laws in 10th standard.
47
 Think Why?
Tyres of vehicles often burst during summer.
Hot air balloons fly high. Why?
Thermal capacity or heat capacity
Take a few balls of the same size but made of different metals,
say lead, tin, brass, copper, iron and heat them for 10 minutes. Then
place the balls on a thick slab of paraffin. The balls melt the paraffin,

d
but not to the same extent. The ball which has more absorbed has

he
more heat will sink deeper into the paraffin (figure 3.10).

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 3.10

Different substances require different amount of heat for equal

rise in their temperature. This property of substance is expressed as
thermal capacity or heat capacity of substance.
The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy
required to raise its temperature by 1 kelvin.
Heat Capacity = Amount of heat energy supplied / Rise in
to

temperature.
If Q is the amount of heat given to a substance and T 0C is the
t

rise in temperature, then heat capacity of the substance = Q/ T

No

Unit of Heat capacity is joule/kelvin

Some examples of High and low heat capacity
You must have observed that the bottom of cooking vessels are
usually made thick. This is because its thermal capacity will be more
and this keeps the food warm for longer time. (Base of the electric
iron is heavy for the same reason.)

48
 Specific heat
Heat capacity of unit mass of a substance is called specific heat.
The specific heat of a substance is the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of it through unit
temperature. Unit of specific heat is J/kgK.
If m is the mass of a substance and T is the increase in
temperature, then the amount of heat Q required to increase the

d
temperature by T is proportional to mass and increase in

he
temperature.
Q Heat
i.e. Q m and Q T S = =
or Q m T mT mass rise in temperature

is
or Q = sm T
re S
where S is constant and is known as specific heat of the substance.
B
bl
It is constant for a substance but different for different substances.
be T

heat capacity of the body

pu
Specific heat capacity =
mass of the body
K

Heat capacity = Mass Specific heat

Table 3.2: Specific heat of some substances are listed in the

following table.
Substance Specific heat (J/kgK)
Lead 128
Tungsten 134
Mercury 140
to

Copper 386
Aluminium 900
Brass 380
t

Granite 790
No

Glass 840
Air 1050
Ethyl alcohol 2430
Seawater 3900
Water 4190
Gold 134

49
 Think ! Since Mercury has very low specific heat capacity, it is
used in thermometers. Why is water not used in a thermometre ?
Consequences of high specific heat capacity of water
1. The sea is heated more slowly than the land by the rays of
the sun, since, the specific heat of sea-water being higher
than that of land. So during mid-day the temperature of the
coast will be greater than the temperature of the sea. But
after sunset, the sea cools more slowly than the land (sea is

d
called a moderator of climate).

he
2. Water is used as a coolant in the radiators of cars. It absorbs
more heat without much rise in temperature as it has high
specific heat capacity.

is
re S
3. Hot water bags are used for fomentation. Water does not cool
B
bl
quickly because it has high specific heat capacity.
be T

Know this: Concrete has large specific heat. Therefore it stores lot
pu
of heat during day time and does not quickly cool during night.
K

Hence large number of buildings in an area increases the

temperature.

Latent Heat
Activity 3.8
Take 100ml of water in a beaker. Heat the water. Keep a
thermometer in the beaker to measure the temperature of water. Observe
the thermometer readings. Continue the heating process. The temperature
to

will increase upto 100 C only at sea level.

You observe that when any liquid is heated its temperature steadily
t

rises and at a particular temperature bubbles of the vapour are

No

vigorously formed throughout the liquid. The liquid is now said to

boil, and the temperature of the liquid remains steady (figure 3.11).
When water starts boiling, the heat supplied to it is used up to change
the state of the substance and hence there is no increase in
temperature. During the change of state, the average kinetic energy
of the molecule does not change. The heat supplied is used to enhance
increasing the intermolecular separation.

50
 Know This : Whenever there is a change of state of a substance,
there is no change in the temperature of the substance in spite of
supply of heat.

Similarly when
any solid is heated, its
temperature steadily

d
rises until it begins to
melt. Once melting

he
begins, the temperature
remains steady

is
re S
(figure 3.11).
B
bl
The heat which
Fig. 3.11
be T

changes the state of matter without raising the temperature is known

pu
as latent (or hidden) heat. If the matter is solid then it is known as
K

latent heat of fusion. If the matter is liquid then it is known as latent

heat of vapourization.

The latent heat of fusion of a solid is the quantity of heat required

to convert unit mass of the solid at its melting point completely into
liquid without rise in temperature. The latent heat of vapourization
of any liquid is the amount of heat required to convert unit mass of
the liquid at its boiling point completely into vapour, without rise in
to

temperature.

If a substance of mass m changes from solid to liquid (or liquid to

t

vapour) with the supply of heat Q, then

No

Q = mL
Where L is latent heat of fusion (or latent heat of vapourization).
The unit of L is J/kg.
Think ! Why burns due to steam are more severe than the burns
due to boiling water?

51
 Latent heat of vapourization of water is the highest. i.e., 2268103
J/kg or 2268J/gm. Every Kg of water requires 2268103 J of heat to
change completely into vapour without change in temperature. So
steam at 1000C has latent heat in it which causes severe burns.

You must have observed that a piece of ice is added to juices to

cool it. Ice has highest latent heat of fusion i.e., 336103J/Kg or 336
J/g. A Kg of ice requires 336103 joules of heat energy to completely
change into water without change in temperature. So when a piece

d
of ice is added to juice, the juice looses an additional 336 Joule of

he
heat energy for a gram of ice.

If Q is the amount of heat supplied to the substance to convert it say

is
re S
solid to liquid then the same amount of heat is given out by the
B
bl
substance at same temperature in changing from the liquid state to
the solid state without change in temperature.
be T
pu
Think ! When ice in a frozen lake melts, its surrounding becomes
K

very cool.

Numericals

1. The bridge is constructed of steel and is 2.5 km long. The linear

expansivity of steel is 11 10 -6 K -1 .The minimum winter
temperature may be as low as 0 C and the maximum
temperature as high as 40 C. What distance must be allowed
to

for the change in length of the bridge?

Ans: L1 = 2.5 103m, = 11 10-6K-1, T2 = 40 0C, T1 = 0 0C
T = 40 - 0 = 40 0C
t
No

L2-L1 = L1 T= 2.5 103 11 10-6 40= 1.1m

2. How much heat energy is required to raise 2 kg of water from

20C to its boiling point at 100 C. Specific heat of water is 4200
J kg-1 K-1.
Ans: Heat required = mass specific heat change in temperature
Q = m s T = 2 4200 (100 -20) = 672000 J.

52
 3. How much heat energy is liberated when 20 kg of water freezes
to form ice at 0 C. Latent heat of ice = 336000 J kg-1.
Ans: heat liberated = mass latent heat Q = mL
Q = mL = 20 336000 = 6720000 J.

EXERCISES
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following. Choose
the right answer

d
1. Bimetallic strip is made up of

he
a. metals with different linear expansion coefficient
b. metals with same linear expansion coefficient

is
c. metals with same superficial expansion coefficient
re S
d. metals with different length
B
bl
2. Specific heat depends on
be T

a. nature of the material b. mass of material

pu
c. shape of the material d. colour of the material
K

3. Unit of coefficient of linear expansion

a. K-1 b. N-1
c. J-1 d. s-1
4. In a thermostat device which parameter remains approximately
constant
a. volume b. pressure
c. temperature d. mass
to

5. Density of water is maximum at

a. 0 C b. 4 C
t

c. 4 K d. 100 C
No

II Fill up the blank with suitable words

1. Unit of heat capacity is ____________.
2. On heating a rod, its length_____________.
3. Unit of latent heat is _____________.
4. Expression for latent heat of fusion is ______________.

53
 III Answer the following questions
1. Mention the effects of heat on a substance.
2. Give two illustrations of thermal expansion in day-to-day life.
3. What is bimetallic strip? Mention any two applications of it.
4. Define specific heat capacity of a substance. Mention its unit.
5. Give two illustrations of high specific heat capacity of water.
6. Describe an experiment to demonstrate the cubical expansion
in solids.

d
7. Define latent heat of vaporization.

he
8. Ice at 0 0C is a better coolant than water at 0 0C. Justify.

IV. Solve the following problems

is
re S
1. The length of a brass scale is 1m at 301K If the coefficient of
B
bl
linear expansion is 18 10-6/K, what is its new length at
341K ? (Answer: 1.00072m)
be T
pu
2. A body of mass 0.5 kg requires 3000 J of heat in order to
K

raise its temperature from 308K-318K. Calculate its specific

heat. (Answer: 600 J/kg/C)

3. A metal rod of length 0.5m at 20 C becomes 0.5006m at

95 C. Find the coefficient of linear expansion. (Answer: 16
10-6 /C)
V. Match the following
A B
to

1. Heat a. J/kgC
2. Bimetallic strip b. maximum at 277K
3. Density of water c. Pair of junction made up of
t

two dissimilar metals

No

4. Specific heat d. Made up of two metals with

different linear expansivity
e. melting
f. a form of energy

54
 Chapter 4
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
After studying this chapter you
classify the living organisms into five kingdoms.
explain the structure of bacteria, their way of life and economic
importance.
describe the structure of diatoms and their economic importance.

d
explain the structure, reproduction and economic importance of

he
yeast.
classify the various invertabrate groups from porifera to

is
echinodermata.
re S
give examples for various groups of invertebrates
B
bl
state the economic importance of various invertabrate groups.
be T
pu
As you know that, living beings are classified into five
K

Kingdoms Monera, Protista, Mycota, Plantae and Animalia. Let us

briefly run through each one of these Kingdoms.

Kingdom Examples
1. Monera Bacteria
2. Protista Diatoms, Protozoans
3. Mycota Mushrooms, Rhizopus, Yeast
to

4. Plantae Green plants

5. Animalia Animals
t

Kingdom Monera: Bacteria (Singular : bacterium) are the members

No

of the kingdom Monera.

Habitat: Bacteria are present everywhere, in all possible habitats.

Structure: They are prokaryotic, microscopic unicellular organisms

with a cell wall made of peptidoglycan.

55
 Based on their shape bacteria are grouped under three categories:
the rod shaped Bacillus (Plural: bacilli), the spherical Coccus (Plural:
coccii) and the spiral Spirillum (Plural: spirilla)

The genetic materials are localized into strands of DNA called

Nucleoid and is not separated from the cytoplasm. Most cells contain
at least one strand of DNA.

In some cells there is an additional DNA molecule, circular in

d
shape, called Plasmid.

he
The cell body is bound by a cell membrane which is surrounded
by a non-living cell wall.

is
Membrane-bound organelles such as Golgi bodies, endoplasmic
re S
reticulum, mitochondria, chloroplast, etc. are absent.
B
bl
Many bacterial cells secrete some extracellular material in the
be T

form of a capsule which are usually polymers of polysaccharides.

pu
K
t
to
No

Fig. 4.01 Structure of a bacterial cell

Nutrition: Autotrophic forms prepare their own food by reducing

carbondioxide using either light energy or chemical energy. Some of
the bacteria are autotrophic, either photosynthetic autotrophs or
chemosynthetic autotrophs (Nitrosomonas)

56
 Heterotrophic bacteria which are unable to manufacture food
depend on external source. They can be distinguished into
A. Symbiotic bacteria
B. Saprophytic bacteria and
C. Parasitic bacteria

Reproduction: Asexual reproduction takes place primarily by

d
fragmentation, budding or binary fission.

he
Fragmentation: Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction in
which a new organism grows from a body fragment of the parent into
a mature and fully grown individual.

is
re S
Budding: Some bacteria reproduce by budding, resulting in a mother
B
bl
and a daughter cell. The offspring is smaller than the parent. The
buds break away from the parent organism, grow into fully mature
be T
pu
individuals and become completely independent.
K

Binary fission: Binary

fission yields two

identical daughter cells.
During binary fission
the DNA material divides
into two. A constriction
occurs in the middle of
to

the cell. The constriction

deepens and cuts the
cell into two. Thus two
t

new daughter cells are

No

Fig. 4.02 A Bacterium dividing

formed.

Endospore: Under unfavourable conditions some bacteria form highly

resistant spores with thickened coverings, within which the bacterium
remains dormant until conditions improve.

57
 Economic importance of bacteria: Bacteria are economically very
important to man. Most of them bring about decomposition of dead
organic matter of plants and animals by the secretion of enzymes.
They also remove the harmful wastes from the earth and thus function
as natures scavengers.

Bacteria enrich the soil in various ways. The nitrogen fixing

bacteria take nitrogen gas from the atmosphere and convert it to

d
nitrate that green plants use for growth. Bacteria also create fertilizers
by breaking down compost heaps made of soil and dead matter.

he
Examples: Azotobacter and Clostridium.

Bacteria are important industrially in the production of cheese,

is
re S
curd, buttermilk, vinegar, etc.; in the preparation of antibiotics such
as Streptomycin etc.; in the sewage disposal plants to render organic
B
bl
wastes harmless. Cattle, sheep, and goats consume grass which
be T

contains tough fibres of plant cellulose; these are digested by the

pu
bacteria. They are useful in the manufacture of ethyl and butyl
K

alcohols from sugar solution.

Think ! Your mother serves you curds every day during meals.
How does she prepare it? Ask her and learn.

Bacteria are also harmful to man directly or indirectly. They cause

diseases in plants, human beings and domestic animals. Many
parasitic bacteria cause serious diseases in humans and domestic
animals.
to

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, causes tuberculosis; Salmonella

typhi causes typhoid; Clostridium tetani causes tetanus; Vibrio cholerae
t

causes cholera; Yersinia pestis causes plague, etc.

No

In domestic animals bacteria cause various diseases e.g., Anthrax,

Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Cholera, etc.

Many parasitic bacteria cause serious diseases in cultivated plants

and harming the crops. Important diseases are Citrus canker, cotton
root rot, potato rot, pineapple rot etc.

58
 Some saprophytic bacteria are responsible for the decay of human
food stuffs including meat, milk, vegetables, fruits etc. These bacteria
spoil foodstuffs and make them unpalatable and poisonous, e.g.,
souring of milk, rotting of meat, vegetables, fruits etc. Staphylococcus
and Clostridium cause food poisoning when rotten food is eaten.

Denitrifying bacteria in the soil reduce the nitrates, and the

ammonium salts to free nitrogen, which escapes into the atmosphere.
This process is known as denitrification, which decreases soil

d
fertility. Example: Bacillus denitrificans. These bacteria are often

he
abundant in the poorly drained and heavily manured soil. These
bacteria are the natural enemies of the farmers. The benefits we derive
from bacteria are far more than their harmful activities. Hence, the

is
re S
bacteria are our friends more and enemies less.
B
bl
Think ! Who first discovered microorganisms? Who was the scientist
be T

who first suggested that bacteria are responsible for many diseases
pu
of humans and animals?
K

Common examples: Microcystis, Aphanizomenon and Anabaena

Kingdom Protista : Members of the kingdom Protista are eukaryotic,

unicellular microscopic organisms.

Habitat : They are primarily aquatic. Saprophytic forms are found on

decaying organic matter. Parasitic forms live in their hosts body.
Some are autotrophic.
to

Structure: Some protists, like Amoeba, Paramecium are surrounded

only by the plasma membrane. Others have a plasma membrane
t

encased within cell walls. In diatoms, cell wall is glassy, made of

No

silica, and is extremely beautiful.

Nutrition: Some of the protists are autotrophic (Chrysophytes,

Dinoflagellates and Euglenoids), while others are heterotrophs.
Heterotrophic nutrition is exhibited by slime molds, which are
saprophytic and protozoans which are either predators (Ameoba) or
parasites (Plasmodium, Trypanasoma).
59
 Reproduction: Protists typically reproduce asexually. Asexual
reproduction involves spore formation (slime molds) and fission
(Amoeba). Sporozoans (Plasmodium) have complex life-cycles which
involve both sexual and asexual phases. In times of stress some protists
like diatoms reproduce sexually.
Diatoms: Diatoms are a major group of eukaryotic motile organisms
which are one of the most common types of phytoplankton. They are
found in both fresh water and marine environments. Generally, they

d
inhabit all parts of the world. In addition to fresh water streams,

he
lakes, etc., they exist on the rocks, plants, and mud that are present
within or at the borders of water. Diatoms also live within animals
digestive tracts, in their shells, etc.

is
re S
Structure: Most diatoms are unicellular, although they can exist as
B
bl
colonies in the shape of filaments or ribbons, fans, zigzags or stellate
colonies. Diatom is bound by a cell wall made of silica called frustule,
be T

which almost looks like glass. It consists of two valves that fit into
pu
each other like a soap box. The frustule has two parts the larger,
K

older valve, called Epitheca and a smaller, younger valve called

Hypotheca.

to

Fig. 4.03 Diatom Gross Structure

t

The cytoplasm is colourless, and includes a nucleus, mitochondria

No

and plastids. The nucleus is usually found in the centre. It may be

spherical or lenticular and encloses chromosomes and nucleoli.
Plastids are the organelles that are similar to chlorophyll. They
constitute a large portion of the protoplast. The members of this group
possess pigments such as chlorophyll, carotene and xanthophyll,
imparting a golden to yellow brown colour.

60
 Fig. 4.04 Types of Diatom

d
he
Think ! Why diatoms are called the jewels of the sea?

Nutrition: Diatoms are all photosynthetic. They are responsible for

is
nearly half of the total energy produced in the oceans which makes
re S
them one of the worlds major groups of producers.
B
bl
Reproduction: Diatoms reproduce by both asexual and sexual
be T

methods. Asexual reproduction takes place by binary fission. Binary

pu
fission produces smaller off-spring in diatom populations. Each valve
K

of the split frustule acts as an epitheca, and a new hypotheca is

inserted into the epitheca. Reproduction occurs once every 18-36

hours.
Diatom resorts to sexual reproduction when its size is about half
of the original size. Sexual reproduction allows for growth of the zygote
to relatively large size.
Economic importance: Diatoms are widely found as fossils. They
to

form a chalky substance which is widely used as a cleaning agent.

Hence it forms a component of toothpaste.
t

Diatoms are extremely valuable members of the environment and

No

contribute both to the food chain and the carbon cycle.

They are estimated to produce about a quarter of the oxygen in
the atmosphere.
A wide range of animals, microscopic protozoans and gigantic
whales get a high quality nutrition from diatoms.

61
 When they die, they fall on the ocean floor. There they create a
oil-rich plasma layer which, over thousands of years, transforms into
petroleum. Diatoms also act as environmental indicators. They aid in
accurately assessing the pollution levels in certain ecosystems.

Kingdom Mycota: The members of kingdom Mycota, commonly called

fungi (singular fungus), are heterotrophic organisms showing a great
diversity in morphology.

d
Habitat : Fungi are seen in almost every habitat where organic matter

he
is available. The most common habitat is wet soil rich in humus. You
can also see them growing on any kind of moist objects such as wooden
logs, leather goods and even food items. Many of the fungi are parasitic

is
re S
on plants and animals including humans. Some of the fungi are
B
bl
coprophillous (growing on dung) while a few others are symbionts.
Structure: The body called thallus is either unicellular (yeast) or
be T
pu
multicellular, as in most other examples. The thallus in most of the
K

multicellular fungi, consists of a long, slender, tubular, thread-like

structures called hyphae (singular hypha). Hyphae may be continuous

tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm or may have septae or

cross walls. A collection of hyphae is called mycelium.
The individual fungal cells are bound by definite cell wall made of
chitin or cellulose or both. The cell wall encloses a plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleus and vacuoles.
to

Nutrition : Mode of nutrition is absorptive. The enzymes secreted by

hyphae digest complex nutrients into simple ones which are absorbed
by the organism. Most fungi are saprophytes, feeding on dead and
t
No

decaying organic matter. Many fungi are parasitic, feeding on living

organisms without killing them.
Reproduction: Reproduction in fungi may take place by vegetative,
asexual or sexual means.
When they reproduce vegetatively, it may be fragmentation, fission
or budding.
62
 Asexual and sexual reproduction takes place by means of spore
production. Spores are produced in specialised structures called
fruiting bodies or sporangia (singular sporangium)
The types of spores formed during asexual reproduction are
zoospores (Pythium), aplanospores (Rhizopus) and conidia (Penicillium).
The types of spores formed during sexual reproduction are
zygospores (Mucor), ascospores (Aspergillus) and basidiospores
(Agaricus).

d
Yeast : The genus Saccharomyces (sugar fungus) consists of

he
unicellular fungi commonly known as yeasts. Saccharomyces
cerevesiae is also known as brewers yeast for brewing beer. Yeast

is
was first described by Antony von Leeuwenhoek in 1680. It is a
re S
saprophyte and grows rapidly in media containing sugar, decaying
B
bl
fruit and fermented food materials.
be T

Habitat : The natural habitat of yeast is the surface of fruits, but it is

pu
best known for its role in the baking and brewing industries.
K

Structure: Yeast cells are typically round, oval or elliptical with a

prominent central vacuole and a small nucleus. It has a cell wall

made of glucan, chitin and yeast gum (mannan) and a definite

cell membrane surrounding the protoplasm which is differentiated
into cytoplasm and nucleus. The cytoplasm includes endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosome, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, etc.
BS = bud scar
L
to

W ER = endoplasmic reticulum
ER G = Golgi
N L = lipid body
t

M = mitochondrion
No

M
N = nucleus
SPB = spindle-pole body
Vac V = vesicle
G V
Vac = large central vacuole
SPB BS
W = wall

Fig. 4.05 Diagrammatic representation of a budding yeast

63
 Nutrition: Yeasts are chemoorganotrophs, as they use organic
compounds as a source of energy and do not require sunlight to
grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as glucose
and fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some
species can metabolize pentose sugars like ribose, alcohols, and
organic acids
Reproduction: It reproduces by both vegetative and sexual methods.
(I) Vegetative reproduction: It takes place by budding and fission.

d
Budding is the most common method of multiplication. Budding

he
takes place during favourable conditions when food material is
available in plenty. The buds are developed on the mother cells. The
bud eventually separates from the parent cell by constriction.

is
re S
Fission involves division of a cell into two by a transverse wall.
During this process, the parent cells elongate and the nucleus divides
B
bl
mitotically into daughter nuclei. Later both the cells separate, each
leading an independent life.
be T
pu
(II) Sexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction takes place during
K

unfavourable conditions. They lack definite sex organs. The somatic

cells or ascospores function as copulating gametangia. The gamentagia

are fused to form a diploid zygote cell.

Economic Importance of Yeast
(A) Useful activities
(i) In bakery, yeast is used for the preparation of bread which
becomes spongy due to fermentation by yeast.
(ii) Yeast is used in breweries for production of alcohol by
to

fermentation.
(iii) Dried yeast cells contain 40 to 50% protein.
(iv) Yeast cells are rich source of Vitamin B complex. They contain
t

Thymine, Riboflavin, Nicotinic acid, Pantothenic acid, Folic

No

acid, Biotin, Inositol, etc.

Kingdom Animalia : The members of Kingdom Animalia have been
classified into eight invertebrate, phyla, based on arrangement of
cells, body symmetry, nature of coelome, patterns of digestive,
circulatory and reproductive systems.
Remember : The animals without backbone are called invertebrates.

64
 Structure : All animals are multicellular. But these cells are arranged
into various levels of organisation.
In cellular level of organisation, the cells are loosely arranged as
aggregates as in sponges.
In tissue level of organisation, the cells are specialised to perform
a common function and are arranged into tissues as in coelenterates.
The members of the phylum Platyhelminthes and other higher
phyla exhibit organ level of organisation where tissues are grouped
together to form organs.

d
Organ system level of organisation is exhibited by Annelids,

he
Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and chordates. Organs in these
animals perform a specific physiological function and are associated
to form organ systems.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 4.06 (a) Radial symmetry Fig. 4.06 (b) Bilateral Symmetry

Radial Symmetry : Radial symmetry means that the body of an

animal can be cut into two equal parts in any plane passing through
the centre.
to

In the following sections we are going to know more about the

various non-chordate phyla with examples.
t
No

Bilateral Symmetry : If the body of an organism can be cut into

two symmetrical halves in only one plane this type of symmetry is
known as bilateral symmetry.

Phylum Porifera: The members of phylum Porifera (pore-bearer) are

commonly known as Sponges. They belong to a primitive group of
animals as they are the simplest forms of multicellular animals.

65
 Habitat : They are generally aquatic. Most of them are marine and a
very few forms are found in fresh water. They are solitary or colonial,
free-living sessile forms. They are brightly coloured red, pink, purple,
yellow.

d
is he
re S
Fig. 4.07 (a) Sycon Fig. 4.07 (b) Euplectella
B
bl
Structure: Sponges are sessile
be T
pu
animals with one end of the body
K

attached to rocks, stones, etc. The free

end has a wide opening called

osculum. Body may be tubular,

cylindrical or vase-shaped with a
single cavity. Sponges exhibit cellular
grade of organization. Their body walls
are lined with minute pores called
ostia that allow water to flow into the
sponge body. The sponge body is
to

supported by an internal skeleton. It

Fig. 4.08 Sponge Spicules
is in the form of microscopic needle-
like structures called spicules. In
t

some sponges they are made of calcium carbonate, in others, of silica

No

and in still others, of spongin fibres.

Nutrition: Sponges get micro organisms such as algae and bacteria

for food from the water. Some sponges are carnivorous and use their
spicules to capture small crustaceans. Digestion is intracellular. A
digestive system is absent. Digestion occurs by flagellated collar cells
or choanocytes.

66
 Reproduction: The members of this
phylum reproduce by both asexual and
sexual methods. Asexual reproduction
takes place by external buds or by internal
buds called gemmules . Sexual
reproduction takes place by production of
ova and spermatozoa. Majority of the
members are bisexual. Sponges have a
great power of regeneration. If any part of

d
the body is damaged or broken, it is soon

he
regrown. This process is known as Fig. 4.09 Gemmule
regeneration.
Economic importance: Sponges are economically important to us in

is
re S
many ways. They secrete some chemical substances which have anti-
B
bl
inflammatory and antibiotic effects and they are used in the
production of medicines.
be T
pu
Sponges serve as protective shelters for animals like crustaceans,
K

molluscs, small fishes, etc. In addition to the protection, these animals

get a rich food supply from the water circulating through them.

The dried, fibrous skeleton of many sponges are used for the
purpose of bathing, polishing, washing cars, walls, furniture, and
scrubbing floor etc. The skeleton of some sponges are of great
commercial value and used as decorative pieces.

Think ! Sponges live in water. They are generally attached to the

to

substratum and do not move. They are very much like plants. Yet
they are included under animals. Why?
t

Activity : 4.1
No

Know about Spongiculture

Phylum Coelenterata
Habitat: Coelenterates are aquatic, mostly marine; a few are fresh
water forms. Some are solitary while others are colonial. They may be
sedentary or free-swimming animals.

67
 Structure: They are multicellular and
diploblastic organisms exhibiting
tissue-grade of organization and radial
symmetry. The body is cylindrical or
round and disc-like. The body
consists of a sac termed gastro-
vascular cavity (GVC) or coelenteron.
It opens out by a common opening
called mouth. Some coelenterates

d
secrete an exoskeleton made of
Fig. 4.10 Cnidoblast

he
calcium carbonate. Such animals are
known as coral animals. Soft, long,
finger-like, flexible processes called tentacles are found encircling

is
the mouth. They help in food-gathering and defence. Special stinging
re S
cells called cnidoblasts or cnidocysts or nematocytes, which contain
B
bl
the stiniging capsules or nematocysts are found on the body and
tentacles.
be T
pu
K

Fig. 4.11

Think ! Have you heard of coral reefs? What are they? How are
to

they formed? What are they made of? What are the different types
of coral reefs? Find out if your biology laboratory has corals.
Nutrition: Coelenterates obtain food from the water. The cnidoblasts
t

help in paralysing the prey and the tentacles capture the prey and
No

put it into the gastro-vascular cavity. Digestion is either intra- cellular

or extra-cellular.
Reproduction: Reproduction occurs by both asexual and sexual
methods. Asexual reproduction takes place by external budding.
Sexual reproduction takes place by production of gametes. The
members may be either bisexual or unisexual.

68
 Economic importance
Coelenterates have very little economic importance. Some
jellyfishes are consumed as food in Italy and oriental regions.
Coelenterates form a source of food to many fishes, molluscs
and crustaceans.
Some corals are very beautiful with attractive colours. They
are extensively used in the jewellery industry. Some corals

d
are kept as decorative pieces in houses and aquaria.

he
Examples: Hydra, jellyfish, coral.
Phylum Platyhelminthes

is
re S
The members of Phylum Platyhelminthes (Greek platy: flat;
helminth: worm) include un-segmented, soft-bodied invertebrates.
B
bl
Habitat: The members are either free-living or parasites. Free-living
be T

flatworms are aquatic; either freshwater or marine.

pu
K

Structure
The members of this group are triploblastic, i.e., their body is

made of three germ layersouter ectoderm, inner endoderm and

middle mesoderm.
They represent organ grade of organisation; tissues organize into
definite organs. They exhibit bilateral symmetry.
a. Flatworms have a flat body. They may be leaf-like or long, flat
and tape-like.
to

b. Free-living members swim with the help of cilia.

c. Excretory system is represented by flame cells.
t

d. The space between alimentary canal and body wall is filled

No

with a loose tissue called parenchyma. It is formed from the

mesoderm.
e. The nervous system is primitive.
f. A respiratory system is absent. Free-living flatworms respire
through the general body surface by diffusion.
g. A circulatory system is absent.

69
 Nutrition: The digestive system consists of a mouth which opens
into a pharynx. The pharynx opens into the gut. The gut consists of
three main trunks. One trunk is anterior and the other two are
posterior. An anus is absent. In endoparasites such as tapeworm, a
digestive system may be absent. Free-living flatworms consume small
crustaceans, worms and dead animals. Digestion may be intra-cellular
or extra-cellular. Parasites consume large amounts of food. They simply
absorb the digested food of the host.

d
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction is common in free-living

he
flatworms. Some species undergo transverse fission. During this
process a single organism splits up into smaller fragments by

is
transverse division. Each fragment grows into a separate individual.
re S
Generally the members are bisexual and reproductive system is
B
bl
highly complex, particularly among parasitic forms. Fertilization is
be T

internal-the male and female gametes fuse inside the body.

pu
Development may be direct or may be indirect with larval stages.
K

Economic importance

Flatworms consume earthworms in large numbers.

Parasitic platyhelminthes cause problems in humans and livestock
by producing diseases.
Common examples:
1. Planaria free-living flatworm
to

2. Liverfluke parasite in the liver of sheep

3. Tapeworm parasite in human intestine.
t
No

Fig. 4.12

70
 Phylum Aschelminthes
The members of phylum Aschelminthes are commonly called
round worms or nematodes.
Habitat: Nematodes are found in virtually
every habitat - sea, fresh water, and land.
However, the majority of nematodes are
aquatic. Most Nematodes live in the
interstitial spaces between soil particles, or

d
other substratum.

he
Soil-dwelling nematodes are usually quite
close to the surface, roughly between 10 and
20 cm deep soil. The greatest populations of

is
re S
Nematodes are located in the rich organic
B
bl
soils, where decomposition occurs very fast.
The most productive habitats for Nematode
be T

populations are the temperate grasslands and

pu
deciduous (fully developed) forests.
K

Fig. 4.13
Structure

1. The body is bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, cylindrical and

unsegmented.
2. The body wall has a covering of cuticle which is resistant to
digestive juices of the host.
3. The body is essentially a tube within a
to

tube. The external tube is the body wall

consisting of a cuticle layer and internally
Tube-within-a-tube arrangement
of a longitudinal muscle layer. The inner
Fig. 4.14
t

tube is the alimentary canal. Between the

No

alimentary canal and the body wall there is a fluid-filled cavity

called pseudocoelom.
4. Digestive system is tubular with mouth and anus. The food enters
through the mouth and the undigested food comes out through
the anus.
5. Beyond the anus there is a tail.
71
 6. There is no definite respiratory system. Nematodes respire through
their skin.
7. A peripheral nervous system is present.
8. Males are generally smaller than females; males usually have a
naturally curved tail.

Mode of nutrition: Nematodes generally feed on bacteria. A large

number of Nematodes feed on soft-bodied organisms. Parasitic
nematodes rely on the digested food of the host.

d
he
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction is absent. Nematodes are
unisexual animals. The male can be identified from the female by
morphological features. They reproduce sexually.

is
re S
In some species embryos develop inside eggs that are retained
B
bl
within the mothers body until they hatch. In parasitic roundworms,
the life cycle is often more complicated.
be T
pu
Economic importance: Some species of nematodes are beneficial
K

indirectly as they destroy insect pests, by weakening their hosts.

Many parasitic roundworms cause serious diseases in plants,

animals, and humans.

Examples: Human roundworm, Pinworm, Hookworm, Filarial worm.

Think ! Find out from various sources the different roundworm parasites
and the diseases caused by them. Also learn preventive measures.
REMEMBER, PREVENTION IS ALWAYS BETTER THAN CURE!
to

Phylum Annelida : The members of Phylum Annelida are commonly

called segmented worms.
t
No

Habitat: This group is distributed on land as well as in water.

Although, some species of this phylum are aquatic, majority of the
species are terrestrial.

They can survive in semi-arid regions to heavy rainfall regions.

However, most annelids prefer moist, damp or water logged areas for
shelter. They can also be found under the rocks or logs.

72
 Structure
The body is long, cylindrical, triploblastic, bilaterally
symmetrical and segmented.
The body is covered by a thin layer of cuticle.
The digestive system is well developed with many organs such
as pharynx, gizzard, stomach, intestine, etc.
The alimentary canal is separated from the body wall with a

d
fluid filled body cavity called coelom.

he
A nervous system is present with brain and ventral nerve cord.
Some aquatic annelids possess thin walled gills for respiration.

is
But in terrestrial annelids, a respiratory system is absent.
re S
The exchange of gases takes place through the body surface.
B

bl
Excretory system is represented by segmented organs called
nephridia.
be T
pu
Locomotion in terrestrial annelids takes place by setae; in
K

aquatic annelids special structures called parapodia assist

the animal in swimming.

Nutrition: Different species of annelids have a wide variety of diets;

they may be active or passive hunters, scavengers, filter feeders, direct
deposit feeders which simply ingest the sediments, and some like
the leeches, are blood-suckers.
Reproduction: Reproduction takes place either sexually or asexually.
to

Asexual reproduction takes place by fission, budding and

fragmentation.
The members are generally bisexual. After the eggs are fertilized,
t
No

the zygotes are enclosed inside special structures called cocoons

which are secreted by the clitellum.
Economic importance: Many annelids form food for other animals.
Marine worms are eaten by echinoderms, molluscs, as well as fish
and birds. Earthworms are food for birds as well as moles. Earthworms
help in turning the soil, thus helping in adding nutrients to the

73
 plants. Darwin called them Farmers friends. Earthworms also
generate vermicompost which is used as manure for plants. Leeches
are sometimes used for blood-letting in a few pathological conditions.
Common examples: Nereis, Earthworm, Leech

d
is he
re S
Nereis Earthworm Leech
Fig. 4.15
B
bl
Try This : With the help of your teachers try to build a vermibed in
be T

your school. Gather information about the earthworms which take

pu
part in the manufacture of vermicompost. Know the contents of worm
K

castings. Take up a project work on Vermiculture.

Phylum Arthropoda : The members of the phylum Arthropoda are

commonly known as the animals with jointed legs. This is the biggest
animal taxon, forming more than 80% of the living organisms.
Habitat: Arthropods live in almost every habitat on the earth:
Terrestrial which includes: desert, forest, grassland and tundra and
Aquatic which include: freshwater and marine; some live on top of
to

mountains while others live at great depths in the ocean and icy
environments.
t

Structure: Arthropods are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical,

No

coelomate animals.
The arthropod body is covered by an exoskeleton made of
chitinous cuticle.
The body is segmented. A pair of jointed appendages generally
arises from each body segment.
Arthropods generally possess compound eyes.
74
 Generally the head is well developed.
The digestive system is well developed with distinct organs;
salivary glands are present.
They have an open type of circulatory system in which blood
circulates in the body cavity.
Respiration takes place by gills in aquatic arthropods, or by
book lungs, or by trachea.

d
Excretory system is represented by green glands, Malpighian

he
tubules.
Nervous system is well developed with a brain above the
oesophagus and a ventral nerve cord.

is
re S
The sexes are separate, i.e., most members are unisexual.
B

bl
Arthropods periodically shed their body skin; this process is
known as moulting.
be T
pu
They are the only invertebrates which have developed wings
K

and can fly.

Nutrition: Arthropods exhibit a variety of feeding habits. There are

carnivores, herbivores, detritus feeders, filter feeders, and parasites.

Specialized paired appendages around the mouth help in capturing
and handling food. Many carnivorous arthropods capture prey with
poison, which is usually administered with a special appendage.
Reproduction: Arthropods are unisexual and reproduce by sexual
to

reproduction. In some members of the phylum the male and female

can be identified by external features. This condition is known as
sexual dimorphism. Fertilisation is usually internal. They are mostly
t

oviparous.
No

Economic importance
Arthropods are economically very important to us.
Many arthropods such as shrimps, lobsters and crabs are used
as food throughout the world.

75
 A large number of species of insects and mites attack food crops
and timber. Locusts destroy large amounts of food crops every year.
Termites destroy huge buildings, coconut trees, etc.
Many arthropods, particularly insects, act as vectors of various
disease-producing germs. Diseases such as malaria, African sleeping
sickness, bubonic plague, dengue fever, elephantiasis, etc. are spread
by insects and other arthropods.

d
Cockroaches, spiders, lice, bed bugs, etc. are harmful to us.

he
There are, however, arthropods that are beneficial to us. Honey
bees, for example, prepare honey which is of great nutritional and

is
re S
medicinal value to us.
B
bl
Silk moth produces silk which has enormous economic value.
be T

APICULTURE
pu
K

Rearing of honeybees for the sake of honey is known as apiculture.

You can develop it as a hobby. You can form a science club in

your school and conduct such activities.

A large number of fragrant, attractive multi-coloured flowers and

many of the tastiest fruits that we relish today are the gift of cross
pollination by insects.
t to
No

Fig. 4.16
Common examples: Millipede, Prawn, Scorpion, Butterfly.

Phylum Mollusca : Phylum Mollusca is the second largest phylum.

76
 Habitat: Molluscs are either terrestrial or aquatic (fresh water or
marine]
Structure: Molluscs are soft bodied coelomate animals. The coelom
is reduced and the primary body cavity is the haemocoel, which is
filled with blood. The members of this group have an open type of
circulatory system. The body is triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical,
unsegmented and consists of a distinct head, muscular foot and

d
visceral hump. The body is protected by a calcareous shell. The visceral

he
hump contains the digestive system, the heart and other internal
organs. Respiration takes place by gills. Excretory organs include
kidneys.

is
re S
Nutrition: Members of this class can
B
bl
be herbivores, carnivores, scavengers,
ciliary feeders, or parasites. There are
be T
pu
predatory species. The mouth is
K

muscular. The members have a

rasping tongue called radula. Food is

ingested by means of the broad,

many-toothed radula. Plenty of
mucus is secreted in the mouth
which protects the digestive system
and acts as a lubricant. Digestion is
extracellular, to begin with. But later Fig. 4.17 SNAIL showing rasping
to

it becomes intracellular. tongue (Rodula)

Reproduction: Reproduction is sexual and may be simple or highly

complex. The fertilized egg develops into a swimming larva called
t
No

veliger. They are oviparous.

Economic importance: Molluscs form a regular source of food for

humans. They also provide us with important luxury goods such as
pearls. Their shells have been used as a form of currency in some
primitive societies. Many species of molluscs can bite or sting humans
and some have become agricultural pests.

77
 Common examples: Garden snail, Fresh water mussel, Octopus.

d
he
Garden Snail Fresh Water Mussel Octopus
Fig. 4.18

is
re S
Phylum Echinodermata
B
bl
Habitat: Echinoderms are distributed all over the world in almost all
depths and environments in the ocean. They are abundant in shallow
be T

sea shores. They are the only group of animals that are exclusively
pu
marine.
K

Structure

Echinoderms are Triploblastic, radially symmetrical coelomate

animals.
Echinoderms are radially symmetrical as adults and bilaterally
symmetrical as larvae.
Body has a pentaradial arrangement, i.e., body is arranged
in five parts around a central axis.
to

There is a system of tubes through which water from the

surroundings circulates through the body and flows out. This
is known as water vascular system.
t
No

Locomotion takes place by special structures called tube feet.

The digestive system is simple.
There are no specialized organs for respiration or excretion.
The body is hard with a number of spines .
The nervous system is primitive.

78
 Nutrition: The members resort to different modes of feeding. Some
members are passive filter feeders; some extract organic matter from
the mud; but there are active hunters also.
Reproduction
Some members reproduce asexually while others reproduce
by sexual method.
Asexual reproduction takes place during early immature
stages of growth; during this process the central disc divides

d
into two by fission and the two halves regrow the lost parts.

he
During sexual reproduction eggs and sperm are released into
water; fertilization takes place in water.
In a few members internal fertilization has been observed.

is
re S
The zygotes develop into larvae which are bilaterally
symmetrical.
B
bl
The most common larva is bipinneria.
After some time the larvae undergo metamorphosis and
be T
pu
develop into adults.
K

Economic importance: The spines of echinoderms are sharp and

may pierce the flesh. It requires special care to remove them without

breaking them.
to

Fig. 4.19
t
No

Echinoderms are used as food in many parts of the country.

The calcareous shells or tests are used as a source of lime by
farmers in regions where lime-stone is scarce. The tests of sea urchins
form decorative units in aquaria. Dried starfishes are also preserved
as decorative items on tables.
Common examples: Starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber, brittle star.

79
 EXERCISES
I. Four different options are given for each question. Select
the most appropriate answer
1. Bacteria belong to:
a. Metaphyta b. Protista
c. Mycota d. Monera

d
2. Which of the following Kingdoms exclusively included animals:

he
a. Metaphyta b. Protista
c. Metazoa d. Mycota.

is
3. Name an animal Phylum whose members are exclusively
re S
marine in habitat:
B
bl
a. Arthropoda b. Echinodermata
be T

c. Coelenterata d. Porifera
pu
K

4. Chitinous cuticle is an exoskeleton in:

a. Arthropods b. Annelids

c. Molluscs d. Echinoderms
5. Which of the following worms does not live as a parasite:
a. Tapeworm b. Earthworm
c. Roundworm d. Hookworm
6. In which animal group is the body diploblastic:
to

a. Coelenterata b. Arthropoda
c. Platyhelminthes d. Annelida
t
No

II. Fill up the blanks with suitable words

1. The body cavity in roundworms is _____________.
2. The only group of invertebrates which can fly is ____________.
3. The exoskeleton in members of the Phylum Mollusca is
__________.

80
 4. If the body of an animal can be cut into two equal parts in
only one plane passing through the centre, it is _____________
Symmetry.
5. Mushrooms belong to the Kingdom ______________.
6. The nucleus is not bound by a membrane in the members of
the Kingdom ____________.
7. ____________ are called farmers friends because they turn the

d
deep soil and bring it to the surface.

he
8. The protozoan parasite _____________ causes malaria.
9. The body wall of sponges contain needle-like calcareous

is
re S
exoskeleton called _____________.
B
bl
10. The body cavity of arthropods is filled with blood and is known
as ____________.
be T
pu
K

III. Match the following

I. Animal II. Locomotor structure

1. Parapodia a. Euglena
2. Tube feet b. Nereis
3. Flagellum c. Amoeba
4. Pseudopodium d. Starfish
to

Kingdom Example
t

1. Plantae a. Yeast
No

2. Protista b. Sponge
3. Mycota c. Bacteria
4. Animalia d. Moss
5. Monera e. Paramoecium

81
 IV. Answer the following

1. Of the five kingdoms, which is the most primitive one?

2. Name the three primary germ layers of a triploblastic animal.

3. What is radial symmetry?

4. What are gemmules?

d
5. What is metameric segmentation?

he
6. Name the Kingdom whose members cannot manufacture food
by photosynthesis.

is
7. Name two insects which are useful to us by their products.
re S B
bl
8. Name two animal phyla which possess open type of circulatory
system.
be T
pu
9. Name the two animal phyla which exhibit radial symmetry.
K

10. Name two disease-causing bacteria and the diseases they

cause.
t to

Great work requires great and persistent effort for a long time.
No

Character has to be established through a thousand stumbles.

Swami Vivekananda

82
 Chapter 5
NATURE OF LIGHT
After studying this chapter you
list out the properties of light explained by various theories of light.
give reason for dual nature of light
reason out for calling electromagnetic waves as transverse waves

d
calculate the energy of photon.

he
Are you ever scared of dark is the power is switched off at night ?
what will you do? Some of you may scream and stop work or fetch

is
re S
lamps, candles or other sources of light. So, light is vitally important
to us. Does it travel as particles or waves? Why does it move so quickly?
B
bl
Let us study some theories of light which have been proposed to
be T

answer these questions. These theories are aimed at explaining the

pu
properties of light. A theory is valid only if it explains all the properties
K

of light.

Fill in the Table

Sl.No. Activity Observation Inference
1 Take a glass of water and dip a
pencil partly into the water
2 Using a key chain laser, focus
to

on the mirror and look for the

light laser dot around the room
3 Fill a glass bowl half way with
t

marbles and add water to the

No

bowl until it is 3/4th full. Looking

through the side of the bowl,
reach in and try to pickup the marbles
4 Take a coin and immerse it in a
glass of water. Observe the coin
from the top

83
 We know that light is a form of energy which causes the sensation
of vision. The nature of light accounts for the way or mechanism
with which light can be transported. Energy is transported
from the source to its surrounding, either by particle motion or by
wave motion. To understand the nature of light, different theories
have been proposed. In this chapter you will understand Newtons
Corpuscular theory, Huygens Wave theory, Maxwells

d
Electromagnetic theory and Max Plancks Quantum theory of

he
Radiation, are discussed in brief.

Newtons corpuscular theory

is
re S
Whenever you see some object in the presence of light, you
B
bl
recognize it very easily. The image of that particular object falls on
the retina of your eyes and send message to the brain and it recognizes
be T
pu
the object. This is possible only if light produces the image of an
K

object or sensation of vision.

To understand this phenomenon, Sir Isaac Newton proposed a

theory, by name, Corpuscular theory of light. Light consists of a stream
of extremely light (very less or negligible amount of mass) and very
tiny particles called corpuscles according to this theory.

Newton explained reflection, refraction and dispersion using

to

corpuscular theory, but failed to explain other characteristics like

diffraction, interference and polarization. There fore this theory thery
was this cancled.
t
No

Know this: Newton explained reflection as a force that pushed

away the corpuscles from the surface of a reflector.

Huygens wave theory

After discarding the corpuscular theory of light because of its

limitations, Huygens proposed a theory called wave theory of light.

84
 In the previous class, you have learnt that mechanical wave requires
a medium to travel. According to Huygens, light travels in the form of
mechanical waves. Wave is nothing but the disturbance set up in the
medium. Here Huygens considered Ether as the imaginary medium
and said light travels in the Ether medium in the form of mechanical
waves. Light energy is carried by the waves caused by vibration of
ether particles.
Huygens wave theory explains reflection, refraction, dispersion,

d
interference and diffraction of light. The Michealson-Morley

he
experiment showed that vacuum does not contain any material
medium like Ether. Hence Huygens theory was discarded.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 5.1 Wave-like behaviour of Light

Christiaan Huygens
He was a prominent Dutch
to

mathematician, astronomer, physicist and

horologist. His work included early
telescopic studies which explains the nature
t
No

of the rings of Saturn and the discovery of

its moon. He received credit for his role in
the development of modern calculus and
observations on sound perception.

Word Help : Horologist: Someone who makes or repairs watches.

85
 Maxwells Electromagnetic Theory
In the previous class, you have learnt that electromagnetic wave
is caused due to fluctuating electric and magnetic fields.
According to the electromagnetic theory which was proposed by
James Clerk Maxwell, light travels in the form of electromagnetic
wave. These electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature and they
do not require a material medium for transmission. These waves can

d
travel through vacuum also. Even though this theory could
satisfactorily explain several characteristics of light, it failed to explain

he
the black body radiation spectrum and photoelectric effect.

James Clerk Maxwell

is
re S
He was a Scottish physicist and
B
bl
mathematician. His most prominent
achievement was formulating classical
be T

electromagnetic theory. Maxwells

pu
achievements concerning electromagnetism
K

have been called the second great

unification in physics. Maxwell published

A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic

Field. Maxwell is also known for presenting
the first durable colour photograph in
1861. Einstein himself described Maxwells
work as the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has
experienced since the time of Newton. Einstein kept a photograph
to

of Maxwell on his study wall, alongside pictures of Michael

Faraday and Newton.
t
No

Max-Plancks Quantum theory

During Diwali festival, you have observed that if you fire a flower
pot cracker, you will see the small sparkles which emit out one after
the other. They are not continuous like a line but they are like
discrete units in the form of dotted lines. The pattern of lines is
given in fig 5.2

86
 Continuous ________________________

Discrete _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _

Photons ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Fig 5.2 The pattern of lines

In the same way, Quantum theory of light which is proposed by

d
Max-Planck in 1900 says that, in light, emission or absorption of

he
energy is not continuous but takes place in discrete units. These
discrete units are called as packets of energy. These tiny packets of
energy are known as Quanta or Photons. Thus according to Quantum

is
theory, light consists of tiny particles which have wavelike properties
re S
associated with them. The quantum theory of light has successfully
B
bl
explained all aspects of the behaviour of light.
be T
pu
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
K

He was a German physicist who proposed

quantum physics, initiating a revolution in natural

science and philosophy. He received the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1918.

A photon is characterized by either a wavelength () or frequency

(). The energy of a photon (E) is given by the equation:
to

E = h or
hc
E= (Because c = )

t

where, is wavelength,
No

is frequency,
h is Plancks constant and is given by h = 6.626 10 - 34
J.s and
c is the speed of light and c = 3 108 m/s
and depend on the type of radiation and the colour of light.
We can calculate the energy possessed by photon using this formula.

87
 Example:
Sodium vapour lamp gives yellow light of wavelength 589.3
nanometre. What is the energy of one photon of this light?
Solution:
Given the wavelength = 589.3 nm = 589.3 10-9 m.
We know that h = 6.626 10 - 34
J.s c = 3 108 m/s

d
he
Energy of a photon, E =

is
re S
E=
B
bl = 3.34 10 - 19
J
be T
pu
Dual Nature of Light
K

According to experiments, light can exhibit the particle properties

(eg: photo electric effect ) as well as wave properties ( eg: interferance).

This complementary or dual role of the behavior of light can be
employed to describe all of the known characteristics of light. The
combined properties of light work together and allow us to observe
the beauty of universe. Thus it could be concluded that light energy
to

is propagated in the form of particles having wave nature i.e., discrete

packets of energy. This is known as dual nature of light.
t

Compare the Newtons corpuscular theory with Planks quantum

No

hypothesis.

Know this :

From series of experiments, only in 19th century the speed of

light was accurately calculated to be 2.999796 108 m/s.

88
 EXERCISES

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following

incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer

1. The packets of light energy are called

a. Electrons b. neutrons

d
c. Photons d. positrons

he
2. Corpuscles are the tiny particles of
a. light b. sound

is
re S
c. waves d. radiation
B
bl
3. Which of the following formula represents the energy of
Photon?
be T
pu
a. E=hc/ b. E= /hc
K

c. E=h/c d. E=h/

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words

1. Light has ________________and _____________nature.

2. Light waves travel in the form of ______________waves.

3. Electromagnetic waves are _____________waves.

to

III. Match the following

A B
t
No

1. Corpuscular theory a. Maxwell

2. Wave theory b. Max Planck
3. Electromagnetic theory c. Huygens
4. Quantum theory d. Einstein
e. Newton

89
 IV. Answer the following
1. Why was corpuscular theory of light discarded?
2. Can the wave theory of light explain the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect? Justify.
3. Which theory of light proposed the presence of ether medium
for propogation of light?
4. Light energy is propagated in the form of particles having

d
wave nature. Justify this statement using Quantum theory

he
of light.
5. Which theory explains all the characteristics of light?

is
re S
6. Name any two characteristics of light explained by Huygens
wave theory.
B
bl
7. You might have seen mercury street lamps. The light blue
be T

glow given by these lamps has a wavelength of = 436nm.

pu
What is its frequency?
K

8. Yellow colours seen in fireworks are due to the emission of

light with wavelength around 588 nm when sodium salts are

burned. Calculate the frequency of yellow light of wavelength
588 nm.
t to
No

90
 Chapter 6
THE WORLD OF MICROBES
After studying this chapter you,
recognise the various groups of microbes.
appreciate the role of microbes in environment management.
reason the need of microbes in decomposition process.
state the importance of microbes in maintaining ecological and

d
biological balance.

he
relate the role of microbes in carbon and nitrogen cycles.
develop a miniature water treatment plant.
appreciate the role of microbes in food industry.

is
re S
state the meaning of genetic engineering.
B
bl
appreciate the role of microbes in improving the living conditions
of human beings.
be T
pu
Here are two students walking towards school. They are speaking
K

to each other. All of a sudden they cover their noses due to a pungent
odour. They will observe that a dead body of a rat will be the cause of

that odour. After about a week they will observe that the odour would
have reduced. Also they will find that only a small part of the dead rat
will be found in that place. They will be amused by this and decides
to ask their teacher regarding this. They have a few questions in
their mind. You may also have the same or similar questions. Why
did the dead body smell pungently? Why did the smell subdue as
to

days passed by? Is there any relation between the decrease of pungent
smell and decrease in the size of the dead organism? Let us try
answering these questions by simple activities.
t
No

Activity 6.1
Take a glass trough; fill it with soil, leaves, vegetable pieces, a
few pieces of paper and other similar materials. Sprinkle water
regularly into the trough. Repeat sprinkling of water for about a week.
What do you observe? Does a pungent smell arise from the contents of
the trough?

91
 Activity 6.2
Observe the bottled specimens of animals present in your schools
science lab. Do the animals smell the same way as that of the smell
arising from the dead rat on the road? Why does the animal in the
sealed jar do not smell the same way? Discuss.

There are quite a few reasons as to why the dead animal found
on the road side smells pungently. In the same way there are quite a
few other reasons as to why the animal in the sealed jar did not

d
smell the same way. Taking the help of your science teacher try

he
finding the reasons for both the instances.

The teacher insists that we need to thank microorganisms when we

is
come across such pungent odour. What might be the reason for this?
re S B
bl
A hostel has a pit system toilet. The warden of that hostel orders
the inmates not to use any chemicals to clean the toilets. Why is this
be T

so? In earlier days people wished to defecate in their agricultural

pu
land. All these instances lead to some understanding of micro
K

organisms being involved in certain processes. What are those? Are

they beneficial to us?

Think ! What would have happened if there would have been no

microorganisms on this earth?

You already know the various groups of microorganisms. They

are virus, bacteria, protozoa, fungus and algae. In your previous class
to

you have learnt that microbes cause so many diseases in human

beings. Then are microbes very harmful? Are they not of any use to
us? Are they not our friends? Yes they are our friends too. They help
t

us in many ways.
No

Here is a farmer, who has accumulated all the agricultural wastes

of his agricultural field in a heap at the backyard of his house. He
has also dumped the dung of domestic animals in to this heap. After
a few weeks this heap of organic matter is used as organic manure to
enrich the soil of his agricultural land. What changes in the duration
of a few weeks help the organic heap to be converted to organic

92
 manure? This change is due to the action of decomposing micro
organisms. Remember even earthworms are used to prepare organic
manure, by a process called vermiculture. Even in vermiculture,
micro organisms play a very important role.

What do these microbes get in return when they decompose

organic matter? Remember decomposition is a chemical reaction in
which a chemical compound is split or broken down into simpler or

d
smaller chemical compounds. You have already learnt regarding this
in eighth standard. Microbes use these newly formed compounds as

he
food. In return we humans are also benefited.

These microbes maintain the fertility of soil. What if there were

is
re S
no decomposing microbes? Then the soil would not be fertile, as
nutrients would not have been recycled to soil. Organic farming has
B
bl
become more popular now-a-days. People prefer vegetables and fruits
be T

grown by organic farming. More usage of chemicals leads to soil

pu
pollution; in turn it leads to health problems of we consumers. If lots
K

of chemicals are used for agriculture, then the normal microbial

flora of soil may be destroyed. This may result in the decline of soil

fertility.

The refuse of animals (cow, baffalo, sheep etc) When dumped in

to the organic heap, increases the nutritive value of manure. This
manure when used for agricultural purposes helps the plants
grow well.
to

Can we lead a happy life without the help and interaction of

microbes? No. This is highly impossible. Microbes help mankind in
t

almost every walk of life. In eighth standard you have learnt that
No

milk is converted to curds, by the help of bacteria called Lactobacillus.

It is evident from this, that microbes play a very important role in
food industry. Ah! the cake that you purchase from a bakery is so
soft and spongy. Thanks to Yeast, a fungus which has made this
happen.

93
 Activity 6.3
Taking the help of your teacher make a list of microbes that are
used in food industry. Also make a list of food items prepared in your
home, where microbes play an important role.
Anusha is having dosa and chutney for her breakfast. The dosa
is porous, puffy, soft and spongy. She wonders as to how this is
possible? She asks her father to help her find the solution for her
question. One day she pleads her father to prepare dosa, from the

d
batter that her mother had just prepared. She finds that the dosa

he
will not be as porous, puffy, soft and spongy as in the earlier instance.
She keeps aside the dosa batter. She marks the initial level of the
batter, taking her mothers help. The batter is kept aside for about

is
10 to 12 hours as instructed by her mother. She observes that the
re S
batter would have increased in its volume. Why is this so? Is the
B
bl
increase in the volume of the batter responsible for the porous, puffy,
soft and spongy dosa? Are any of the microbes responsible for
be T

bringing in change in the nature of dosa batter? Yes. Yeast, a fungus,

pu
and Streptococci bacteria are responsible to this change.
K

Anusha has a few more questions. She wonders if microbes are

useful in preparing food stuff at home, can they be used in food

industries? Yes, they are used in tea processing, coffee processing,
pickle industries, dairy, distilleries and so on.
Activity 6.4
Take about 200 ml of water in a beaker. Add about five to six
tea spoons of sugar to it and stir well. Add a pinch of yeast powder to
to

this. Tie the mouth of the beaker with a piece of cloth. Leave the
beaker as it is for about 48 hours. Smell the content of the beaker.
What inference can be drawn?
t
No

Think ! Can the same technique be used to prepare alcohol in

industries?

Activity 6.5
Make a list of products prepared in food industries using microbes.
Visit a near-by food industry and find out the role of microbes in
preparing a particular product.
94
 Not only microbes are useful in food industry they are used in
other industries too. A diabetic patient who is on insulin injections
need to thank bacteria. This is because insulin is produced by genetic
engineering. You will study regarding genetic engineering later in
the same chapter. During the First World War, many soldiers died of
microbial infections. Thanks to Alexander Flemming, who accidentally
discovered penicillin, an antibiotic. This led to a new dimension of
using microbes to prepare antibiotics. Remember let us not wage war
against each other. Let us wage war against disease causing microbes.

d
Thus microbes are used in pharmaceutical industry to prepare

he
antibiotics, vaccines, ethyl alcohol and so on. Not only in
pharmaceutical industries, microbes are used in leather industry too.
Microbes are used in tanning process.

is
re S
In a village people drink water collected directly from a river. Is
B
bl
this safe? What if the river water is contaminated and polluted? Is it
safe to drink that water? If that water is purified, then is it fit for
be T
pu
drinking? How can the river water be treated such that it is made fit
for human consumption? Here is a diagram. Observe it carefully.
K
t
to
No

Fig 6.1 Water treatment plant

95
 Figure 6.1 gives an idea regarding the steps involved in treatment
of river water, such that it is made fit for human consumption.
Water is first diverted from the river or lake into the treatment
plant. When the water first comes into the plant it is screened to
remove sticks, plastic bottles, or other large pieces of contaminants.
Later water is pumped out into air in a large tank. It almost resembles
a large fountain!! This kills the anaerobic microbes that may be
present in water. After getting rid of large contaminants, tiny
contaminants are to be got rid off the water. This is done by adding

d
alum into it. After adding alum the water is thoroughly mixed and is

he
allowed to settle. In the due course of time tiny contaminants come
closer to each other and forms a bigger lump. This bigger lump of
contaminants can be separated from the clear water. Clear water is

is
decanted or pumped into filtration chambers. Here water is filtered
re S
through sand beds, which also has gravel, and charcoal layers. To
B
bl
this filtered water chlorine gas is passed through. You may remember
that chlorine is a very good disinfectant. Thus chlorinated water is
be T

stored and supplied for human consumption.

pu
K

Think ! What is the role of charcoal in water treatment?

Sewage can also be treated in the similar way. Remember if

sewage water is treated and recycled, it helps in conservation of water.

This recycled water can be used for agricultural purpose.
Activity 6.6
Collect imformation on sewage treatment from various sources.
Activity 6.7
to

Take two transparent plastic bottles. Make

Graval
small holes at the bottom of one of the bottles.
Into this bottle first spread a layer of sand. Above
t

the layer of sand spread charcoal pieces. Above Charcoal

No

the charcoal layer, spread gravels. Place this Sand

bottle over the mouth of another plastic bottle.

This may appear similar to a water filter that
you may have seen or used. Figure 6.2 gives
you a better understanding of the same.
Now pour water containing algae into the bottle. Observe the
water collected in the bottle placed at the bottom.
96
 Microbes not only help in purification of water; they also help
in recycling of nutrients. You have studied regarding this in carbon
and nitrogen cycles. Microbes play a very important role in
maintaining ecological and biological balance.
Dhruthi likes mangoes very much. She feels that if the size of
mangoes would have been like the size of pumpkin, then it would
have been so good for her. Another student tells her, what if those
mangoes would have been as sweet as sugar cane!!!! Is this really
possible? Can we really dream of such changes taking the help of

d
science and technology? Let us try to explore the answers to these
curiosities. You know that genes, the hereditary units are responsible

he
for biological characters of all organisms. The sweetness of sugarcane
is due to its gene that is responsible for its taste. The big size of
pumpkin is also due to its gene which is responsible for the size.

is
re S
Like wise size, taste, and other biological characters of mango is
governed by its respective genes.
B
bl
Can the gene of pumpkin be inserted to mango plant? So that
we can obtain big sized mangoes ! Like wise can we make the mangoes
be T
pu
as sweet as sugarcane by inserting sugarcane gene to mango plant?
K

May be, but this involves complex processes. Scientists have

developed a technique, which may be used for this purpose. Desired
gene can be separated from the donor cell and mounted on the

circular DNA of a bacterium. This bacterium may be cultured. Not

only the bacteria increases in number but also the recombined DNA
will be multiplied. Extracts of this bacterial culture can be introduced
into the desired organism, where desired changes are expected. This
technique is called Genetic Engineering. Genetic engineering can
be used to solve many problems of society.
t to
No

97
 Fig. 6.2 (a) Fig. 6.2 (b)
Normal rice Golden rice

d
he
Can this be achieved

is
re S
????? May be by the help
of genetic engineering.....
B
bl
be T

Fig. 6.3
pu
The following figure, gives an idea regarding genetic engineering.
K

Discuss with your teacher.

t
to
No

Fig. 6.4

98
 Microbes are our friends; they help balance carbon, nitrogen
and other elements in nature. They are useful in food, pharmaceutical,
and other industries too. Remember a friend may also be a foe.
EXERCISES
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the incomplete
statements/questions. Choose the answer
1. These are decomposers

d
a. Bacteria and fungi b. Bacteria and protozoa

he
c. Protozoa and viruses d Viruses and bacteria
2. One of the statements is false

is
re S
a. All microbes are harmful b. Some microbes are harmful
c. All microbes are useful d. All the above
B
bl
3. Mangoes as big as pumpkin can be obtained by
be T
pu
a. Genetic engineering b. Cloning
K

c. DNA finger printing d. Tissue culture

4. Charcoal is used in purifying water as charcoal is

a. porous b. carbon form
c. absorbent d. black coloured
5. Rearing of earthworms is known as
a. agriculture b. sericulture
c. horticulture d. vermiculture
to

II. Answer the following

1. Explain the role of microbes in maintaining ecological
t

balance.
No

2. Microbes are our friends too. Explain

3. Explain genetic engineering.
4. Environmentalists argue that genetic engineering is not only
a boon but also a bane. Explain.

99
 Chapter 7

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

After learning this chapter you,

explain the interdependence of plants and animals.
define biogeochemical cycle.
differentiate fixation and recycling.

d
illustrate reservoir pool and exchange pool.

he
explain carbon cycle.
describe nitrogen cycle.
schematically represent oxygen cycle.

is
re S
explain water cycle.
B

cycles. bl
schematically represent different nutrient flow in biogeochemical
be T
pu
differentiate between various biogeochemical cycles.
K

appreciate the importance of biogeochemical cycles in the nature.

Activity 7.1
You can see many living and non-living things around you. Make
a list of them. List their features.
I have a habit of going for a walk to the nearby park every day.
The park has many beautiful flowering plants. I observe honey bees
and other insects visiting these flowers. They do not sit on a single
to

flower but fly from flower to flower. What are they doing? Why are
they doing so? Can you give some more examples of the same kind?
All living organisms and their physical surroundings interact with
t

each other. They help in maintaining a balance in the nature. All

No

interacting organisms along with the non-living constituents of the

environment form an ecosystem. Environmental science is the study
of interaction and interdependence of biotic and abiotic components
of the environment.
What is the role of plants in the ecosystem? Plants represent the
major producer community in the ecosystem. The organic food
100
 manufactured by plants is not only used by them, but also made
available to animals. You might have seen farmers using cow dung as
manure for their fields. Why do they use it?

Plants depend upon animals for many of their life processes.

Some of them are
1) Animals through respiration supply a part of carbon dioxide
required for photosynthesis;

d
2) The decomposition of dead bodies of animals provides

he
nutrients to the plants for their life processes.
3) The excretion by animals forms another major source of

is
nutrients to the plants through soil.
re S
4) Pollination and dispersal of fruits and seeds are carried out
B
bl
by animals, insects, birds, wind and water.
be T
pu
5) The insectivorous plants obtain nitrogen by trapping insects.
K

Animals on the other hand totally depend on plants for their

food, either directly or indirectly. For example:

1) Herbivorous animals directly consume plants from which they

obtain all their essential nutrients.
2) Oxygen required for respiration is provided through
photosynthesis by green plants.
to

3) Trees provide shelter to a wide variety of animals, and many

animals use the trees as their habitats.
t

The term biogeochemical tells us that biological, geological and

No

chemical factors are all involved. On the other hand the circulation
of chemical nutrients like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, and water etc. through the biological and physical world
undergoes a series of changes which come back to starting point.
Such a cyclic movement of nutrients in the ecosystem is termed
biogeochemical cycles.

101
 There are two major components or pools in any biogeochemical
cycle. They are,
a) Reservoir pool and b) Exchange pool.

A reservoir pool is that part of the cycle where the movement of

chemicals is very slow. It involves non-living components such as the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere.

An exchange pool is one where the movement of materials is

d
rapid. It involves the living organisms of the biosphere. It is represented

he
by microbes, plants and animals.

The movement or entry of a nutrient from reservoir pool to the

is
exchange pool is called fixation. The return of the nutrients from
re S
exchange pool to the reservoir pool is called recycling. This can be
B
bl
shown as below.
be T

Gaseous cycles and

pu
sedimentary cycles are the two
K

types of biogeochemical cycles.

In gaseous cycles the reservoir

RESERVOIR POOL EXCHANGE POOL

pool is most often the Atmosphere Producers - plants
atmosphere or the Hydroshere Consumers - animals
Lithosphere Decomposers - microbes
hydrosphere. Carbon cycle,
nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle etc
are some of the examples for
gaseous cycles. In sedimentary
to

Fig. 7.1 The compoents of

cycles the reservoir pool will
Biogeochemical cycle
generally be the lithosphere.
Some of the examples are phosphorus cycle, sulphur cycle etc. Let
t

us study gaseous cycles.

No

When we are struck in a traffic jam, we see enormous amount of

smoke emitted from the exhausts of the vehicles. We know that smoke
contains a major by-product, carbon monoxide. During respiration plants
and animals release carbon dioxide. Dead plants and animals are
decomposed to release carbon dioxide. Volcanic eruptions also release
gaseous carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. What happens to this gas?

102
 Know This : Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas emitted by
vehicles. If the engines of the vehicles are switched off at the traffic
signals we will be cutting down the amount of exhaust gases
released to the environment.
Through photosynthesis, green plants use solar energy to
turn atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (sugars).
Plants and animals use these carbohydrates (and
other products derived from them) through a process

d
called respiration, the reverse of photosynthesis.

he
Respiration releases the energy contained in sugars for use
in metabolism and changes carbohydrate fuel back into
carbon dioxide, which in turn is released back to the

is
re S
atmosphere.
B

bl
On land, the major exchange of carbon with the atmosphere
results from photosynthesis and respiration.
be T
pu
Some of the dead plants and animals burried deep under the
earths crust change into fuels (fossil fuels). When such fuels
K

are burnt, carbon dioxide is released.

Volcanic eruptions also release gaseous carbon dioxide into

the atmosphere.
This is how carbon in the form of carbon dioxide flows in the
ecosystem, which is known as the carbon cycle. This can be
schematically represented as below.
t to
No

Fig. 7.2 The Carbon Cycle

103
 Circulation of carbon occurs in various forms in an eco system.
Carbon is a constituent of all organic compounds, many of which are
essential to life on Earth. The source of the carbon found in living
matter is carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air or dissolved in water. Algae
and terrestrial green plants (producers) are the chief agents of carbon
dioxide fixation through the process of photosynthesis, through which
carbon dioxide and water are converted into simple carbohydrates.
These compounds are used by the producers to carry on metabolism,

d
the excess being stored as fats and polysaccharides. The stored
products are then eaten by consumer animals, from protozoans to

he
man, which convert them into other forms. All animals return
CO2 directly to the atmosphere as a by-product of their respiration.

is
The carbon present in animal wastes and in the bodies of all organisms
re S
is released as CO2 by decay, or decomposing, organisms (chiefly
B
bl
bacteria and fungi) in a series of microbial transformations.
be T

Part of the organic carbonthe remains of organismshas

pu
accumulated in the Earths crust as fossil fuels (e.g., coal, gas, and
K

petroleum), limestone, and coral. The carbon of fossil fuels, removed

from the cycle in prehistoric time, is now being released in vast

amounts as CO2 through industrial and agricultural processes, much

of it quickly passing into the oceans and there being fixed as
carbonates. If oxygen is scarce (as in sewage, marshes, and swamps)
some carbon is released as methane gas.

Know This : About 80% of carbon dioxide from vehicles is absorbed

to

by blue-green algae.

Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. It is an

t

essential component of biological molecules such as proteins and

No

nucleic acid. Now let us know how nitrogen flows in an ecosystem.

1. Generally gaseous nitrogen cannot be directly utilized by the

organisms in the exchange pool. It needs to be converted into
compounds of nitrogen. The process of conversion of free gaseous
nitrogen into useful forms of compounds of nitrogen is called
nitrogen fixation.

104
 Nitrogen is naturally fixed by two processes. They are biological
fixation by certain microbes (alone or in a symbiotic relationship
with some plants and animals) and electro-chemical fixation(by
lightning.
a) Biological fixation is brought about by cyanobacteria like
Rhizobium, Anabaena and Nostoc. Rhizobium takes shelter
in root nodules of leguminous plants. They absorb atmospheric
nitrogen and convert into nitrates, which is used by the plants

d
for the biosynthesis of proteins. The free-living cyanobacteria,

he
like Anabaena, Nostoc and Clostridium in ponds and paddy
fields absorb and store atmospheric nitrogen. Thus nitrogen
is fixed to the soil.

is
re S
Know This: A symbiotic relationship in which both partners benefit
B
bl
is called mutualism.
b) During lightning atmospheric nitrogen combines with oxygen
be T
pu
to form oxides of nitrogen. These oxides dissolve in rain to
K

form a dilute solution of nitric acid. This pours down to the

earth along with rain water. Nitric acid reacts with metal ions

in the soil forming nitrates which are absorbed by plants.

This is known as electro-chemical fixation.
c) Artificial fixation is the combining of atmospheric nitrogen
with gaseous hydrogen to form ammonia. Ammonia can be
oxidized to form nitrates or can be reacted with acids to form
ammonia salts. These nitrites and ammonium salts contain
to

fixed nitrogen which can be absorbed by plants.

2. Nitrogen fixation is followed by ammonification, nitrification and
denitrification.
t

3. Breaking of complex organic compounds like proteins, nitrogenous

No

wastes and excretory products of animals into ammonia is

ammonification. This is brought about by ammonifying bacteria
in the soil.
4. The process of conversion of ammonia and its salts into nitrates
and nitrites is called nitrification. This process is brought about
by nitrifying bacteria like nitrosomonas bacteria, nitrobacter etc.,

105
 Nitrosomonas converts ammonium salts into nitrites, nitrobacter
converts nitrites into nitrates.
5. The conversion of nitrates in the soil into free gaseous nitrogen is
denitrification. This is brought about by pseudomonas, a type
of denitrifying bacteria. It decomposes a part of the nitrates in the
soil and in water into gaseous nitrogen which is recycled into the
atmosphere.
The different stages of nitrogen cycle can be represented as below:

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 7.3 Nitrogen Cycle

Now let us know how oxygen is getting fixed and recycled in the
atmosphere. We know that oxygen is an essential nutrient for all
to

living beings. It is required for bringing about oxidation of sugars to

release energy. Oxygen is available in a free molecular form as gaseous
oxygen. It is present in the dissolved state in water bodies and also in
t

combined form like carbon dioxide and water.

No

1. Fixation of oxygen is brought about by respiration for oxidation

of sugars. Later it is released in the form of carbon dioxide
and water.

2. The decomposition of dead plants and animals by microbes

releases carbon dioxide and water.

106
 3. Oxygen is utilized for combustion of fuels.

4. Carbon dioxide and water vapours produced during

respiration, decomposition and combustion are reused during
photosynthesis. Thus oxygen is recycled.

The oxygen cycle can be illustrated as below.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 7.4 Oxygen Cycle

There is another component in the atmosphere which is

circulating between reservoir pool and exchange pool. It is the water,
which is an essential component of all living cells.
to

1. Water in the water bodies like ponds, lakes, rivers, oceans etc
evaporate by the suns heat. It gets condensed to form clouds.

2. This water enters the soil in the form rain and fog.
t
No

3. Plants absorb water from the soil through root system. Water
which is not utilized is evaporated to the atmosphere through
transpiration.

4. Water directly or indirectly is utilized by all living beings for

various metabolic processes. Through respiration, excretion,
transpiration, evaporation, etc water enters into atmosphere.

107
 d
is he
re S B
bl Fig. 7.5 Water Cycle

These biogeochemical cycles have a vital role in the environment.

be T
pu
All atmospheric components are balanced in an ecosystem because
K

of the biogeochemical cycles. Imagine a situation where oxygen cycle

or carbon cycle would not have been existed in the atmosphere. List

their impacts.

EXERCISES

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following

incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer
to

1. The return of nutrients from exchange pool to the reservoir

pool in an ecosystem is called
t

a. Fixation b. Recycling
No

c. Production d. Decomposition

2. Fixation of carbon dioxide occurs by

a. Transpiration b. Photosynthesis
c. Evaporation d. Respiration

108
 3. The algae bringing about nitrogen fixation
a. Nitrosomonas b. Nostoc
c. Pseudomonas d. Chlamydomonas
4. The conversion of ammonia into nitrates is
a. Nitrification b. Ammonification
c. Denitrification d. Electrochemical fixation.

d
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Oxygen fixation in an ecosystem occurs by _____________.

he
2. A cyclic movement of nutrients in an ecosystem is ____________.

is
3. A bacterium that converts ammonium salts into nitrites is
re S
____________.
B
bl
4. A major pollutant present in the smoke emitted from vehicles
is _______.
be T
pu
III. Answer the following questions
K

1. What are biogeochemical cycles? Mention the two types.

2. Explain the role of Rhizobium in nitrogen fixation.

3. Narrate two examples for interaction and interdependence of
plants and animals.
4. Explain the role of oxygen cycle in an ecosystem?
5. Schematically represent water cycle.
to

IV. Write differences between the following. Discuss in groups

and get the correct answers
t

1. Fixation and recycling.

No

2. Reservoir pool and exchange pool.

3. Nitrification and denitrification.
4. Natural fixation and artificial fixation of nitrogen.
5. Biological fixation and electrochemical fixation of nitrogen.

109
 Chapter 8

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
After studying this chapter you
identify the properties of the matter.
differentiate between the kinds of matter based on these properties.
reason out for the use of metals in jewellery.
recall the meaning of malleability and ductility of metals.

d
reason out for the deformation of some objects.

he
define madulus of elasticity.
understand the significance of Hookes law.
You have learnt in previous classes about matter. You know that

is
re S
anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter. There
are three states of matter Solid, Liquid and Gases. In this chapter let
B
bl
us learn about the properties of solids.
be T
pu
Activity 8.1
K

Take a rubber band and stretch it. What happens? Now slowly
release the force applied on the rubber band. Now what do you observe?

In Nyayakandali elasticity is mentioned as :

`o KZm {Z{~S>m Ad`dg{doem V {d{e>ofw nmdgw& `ofw dV_mZ pW{VWmnH$
dml`_`Wm H$V_dZm{_V_ `WmdWmn`{V nyddOw H$amo{V& -`m`H$Xbr
Ye ghana nibidaaha avayavasanniveshaaha thaihi vishishteshu spaarvastu I
Dravyeshu varthamaanaha sthithisthapakaha swaashrayamanyatha
kathamavanaamitham yathaavath sthaapayathi purvavadrujuh karoti II
to

(Nyayakandali)
Sthithisthapakata (elasticity) is a property by the virtue of which bodies resist
t

deformation due to the force applied on them. This property helps bodies to
No

regain its original state.

Elasticity
When a rubber band is stretched, the atoms
of rubber band are displaced from their
equilibrium position and gain potential energy.
Once the applied force is removed, the energy that Fig. 8.1

110
 was stored in them is used to bring the atom and system back to
their original position. The property which we observe in above case
is elasticity. It is one of the important properties of matter.
Note: Elasticity is the property of a material in which it recovers its
original state or condition on removal of the external force to which
it is subjected.
When external forces are applied on a body generally a
deformation is produced. The deformation may be a change in its

d
size, in its shape or both. The deformation is due to the displacement
of individual atoms or molecule in the solid from their equilibrium

he
positions. Body which does not experience any deformation on the
application of external forces is called rigid body.

is
re S
The body which tends to resist deformation and recover completely
from such deformation after the removal of deforming forces are said
B
bl
to posses the property of elasticity. They are called elastic bodies.
be T

The body which does not resist deformation and cannot recover
pu
completely from such deformation after the removal of the applied
K

forces is called plastic body.

Acivity 8.2
Take a lump of wet clay and apply force. What do you observe?
What happens after you remove the force? You will see that the clay
wont recover its original shape and it is permanently deformed. Such
substances are called plastic and this property is called plasticity.
Elastic behaviour of solids
to

We know that in a solid, each atom or molecule is surrounded by

neighboring atoms or molecules. These are bonded together by
interatomic or intermolecular forces and stay in stable equilibrium
t

positions. When a solid is deformed, the atoms or molecules are

No

displaced from their equilibrium positions causing a change in the

interatomic (or intermolecular) distances. When the deforming force
is removed, the interatomic forces tend to drive them back to their
original postions. Thus the body regains its original shape and size.
Know this: All bodies are more or less elastic (In practice no body
is never perfectly rigid).

111
 F L
F

L+L L F
L F

F
F
(b) (c) (d)
(a)
Fig 8.2 Stress and strain

d
a) A cylindrical body under tensile stress elongates by L

he
b) Shearing stress on a cylinder distorting it by an angle
c) A body is subjected to shearing stress
d) A solid body under a stress normal to the surface at every

is
re S
point (hydraulic stress).
B
bl
When a force is applied on a body, it is deformed to a small or
large extent depending upon the nature of the material of the body
be T
pu
and the magnitude of the deforming force. The deformation may not
K

be noticeable visually in many materials but it will be there. When a

body is subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is developed

in the body. This restoring force is equal in magnitude but opposite

in direction to the applied force. The restoring force per unit area is
known as stress. If F is the force applied and A is the area of cross
section of the body, Magnitude of the stress = F/A. The SI unit of
stress is Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ML-1T-2].
The fractional change in the dimension of a body produced by the
external force acting on it is known as strain. It has no unit.
to

There are three ways in which a solid may change its dimensions
when external force acts on it. These are shown in figure8.2(a). A
t

cylinder is stretched by two equal forces applied normal to its cross

No

sectional area. The restoring force per unit area in this cases called
tensile stress. The change in the length L to the original length L of
the body(cylinder in this case) is known as longitudinal strain.
Longitudinal strain = L/L
However, if two equal and opposite deforming forces are applied
parallel to the cross sectional area of the cylinder, as shown in fig8.2(b),

112
 there is relative displacement between the opposite faces of the
cylinder. The restoring force per unit area developed due to the
applied tangential force is known as tangential or shearing stress.
The strain produced is called shearing strain. If the cylinder is
compressed under action of applied forces, the restoring force per
unit is known as compressive stress (Bulk stress).

Stress and strain take different forms in the situations depicted

d
in the fig 8.2 (c) For small deformation the stress and strain are

he
proportional to each other this is known as Hookes law.

Thus,

is
Stress strain
re S
Stress= E strain
B
bl
Where E is the proportionality constant and is known as modulus
be T
pu
of elasticity or elastic constant.
K

Hookes law is an empirical law and is found to be valid for most

materials. However, there are some materials which do not exhibit

this linear relationship.

Know this: The hair spring of watch can be coiled and uncoiled
many number of times without losing its elasticity, yet the same
spring can have its shape permanently altered by forces greater
than those to which it is subjected in the motion of watch.
to

Elastic co-efficient or modulii of elasticity:

t

Modulus of elasticity or co-efficient of elasticity or Elastic

No

constant is defined as the ratio of stress to strain.

Stress
E=
Strain
Think ! The SI unit of elastic constant is Nm-2 .It is same as that of
stress. Why?

113
 Applications of elastic behaviour of materials:

While designing a building, knowledge of elastic properties of

materials like steel, concrete is essential.

A bridge has to be designed such that it can withstand the

load of flowing traffic, the force of winds and its own weight.
The knowledge of the elasticity of the materials used helps to
overcome the problem of bending of the beam under a load.

d
he
Elastic behaviour of the material is helpful in designing the
shapes of the pillars and columns in the buildings.

is
The thickness of ropes used in cranes should be decided so
re S
that the load does not deform the rope permanently.
B
bl
After knowing about the elasticity, let us study another property
be T
pu
of matter.
K

Recall Rutherfords experiment of alpha particle. He used very thin

gold foil.

Malleability
You have seen steel sheets,
copper sheets, aluminium sheets
etc.
to

Do you know? Metals can be

hammered in to thin sheets.
t

Activity 8.3
No

Fig 8.3 metal sheet

Visit a blacksmith and observe
how metals are moulded.

Know this: Malleability of materials is the ability to deform under

compressive stress. The property of metals by which it can be beaten
into thin sheets is called malleability. (Mallet = Hammer)

114
 Asha saw a pearl mala which was made out of gold. She was
wondering how the gold can be made to go through the pearls.

Ductility
Ductility is a solid materials ability to deform
in to wire under tensile stress. Ductility and
malleability are not always co extensive. For
instance Gold is both ductile and malleable.

d
Fig. 8.4 Metal drawn

he
into a wire

You know that Gold and Silver can be passed through small hole
of beads.

is
re S
Do you know? Metals can be drawn into a wires. This propery is
B
bl
called ductility. Gold is the most ductile metal. A wire of about 2 km
length can be drawn from one gm of gold.
be T
pu
K

Acitivity 8.4
Discuss with your teacher why gold is preferred for making

jewellery and why pure gold is not used.

Exercises
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following. Choose
the right answer.
1. The most malleable metal is
to

a. Copper b. Silver c. Gold d. Iron

2. The unit of stress is
t

a. kg m-2 b. N kg-1 c. Nm-2 d. N

No

II. Give scientific reasons.

1. The elastic properties of steel are essential while designing a
building.
2. A rubber tube is longer when suspended vertically than when
placed horizontally on a table.

115
 III. Answer the following.
1. When is a body said to be perfectly elastic?
2. State Hooks law.
3. Define coefficient of elasticity.
4. Distinguish between elastic and plastic materials.
5. What are stress and strain?

d
6. What is the meaning of ductility?

he
7. Define the term malleability.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

I do not want my house to be walled in on all sides and my

windows to be stuffed. I want the cultures of all the lands to be
blown about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be
blown off my feet by any.
Mahatma Gandhi
t to
No

116
 Chapter 9
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
After studying this chapter you,
define excretion.
learn how waste products are generated in our body.
learn the harm caused by such waste products.

d
appreciate the necessity for excretion.

he
learn that though the process of excretion is the same, the methods
employed are different in different animals.
identify the different types of wastes excreted by animals.

is
re S
learn the various parts of human excretory system and the role of
B
bl
each part.
explain the various steps involved in urine formation.
be T
pu
learn some common kidney ailments.
K

realise the importance of the skin as an organ of excretion.

understand the causes for some common disorders of the human

excretory system.
Can you imagine what would happen
if the garbage trucks in your city stop
running and do not dispose garbage for
a day? Garbage would start piling up fast.
Pigs, dogs, crows, etc. arrive at the scene
to

and dig through the garbage. The garbage

spills over to the roads. The area starts
Fig. 9.1
stinking, the streets become dirty and it
t

becomes a source for various infectious diseases. Disposal of wastes

No

is a very important task of every city.

A living cell is like a big factory. Various chemical reactions are
taking place regularly. Lots of wastes are generated in our body every
minute as a result of these chemical reactions. Animal cells are unable
to store proteins in them and the body does not have any special
organ for keeping proteins. Hence, by a process called deamination,
117
 amino groups are removed from excess proteins. This process generally
occurs in the liver. During this process waste materials are generated
mainly in the form of ammonia, urea, uric acid, etc. Such wastes
should be periodically removed. If they remain in the cell they damage
the health of the cell itself. Elimination of such poisonous nitrogenous
wastes from the tissues is known as excretion.

Functions of the liver: The liver synthesises urea. Learn from

your teacher what other important functions the liver performs to

d
maintain your health.
Remember the slogan: LONG LIVERS HAVE HEALTHY LIVERS!

he
Let us find out how Amoeba eliminates the nitrogenous wastes
from its body. Amoeba is a unicellular protozoan. It lives in fresh

is
re S
water. As a result of biochemical reactions in its body, waste materials
are generated in the form of ammonia. Ammonia is a toxic gas. It
B
bl
should be immediately eliminated before it causes any damage to
be T

the body. Fortunately it is readily soluble in water. Amoeba does not

pu
possess any special structure to eliminate its wastes. Ammonia is got
K

rid of by a simple process of diffusion. Since ammonia is at a higher

concentration inside the body of amoeba than in the surrounding

medium, it diffuses out of its body. Generally aquatic animals like

amoeba excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form of ammonia.
Let us now move on to a more complex
animal like the cockroach. It is a
multicellular animal, many times bigger
than amoeba. Cockroach belongs to the
group Insects. They generally live in places
to

where water is not easily available. Hence

nitrogenous wastes here are generated on
a larger scale.
t
No

If ammonia is generated as waste in

cockroach, how can it dissolve it in water?
Water is not easily available for this animal.
Hence the wastes are eliminated in the form
of uric acid which is non-poisonous and
insoluble in water.
Fig. 9.2

118
 Cockroach has developed special organs to dispose the wastes.
These organs are called Malpighian tubules. They are very fine hair-
like structures, arising from the hind gut of the alimentary canal.
Each tubule is long, flexible, yellowish and has a blunt end. These
tubules float in the colourless blood present in the body cavity.
Nitrogenous wastes from the blood diffuse into the Malpighian tubules
and are transferred to the digestive system. These wastes are
precipitated as solid paste-like uric acid. It is eliminated along with
the undigested food.

d
Do You Know ?

he
The tadpole of frog excretes nitrogenous wastes as ammonia.
The adult frog excretes nitrogenous wastes as urea. What is the
logic behind this? Ask your teacher.

is
re S
Let us learn how excretion takes place in our own body. We
B
bl
have a well-developed excretory system. It consists of a pair of kidneys.
They are situated in the abdominal cavity, on either side of the
be T

backbone. Each kidney is bean-shaped, about 10 cm long, dark

pu
reddish brown in colour. When the kidney is cut longitudinally we
K

can see two regions the outer cortex and an inner medulla.

The kidneys act as filters when the blood passes through them.
They pull harmful molecules out of the bloodstream and leave the
harmless ones. The harmful molecules dissolve in water and are
converted to urine. The urine is transferred to a muscular urinary
bladder by a pair of ducts called ureters. It is temporarily stored in
the bladder before it is expelled from the body through a tube called
urethra. Inside the kidneys, tiny working units called nephrons are
to

present.
t
No

Fig. 9.3

119
 A typical nephron consists of a two-layered cup-like structure
called Bowmans capsule. Inside the capsule there is a network of
blood vessels called Glomerulus. The Bowmans capsule continues
into the renal tubule. This tubule is divisible into three parts; the
first part which is continuous with the Bowmans capsule is known
as Proximal Convoluted Tubule. The third part is known as Distal
Convoluted Tubule. These two parts are connected by a U-shaped
middle part called Henles loop. The distal convoluted tubule opens
into the collecting tubule.

d
he
Urine is formed in three steps:
i. Glomerular filtration
ii. Selective reabsorption

is
re S
iii. Tubular secretion.
B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 9.4 (a) Fig. 9.4 (b)

In humans the nitrogenous wastes are mainly in the form of

to

urea. Urea is synthesised in the liver. The blood collects nitrogenous

wastes and other unwanted substances from tissues and circulates
through the glomerulus. These wastes are filtered from the
t

glomerulus into the proximal convoluted tubule. This process is

No

known as glomerular filtration. Every substance present in the blood,

both essential and non-essential, is filtered. Hence this process is
said to be non-selective.
Activity 9.1 :
List some essential and some non-essential substances that are
filtered from the blood into the proximal convoluted tubule.
120
 Think ! If substances from the blood have to be filtered into the
proximal convoluted tubule, the blood should circulate under high
pressure. How is this pressure created in the glomerulus?
The filtrate starts moving through the proximal tubule. During
its movement, essential substances from the filtrate are reabsorbed
into the blood. This process is known as selective reabsorption. The
filtrate now contains mostly water and urea. It passes through the
Henles loop and enters the distal convoluted tubule.

d
he
Think! How do you know that essential substances are reabsorbed
in the proximal convoluted tubule?

is
When the filtrate is circulating in the distal convoluted tubule
re S
some important salts are actively added to it. This process is known
B
bl
as tubular secretion. The filtrate with urea and other waste materials
passes through the collecting tubule and, through the ureter, is
be T
pu
temporarily stored in the urinary bladder. It is now called urine. Our
K

bladder can hold about 450 ml of urine. A normal healthy adult

excretes around 1000-1500 ml of urine per day.
t
to
No

Fig. 9.5
In addition to excretion, the kidney also maintains a constant
water balance in the plasma of the blood. It also regulates the salt
and sugar content in the plasma. If there is excess water in the
blood the kidney excretes more water and the urine becomes dilute.
If there is less water in the blood, water from the urine is reabsorbed,
making the urine more concentrated.
121
 Think ! Why your doctor advises you to drink plenty of water?
So far you have learnt how the kidneys play a very active role in
elimination of nitrogenous wastes from our body. There is another
organ which plays a less important role in excretion. This is the skin.
Let us learn how the skin assists the kidneys in this process.
The skin is the largest and heaviest
organ in the body, covering an area of

d
about 1.5 to 2 square meters. It eliminates

he
metabolic wastes through perspiration.
Your body works best when its
temperature is about 98.6 F. When it gets

is
hotter, special glands in your skin called
re S
sweat glands start secreting sweat. It is
B
bl
made of water, with tiny amounts of other
chemicals like ammonia, urea and salts.
be T
pu
The sweat escapes through tiny pores and
evaporates.
K

Fig. 9.6
There are about 2.5 million sweat

glands in the dermis layer of the skin. Each gland is a coiled tube
with a straight portion stretching out of the skin through an opening
called sweat pore in the epidermis. In addition to elimination of
nitrogenous wastes, the skin also cools the body by evaporation and
maintains body temperature.
Your skin needs special care and treatment. Here are a few tips
to

for skin maintenance:

1. Protection from sun: Do not expose your skin for prolonged
periods to Sun. This may lead to wrinkles and similar skin
t
No

defects. Avoid exposure to Sun between 10 AM to 4PM, when

the Suns rays are very severe. Cover your skin with long sleeved
cotton robes.
2. Avoid smoking: Smoking narrows the blood vessels in the skin,
reducing blood circulation. The skin cells are starved of oxygen
and nutrients; the skin loses its strength and elasticity, develops
wrinkles and looks older.
122
 3. Be gentle to your skin: Hot water can remove the oils from your
skin; reduce your bath time. The soap you use is very important.
Use a mild soap which does not wipe the oil on your skin.After
wash or bath, gently blot the skin with a towel and do not rub
against the skin. Leave a thin film of moisture on your skin.

4. Eat a nutritive diet: A healthy diet keeps your skin healthy

and glowing. Consume plenty of fruits, vegetables and whole

d
grains. Intake of vitamin C keeps your skin healthy.

he
Know This : Kidney transplantation places a healthy functional
kidney in place of the diseased kidneys. It takes over the function

is
re S
of the two non-functional kidneys.
B
bl
Now let us study some common disorders of the excretory
system.
be T
pu
K

One of the most common diseases is inflammation of the kidneys,

commonly known as nephritis. There is inflammation of the

glomerulus of the nephron. Other symptoms include reduced urine

output, cloudy urine, blood in urine and lower abdominal pain.

Generally nephritis gets cured in about 60% of the adults and

about 90% of the children without medication. It just comes and goes
without harm to the person.
to

Another common disorder of the kidneys is the formation of

kidney stones. They are small deposits of calcium compounds in the
t

nephrons. These stones may become large and block the passage of
No

urine flow. Sometimes, they may descend to the urinary tract,

producing shooting pain.

The kidneys are sometimes unable to filter waste products from

the blood and excrete them. This may be caused by infection or
inflammation of the kidney, obstruction in the urinary tract,

123
 hypertension and diabetes, and exposure to poisonous chemicals.
Patients with kidney failure undergo a treatment called dialysis. In
this treatment a machine called artificial kidney is employed. If one
kidney is affected, it can be surgically removed. The patient can lead
a normal life with only one functional kidney. If, however, both kidneys
are removed, a kidney has to be transplanted from a healthy person.
Kidneys for transplantation are available from living relatives, well-
wishers and friends, or from a dead person.

d
he
Know This : The kidneys of a dead person are removed and
preserved in a special ice-cold solution. They should be transplanted
within 36 hours or else their quality deteriorates.

is
re S
Activity 9.2
B
bl
Try to visit a big hospital near your house and, with the help of
be T

the doctor there, learn how dialysis is performed.

pu
K

Sometimes the blood builds up excessive amounts of uric acid

which the kidney is unable to process properly. It is insoluble in

water and it settles in the body particularly at toe joints, resulting in

joint pain and kidney stones. This condition is known as Gout.
Sometimes infections may spread upwards from the urethra or
the urinary bladder. This results in the infection of the ureters. They
may be inflamed or kidney stones may descend from the kidneys and
to

get stuck in the ureters, leading to obstruction of the flow of urine.

The bladder could become a breeding ground for bacteria.
Such infections lead to difficulty in urinating or painful urination,
t
No

blood in urine, cloudy urine, sharp pain and soreness in the lower
abdomen, etc.
The urethra may be infected as the urine is generally excreted
through this tube. If a drop of urine remains at the open end of the
urethra, there are chances of infection. The tube develops burning
sensation.

124
 Some common disorders of the excretory system
Affected organ Disorder
1. Kidneys Nephritis, kidney stones, kidney failure
2. Ureters Kidney stones, inflammation
3. Bladder Infections, painful urination, pain in
abdomen

d
4. Urethra infection

he
EXERCISES

is
re S
I. Four alternatives are given for each question. Select the
most appropriate answer from them
B
bl
1. Excretion means:
be T
pu
a. Taking in oxygen from the air and giving out carbon
K

dioxide.
b. Removal of nitrogenous wastes generated in the body.

c. Distribution of digested food to the body tissues through

the blood.
d. Disposal of harmful germs and worms from our body.

2. The excretory organs of cockroach are called:

a. Malpighian tubules b. Kidneys
to

c. Flame cells d. Nephridia.

3. The structural and functional units of excretion in

t

humans are:
No

a. Malphigian tubules b. Nephridia

c. Liver d. Nephrons

II. Fill up the blanks

1. The excretory products of human beings are in the form of

125
 2. A nitrogenous waste product which is non-toxic and
insoluble in water.
3. Excretion in amoeba occurs by
4. Patients whose kidneys have become non-functional undergo
treatment.
III. Match the following

d
Organ Elimination

he
1. Skin a. Urine
2. Lungs b. Sweat

is
3. Kidneys c. Undigested food
re S
4. Intestine d. carbon dioxide
B
bl
IV. Answer the following
be T
pu
1. What is meant by gout?
K

2. Name the organ where urine is temporarily stored in humans.

3. Mention the three steps of urine formation in human beings.

4. Name the duct which transports urine from the kidney to
urinary bladder.
5. Why does cockroach excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form
of uric acid?
to

6. Draw a labelled diagram of human excretory system.

t
No

Climbing to the top demands strength, whether it is to the top of

Mount Everest or to the top of your career.
Abdul Kalam

126
 CHAPTER 10
LENS
After studying this chapter you
identify the types of lenses.
draw the ray diagram for the formation of image by a lens.
recognize the position, nature and size of the image formed by a lens.
identify the uses of lenses in day-to-day life.

d
It is common practice that a magnifying glass is used to read very

he
small letters on a page. Spectacles are used by some people to correct
their visual disorders. Cameras for surveillance are used in the malls

is
for security purposes.
re S
All these devices have one thing in common, that is a transparent
B
bl
material called lens. Lens is a piece of transparent material bound
be T

by two surfaces of which at least one is curved.

pu
K

In this chapter, called Geometrical optics, you learn about the

types of lenses, their actions and their applications.

The path along which the light travels in

a given direction is called a ray of light. It is
geometrically represented by a straight line
Parallel beam of light
with an arrow mark. A collection of large
number of rays of light is called a beam of
to

light. A bundle of light rays parallel to one

another is called parallel beam of light rays.
Convergent beam of light
Light rays not parallel to one another and
t

meet at a point is called convergent beam of

No

light. A beam of light rays which appear to

come from a point and do not meet at all Divergent beam of light
when is called a divergent beam of light rays Fig. 10.1
as shown in fig 10.1.

127
 A lens is a refracting medium. It is used to converge or diverge
the light rays.
The lens that converges the light rays is called a convex lens or a
converging lens. It is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges.
A lens which diverges the light rays is called a concave lens or
diverging lens. It is thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges.

d
is he
re S
Double convex lens Plano-convex lens Concavo-convex
lens
B
bl
or Convex lens
be T
pu
K

Double concave lens Plano-concave lens Convexo-concave

or Concave lens lens

Fig. 10.2

Know This: An important part of an eye is the lens. Each eye has
to

two lenses: the clear curved front of the eyes called the Cornea is
one and the flexible lens in the eye ball behind the iris is the other.
t

Activity10.1
No

Place a comb between the torch light a the convex lens. Adjust the
lens and observe. The light rays converge to a point. In the case of a
concave lens, the light appears to come from a point.

Think ! Why were you told to keep a comb between the torch
and the lens?

128
 Let us know some terms X Y
associated with lenses:- fig (a)

The surface area of a lens

through which refraction takes place X Y

is called its aperture. The middle fig (b)

point of a lens is called its optic
centre. Generally it is denoted by

d
X Y
the letter O. The line passing

he
through the optic centre of the lens fig (c)
and perpendicular to the aperture

is
is called its principal axis. In the
re S
figures line XOY is the principal axis X Y
B
bl
of the lens fig 10.3 (a, b, c and d).
fig (d)
be T
pu
Fig. 10.3
K

Activity10.2
Hold a convex lens in your hand.

Direct it towards the sun.The lens

converges the light from the sun on the
sheet of paper to obtain a sharp bright
image of the sun.Hold the paper and
the lens in the same position for a
while. Keep observing the paper.
to

What do you observe?

Fig. 10.4
t
No

Caution: Do not look at the sun directly or through a lens.

The paper at first begins to turn brown due to heat and later
burns producing smoke. Eventually it may catch fire. Why does it
burn? The light from the sun is converged at a point, as a sharp,

129
 bright spot by the lens. In fact, this spot of light is the image of the
sun on the sheet of paper. This point is the focus of convex lens. This
is represented in the fig 10.4.
We observe a beam of rays of light parallel to the principal axis is
falling on a convex lens fig 10.3(c). These rays after refraction from the
lens are converging to a point on the principal axis. This point on the
principal axis is called principal focus of the lens. It is represented by F.
Concave lens diverges the light rays as shown in fig 10.3(d).

d
When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis is incident on

he
a concave lens, these rays after refraction from the lens appear to
diverge from a point on the principal axis. This point on the principal
axis is called the principal focus of the concave lens, denoted by F

is
re S
[Fig 10.3 (d)]
B
bl
The distance between the principal focus and the optic centre of
the lens is called its focal length. The letter f is used to represent
be T
pu
the focal length
K

Activity 10.3

Take a metre scale and a

convex lens (reading lens) along with
a stand. Fix the scale horizontally
against a white or light coloured
wall in an open space as shown in
the fig 10.5. Focus a distant
illuminated object such as a tree or
to

a pole on the wall using the lens.

Move the lens to and fro, till a clear
image is obtained on the wall. The
t

Fig. 10.5
wall on which the image is formed
No

is called the focal plane and the

point on the wall along the principal axis represents the
principal focus.

Now read the distance of the lens from the wall on the metre
scale. This is the approximate focal length of the lens.

130
 Let us understand the formation of Principal rays in
images by lenses using ray diagrams: constructing ray diagrams.

How do lenses form images? What

is their nature? Lenses form images by
refracting light.
We can represent the image
formation of a lenses using ray

d
diagrams. Ray diagrams will also help
us to study the nature, position and

he
relative size of the image formed by
lenses.

is
The image formed by the actual
re S
intersection of refracted rays through the
B
bl
lens is called the real image. The real
images can be caught on a screen and
be T
pu
they are inverted. The images that appear
K

without actual intersection of the refracted

rays but can be seen by the eye are called

virtual images. The virtual images cannot

Fig. 10.6
be caught on a screen and they are erect.

Let us draw the ray diagrams to determine the position and the
characteristics of the image formed by a convex lens.

1. Draw a line XY across the paper to represent the principal axis

to

X Y
t

2. Choose a point on the principal axis as the optical centre.

No

Draw a lens and its principal section by a vertical line passing

through O.
X Y

131
 3. Mark F and 2F at equal distances from O, on either side of the
lens on the principal axis XY.

X Y

4. Draw a line AB perpendicular to XY to present an object in any

d
position say between F & 2F on one side the lens.

he
X Y

is
re S B
bl
5. Draw a ray of light from the top point A of the object, straight
be T

through the optical centre O of the lens, because the ray travels
pu
undeviated through the optic centre.
K

X Y

6. Draw a second ray from the same top point A of the object, parallel
to the principal axis up to the lens. This ray will bend at the
to

principal section of the lens (refract) and will pass through the
focus F.
t
No

X Y

132
 Sometimes the second ray is drawn from the top point A of the
object to pass through the first focus F and then up to the lens.
After refraction, this ray becomes parallel to the principal axis XY.

d
7. The image of the point A of the object is at the point A' where the

he
two refracted rays meet. By drawing a perpendicular from A' on
the line XY, A'B' represents the image of the object AB.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

The same procedure is adopted to draw the ray diagram for a

concave lens. In a concave lens, the ray of light incident parallel to
principal axis will appear to diverge from F.The ray through O travels
undeviated as shown in fig. These two rays appear to intersect at A'.
Draw A'B' perpendicular to XY. This represents virtual image.
t to
No

( Think ! Why is it virtual ? )

133
 Parallel rays from a distant object

d
Consider an object at sufficiently large distance from the lens

he
which is several times the focal length of the lens. We say that the
object is at infinity. Suppose the object consists of an arrow AB pointing
upwards. AB is not shown in fig, because its distance from the lens is

is
too large. Rays starting from the top point A of the object diverge, but
re S
on travelling such a large distance, are assumed to become parallel
B
bl
while falling on the lens. In the figure we have shown two parallel rays
from the top point A of the object, which are inclined to the principal
be T

axis of the lens.

pu
The two refracted rays actually meet at A'. Draw A'B' perpendicular
K

to the principal axis of the lens. This is real and inverted image of the
distant object AB.

Activity 10.4
Draw the ray diagrams for the image formation in a convex lens
and a concave lens for various positions of an object. Compare your
results with those given in the table on the next page.

Activity 10.5
to

Take a convex lens of known focal length. Place the lens on a long
table. Draw a straight line using a chalk on the long table. Mark the
points on the line such that the distance between the successive points is
t

equal to the focal length of the lens. Mark the points of the line with
No

appropriate letters such as F, 2F on either side of the lens. Place a

burning candle as an object far beyond 2F to the left and obtain a
clear sharp image on a screen on the opposite side of the lens. Note
down the nature, position and relative size of the image. Repeat this
activity by placing the object at 2F, between F and 2F, F and between F
and optic centre. Note down and tabulate your observations. Compare
your observations with those given in the table on the next page.
134
 nature and
position of position of practical
Ray diagram the object the image
size of the
applications
image

real,
inverted and
at highly Telescope
infinity at F diminished objective

d
he
real,
between F diminished
beyond 2F and 2F inverted camera

is
re S
real, same Telescope
size of the objective
B
bl at 2F at 2F
object
inverted
erecting
lens
be T
pu
K

projector,
real, objective
between F beyond enlarged, of a

and 2F 2F inverted microscope

real,
infinitely
at large,
at F infinity inverted spotlights
....
....
....
....
....
to

....
....
....
....
on the
....
....
.... same side virtual,
....
....
.... between F of the enlarged, magnifying
and O object erect lens
t
No

virtual,
at erect, highly
infinity at F diminished.

between between F virtual erect

infinity and O dininished
dotted and O

135
 Note : 1. Virtual image is always erect and real image is always
inverted.
2. In the case of convex lens, as the object moves towards the lens,
the real image moves away from the lens.

The new Cartesian sign conventions for lenses

According to the convention:
All distances in lenses are measured from the optical centre

d
of the lens, along the principal axis.

he
The distances measured in the direction of incident light are
taken as positive.

is
The distances measured in a direction opposite to the direction
re S
of incident light are taken as negative.
B
bl
The heights measured upwards (i.e., above the x-axis) are
be T

taken as positive.
pu
The heights measured downwards (i.e., below the x-axis) are
K

taken as negative.

The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a

concave lens is negative.

+
to

Consider a thin convex lens of focal length f and the optic

centre O. An object AB is placed perpendicular to the principal axis
t

of the lens. The distance of the object from optic centre is called the
No

object distance (U). The distance of the image from the optic centre
is called the image distance (v). There is a relationship between the
object distance, the image distance and the focal length of the lens
called lens formula. This is expressed as
1 1 -1
=
f v u

136
 Problems : (1) Calculate the focal length of a convex lens which
produces a real image at a distance of 30 cm. of an object placed 20
cm from the lens.
Here : A real image is formed
Image distance :v = 30 cm
Object distance : u = -20cm
Substitute the values of u and v in lens formula

d
is he
=
re S B
f = 12 cm
bl
Therefore the focal length of the lens is 12 cm
be T
pu
K

2. Concave lens has focal length of 15cm. At what distance should

an object from the lens be placed so that the image is at 10cm

from the lens?

Here : focal length of concave lens, f = -15cm
Image distance , v = -10cm
Object distance , u = ?
Substitute the values of f and v in lens formula
t to
No

Therefore u = -30 cm
Therefore object should be placed at a distance of 30 cm on the
same side as the image.

137
 Visualising the relationship between the object distances and
image distances, object size and image size in the respective
positions are as shown in the diagram.

d
he
EXERCISE
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following

is
re S
incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer
B
bl
1. A transparent material which is thicker in the middle and
thinner at the edges is called.
be T
pu
a) concave lens b) convex lens
K

c) plano- concave lens d) convexo-concave lens

2. Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens to

get a real image of the size of the object ?
a) at infinity
b) at the principal focus
c) at twice the focal length
d) between the optic centre of the lens and its principal focus
to

3. The image of an on object formed by a concave lens is

a) virtual, inverted and diminished
b virtual, upright and diminished
t
No

c)) virtual, inverted and enlarged

d] virtual, upright and enlarged
4. An object is placed at a distance of 5cm from a convex lens of
focal length 10 cm. The image formed is
a) real and inverted b) real and enlarged
c) virtual and diminished d) virtual and enlarged

138
 II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words
1. A ray of light passes undeviated after refraction from a thin
lens when it is incident at_____________.
2. Virtual, enlarged and erect image is formed on the same side
of an object in the convex lens. Then the position of the object
is_____________.
3. The distance between principal focus and the optic centre of

d
a lens is called its____________

he
III. Match the following
A B

is
re S
1. the centre point of a lens a) virtual image
2. diverging lens b) focal length
B
3. bl
the distance between principal c) principal axis
be T

focus and the optic centre of a lens

pu
4. the images caught on the screen d) convex lens
K

e) concave lens

f) real image
g) optic centre
IV. Answer the following questions in a word or a sentence
1. What is a lens?
2. Define principal axis of a lens.
to

3. Define focal length of a lens.

4. What is a real image?
t

5. How should two converging lenses be placed so that a parallel

No

beam becomes parallel after passing through two lenses?

V. Answer the following
1. Write the differences between convex and concave lens.
2. Explain with the help of a ray diagram, why the convex lens
is called a converging lens.

139
 3. Define the principal focus of a convex lens and that of a
concave lens

4. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex lens

of focal length 20 cm. Find the position and nature of the
image. (Ans: v = -20 cm, virtual, erect)

5. An object is placed at distance of 64 cm from a white screen.

By placing a convex lens at a distance of 32 cm from the

d
object, it is found that a distinct image of the object is formed
on the screen. Calculate the focal length of the lens?

he
(Ans: 16cm)

6. A concave lens of 20 cm focal length forms an image 15cm

is
re S
from the lens. Calculate the object distance. (Ans: -60 cm)
B
bl
7. A convex lens of focal length 3cm forms a real image at 24 cm
from its optic centre. Calculate the distance of the object from
be T
pu
the lens. (Ans : -3.42 cm)
K

8. Complete the following ray diagram

9. Draw a ray diagram to show how a converging lens is able to

form the image of the sun.
to

10. An object is placed beyond twice the focal length of a convex

lens. Find the position nature and size of the image with the
help of a ray diagram.
t
No

11. Draw a diagram to represent the nature, position and relative

size of the image formed by a i) convex lens for the object
placed at 2F ii)concave lens for the object placed between F
and 2F.

140
 Chapter 11

SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
After studying this chapter you
identify the synthetic materials.
give reason for the manufacturing of synthetic materials.
list out the advantages and disadvantages of using plastics.

d
differentiate between biodegradable and non- biodegradable

he
material.
describe the steps of manufacturing of cement.
list out the uses of sodium carbonate, sodium bi carbonate and

is
re S
plaster of paris.
list out the properties of sodium carbonate and sodium bi
B
bl
carbonate and plaster of paris.
be T
pu
We observe many structural materials around us in our daily life.
K

We come across wood, chalk piece, plastics, glass, cotton, nylon.

Classify them as per the table given below.

Natural Materials Manmade material (Artificial)

cotton Nylon
t to
No

Based on the classification you came to know that, all the

structural materials around us are classified broadly into natural and
artificial materials. Artificial materials are also called as synthetic
materials. There is a need of alternatives to natural structural materials
due to increasing population and limited availability of natural
structural materials. Synthetic materials are manmade and these
materials have become a part and parcel of our daily life to give us
141
 comfort. Earlier we used to have glass bottles and metallic containers
for carrying water. Now a days, we use disposable plastic bottles for
carrying water. You might have seen the apparatus in your schools
Science lab. Most of the apparatus like test tubes; conical flasks and
so on are made of glass. Can we have test tubes made of plastics?
Think it over: Test tubes are made up of special type of glass
called Borosilicate glass. Why should it be so?
Observe the figure11.1, these are the

d
materials which are used in our daily

he
life. Observe their shapes. What is your
inference? Are they all having same
shape? To prepare such different shaped

is
objects a convenient material should be
re S
used. One of such convenient materials
B
bl is plastic. Plastic can be moulded into
any desired shape. Plastic is one of the
be T

man made materials. The appropriate

pu
name is, ofcourse, polymer.
K

Here is an activity which you can

perform only under the supervision of

elders.

Fig. 11.1 Activity 11.1

Various articles made of Heat a broken handle piece of
plastics cooker on the gas flame lamp for few
minutes. What is your observation?
Similarly hold a discarded toothbrush (end which do not have bristles)
to

near the flame. What is your observation?

From the above activity you might have observed that the
toothbrush melts when held to fire. It is not the same in the case of
t

combustible? handle. Both the materials are plastic materials. Some

No

plastic melt on heating, whereas the few others do not. After above
ten minutes, when the toothbrush is cooled, touch the melted portion.
What do you infer? Has it become hard once again? Such a plastic is
called thermoplastic.
Activity 11.2
List a few more articles which are made of thermoplastics.

142
 Here is a plumber who wants to join two pipes of same diameter.
Raju a student of Standard 9th. has decided to help the plumber in
achieving this task. Raju finds that the pipes are made of plastic. He
tests a small piece of pipe to detect whether it is a thermoplastic. He
infers that the pipes are made of thermoplastic. He learns from the
plumber that the pipes are PVC (poly vinyl chloride) pipes. You might
have understood by now that PVC is thermoplastic.
Raju insists the plumber to heat one end of the pipe and inserts
the other end of the pipe immediately. After a few minutes the softened

d
part of pipe hardens, thus enabling the joining of both the pipes.

he
Raju arrives at home and tries to fix the broken handle of the
cooker. He adopts the procedure of joining the two PVC pipes. He is
not successful in this task. He later realises that the cooker handle

is
re S
does not soften or melt on heating. He learns from his teacher that
the cooker handle is made up of a plastic called Bakelite, A Thermo
B
bl
setting plastic. He also differentiates between the two types of plastics
taking the help of his teacher. He lists them as given below.
be T
pu
Thermo Plastics Thermo setting Plastics
K

1. Can be melted 1. Cannot be melted so easily

2. Can be moulded to any desired 2. Can be moulded to any desired

shape any number of times. shape only once.
3. It can be remelted, desired 3. After moulding if for the first
colour can be applied and it time, remelting, changing colour
can be moulded to desired shape remoulding to the desired shape is
imposible
to

4. It can be recycled 4. It cannot be recycled

5. Ex: polythene, polystyrene, 5. Ex:melamine, Bakelite, silicones
PVC Polypropylene etc. Epoxy resin etc.
t
No

Know this: Plastic is a polymer. A polymer is a giant molecule of

high molecular weight obtained by the chemical combination of
repeating units of large number of simple molecules (monomers).
Thermo plastics are used for manufacturing toys, combs and
various types of containers; Bakelite is used for electrical switches,
handles of various utensils. Melamine is used for making floor tiles,
kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire.
143
 Know this: Thermo setting plastics normally made in blocks and
the desired shape is given by cutting, carving and polishing as we
do in the case of wooden articles.
Not only the cooker handle or the toothbrush but many of the
materials used in our everyday life are made of plastics. Can we
imagine the world without plastics? Here is an environmentalist who
opposes the over use of plastics. Is he right? Why? To answer this

d
question let us perform an activity.

he
Activity11.3
Take a sheet of newspaper and a sheet of plastic. Burry them
under the earth at about 10cm depth and let both the sheets be almost

is
re S
equal in size and thickness. Sprinkle water. After three months remove
the layer of soil, where the sheets were buried. What do you observe?
B
bl
What inference can be drawn?
be T
pu
Paper is a natural material, it contains mainly cellulose. It is
K

decomposed by soil bacteria because it acts as a food for them but

plastics are not decomposed by bacteria. The substance which

undergoes decomposition by the microbial action is called a

biodegradable substance. So substance that does not decompose by
the microbial action is called a non-biodegradable substance.
Know this: Non-biodegradable substances cause soil pollution.
Classify the following substances into biodegradable and non
biodegradable substances.
to

Plastic, cellulose, C.D.s, starch, Polyester, nylon

t

Biodegradable Non biodegradable

No

144
 Know This : Natural polymers are biodegradable but many
synthetic polymers are non biodegradable.

Think : Teflon a type of plastic used as a coating material in non-

stick cookware. Instead of Teflon can any thermoplastic material
be used?

d
is he
re S B
bl Non stick cookwares
be T

We use different plastics in different situation. They play a

pu
vital role in our daily life as:
K

Plastics can be moulded to any desired shape and size when

they are hot.

They are inexpensive, light and are available in different

colours.
They are cheaper than metals.
They are strong, durable and non-corrosive.
They are insulators i.e. bad conductors of heat and electricity.
They are sensitive towards heat, their melting point is very low.
to

Their tensile property and other properties can be tailored.

They are corrosion resistant.
t

Plastics are definitely our friends but they are also regarded as
No

our necessary evil because:

Burning of plastic produce / releases poisonous gases into
the atmosphere which in turn causes air pollution.
Use of plastic bags and cans for packing food items is
dangerous to health.
Collection of unwanted plastic materials increases the growth
of pathogens.

145
 Plastic reduces the percolation of water into the soil and
prevents replenishment of ground water.
Plastic takes several years to decompose as it is not
environment friendly. It causes environment pollution.
Usually stray animals eat the food waste thrown along with
the plastic bags. This may be fatal in the long run.

Note : India is ranked second among the nations that use polymers
extensively.

d
he
Activity 11.4
Make a list of states in India which have banned the use of
plastics.

is
re S
Visit a marriage hall. List out the plastic items used there.
B
bl
As there are many disadvantages, we need to take precautions in
disposing plastics. A few are listed below:
be T
pu
Plastic pollution has become a global issue now a days and
K

many NGOs, environmentalists are trying to bring out the

awareness among people about the same.

Avoid throwing of plastic articles here and there after use.

Do not burn the plastic material.
Make use of cloth bags or jute bags while shopping.
Say No to plastics to protect our environment.
Keep plastic bags dry and clean for reusing.
to

Use of biodegradable plastic is appreciable instead of non

biodegradable plastic.
Environment pollution by plastics can be minimized by
t

following and practising the 4R principle of REDUCE, REUSE,

No

RECYCLE and RECOVER.

Cement
Every organism needs a place for living. It is called habitat.
These habitats are prone to environmental pressures. Civilized
man feels that he needs a stronger habitat to make his life safe and

146
 d
Fig. 11.2 Animals in their respective habitat.
comfortable. There is gradual improvement in the design and use of

he
materials in the preparation of the same.
Activity 11.5

is
re S
List the materials used in the construction of house.
B
bl
Earlier mud, clay and grass were used to plaster the bricks. Later
mortar was used as plastering material. A Fine paste of lime stone
be T
pu
prepared with water was used. Golgumbuz and K.R.S was built by
K

mortar.
The name cement in the sense of building material originates

from the Romans, who called a concrete like brickwork, made from
stones and a burnt lime binder, opus caementitum. Later hydraulic
binders which were obtained from a mixture of additives such as
ground ceramic bricks, volcanic tuff, and burnt lime were given the
names cementum or cement.
Why is cement used as construction material?
to

You know that gum or glue is used to bind paper, wooden plank
etc. Cement is also a type of binding agent which binds bricks, gravel
t

and sand particles to form a strong structure.

No

As cement is synthetic material, let us study about the

manufacture of cement:
Cement is a mixture of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate,
with small amount of gypsum salt. Essential raw materials used in
the manufacture of cement are clay and limestone (CaCo3). gypsum
(calcium sulphate) is used to regulate setting rate.

147
 1. Slurry tank
2. Vapourising zone
3. Rotary kiln
4. Combustion zone
5. Hot air blow
6. Clinker collector

d
he
Fig 11.3 Manufacture of cement

Finely powdered clay and limestone are mixed with water. This

is
homogeneous mixture is called slurry. It is introduced into a rotary
re S
Kiln(as shown in the diagram). Hot air at 1873K is blown from the
B
bl
lower end of the rotary kiln. Due to high temperature the water
present in the slurry evaporates. At this temperature, clay and lime
be T

stone combine chemically to form red hot clinkers of cement.

pu
K

to

Fig. 11.4 Rotary kiln and clinkers

t
No

The cement balls so formed are called clinkers. Clinkers are taken
out of the kiln and cooled. Clinkers are then finely powered by grinding
and mixed with 3% gypsum. Gypsum slows down the rapid setting of
cement.
Note: slag obtained during extraction of iron is calcium silicate can
be used as a raw material in the manufacture of cement.

148
 Setting and curing
Cement sets into a hard mass when mixed with water. This is
due to hydration of the molecules of the constituents and their
rearrangement. Therefore it makes an excellent binding material in
construction work. The mixture of sand and cement along with water
undergoes many complex changes. The first stage of setting takes
place within 24 hours after adding water to the cement. The second
stage of setting requires about two weeks.

d
The subsequent setting of cement is achieved by adding water.

he
The method of hardening cement by treating it with water is known
as curing. During curing cement absorbs water. Calcium silicate and

is
aluminates of cement are converted into a colloidal gel. This process
re S
is exothermic and hence it requires treatment continuously.
B
bl
Cement concrete: The mixture of cement, gravel and sand in the
ratio of 1:2:4 or 1:3:6 is known as concrete. An iron skeleton inside
be T
pu
concrete gives mechanical strength to the structure. This is called
K

RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete).

Activity 11.6

Know from a civil engineer about the ratio of the cement, gravel
and sand for different types of construction.
Sodium carbonate (Washing Soda)
Chemical Name: sodium carbonate decahydrate.
to

Chemical Formula: Na2CO3.10H2O (crystalline)

A student visited a laundry shop and saw the washer man soaking
the dirty clothes in water in which he was adding a white powder. It
t
No

was curious to know what that powder was? It was washing soda. i.e.
Sodium carbonate, when touched with wet hand the powder is soapy.
Know this: sodium carbonate is a basic salt.
Sodium carbonate is not available in nature. Let us study how
sodium carbonate is prepared. Sodium carbonate is prepared by
solvays Ammonia-soda process.

149
 A cold and concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) is
saturated with ammonia to make ammonical brine which is further
made to react with CO2 to produce NaHCO3.
NaCl + NH3 + CO2 + H2O NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
sodium + ammonia + carbon + water sodium + ammonium
chloride dioxide bicarbonate chloride
sodium bicarbonate on heating produces Sodium carbonate.

d
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

he
sodium bicarbonate sodium carbonate+Water+Carbon dioxide
Washing soda is obtained by the crystallization of sodium

is
re S
carbonate. Sodium carbonate is recrystalised by dissolving in water.
B
bl
Na2CO3 + 10H2O Na2CO3 .10H2O
be T

Activity11.7
pu
Take a spoon of washing soda on watch glass and observe its
K

colour and physical state.

Put red and blue litmus paper into the solution of washing soda

and observe the change.

Take Sodium Carbonate in test tube and add 2 ml. dilute
hydrochloric acid. Observe the gas evolved. Pass the evolved gas through
lime water. What do you observe?
Take 5 ml. of Sodium Carbonate solution in a test tube. Add equal
to

volume of Magnesium sulphate solution to it. Observe the changes.

Take 2 gm. of Sodium carbonate in test tube and heat it. Observe
the changes.
t

Based on the above activities list out some properties of sodium

No

carbonate
Uses of washing soda
Washing soda is mainly used in the preparation of washing
powder, soaps.
It is used in the paint, paper and textile industries.

150
 It is used as a cleansing agent for domestic purposes and is a
component of many dry soap powders.
It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
It is used in the preparation of some important compounds of
Sodium such as Sodium Hydroxide (caustic soda), Borax,
Sodium Silicate, Sodium Phosphate.
It is used in the manufacture of glass.

d
Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda)

he
Chemical Name: Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Chemical Formula : NaHCO3
We have studied the properties and uses of sodium bicarbonate

is
re S
in the previous class. Sodium bicarbonate is not available in nature.
B
So let us study the preparation of sodium bicarbonate.
bl
Sodium bicarbonate is obtained by passing carbon dioxide into a
be T

cold saturated solution of sodium carbonate. Bicarbonate separates

pu
as white crystals.
K

Na2 CO3 + H2O + CO2 2NaHCO3

sodium carbonate + water + carbon dioxide sodium

bicarbonate
Properties of Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate is white crystalline salt which is sparingly
soluble in water.
On heating, sodium bicarbonate above 1000C (373K) Sodium
to

carbonate is formed.
2 NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2K
t

Sodium Sodium + Water + Carbon dioxide

No

bicarbonate carbonate
It is a non-corrosive base.
It reacts with acids evolving carbon dioxide.
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2 K
Sodium + Hydrochloric Sodium + Water + Carbon dioxide
bicarbonate acid chloride

151
 2 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2K
Sodium + Sulphuric Sodium + Water + Carbon dioxide
bicarbonate acid Sulphate
Uses of Sodium Bicarbonate
1. Sodium bicarbonate is used in the preparation of Baking powder.
2. It is used as a medicine to remove acidity of the stomach (it acts
as an antacid). As it is alkaline in nature, it neutralizes excess
acid produced in the stomach and provides relief.

d
Know This: Baking powder is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate

he
and Potassium Hydrogen tortarate. If tartaric acid is not present in
baking powder the cake will taste bitter due to the presence of

is
Sodium bicarbonate.
re S
Do You Know: When baking powder is added to dough while
B
bl
making cakes, and heated, the Sodium bicarbonate produces
be T

carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide causes the cake rise making
pu
them soft and spongy.
K

What are antacids? What are its constituents?

Plaster of Paris
Anush saw some nomadic people selling few statues on the road
side. He was curious to know with what those statues were made of.
He stood for a while and saw that they were preparing statues with a
white powder. He went near to that and asked that person about
white powder. They said that they are preparing the statues with
to

plaster of paris.
The chemical name of plaster of paris is Calcium sulphate
hemihydrate having the formula CaSO4. H2O. It is commonly known
t

as plaster of paris. As it was made by heating gypsum which was

No

brought to use from paris, it is called as plaster of paris.

Plaster of paris is not available in nature, let us know how to
prepare plaster of paris.
When Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O is heated to 373 K, it loses 75 percent
of its water of crystalisation and gives the Calcium sulphate
hemihydrate, called plaster of paris.

152
 CaSO4 . 2H2O CaSO4. H2O + H2O
Gypsum Plaster of paris + water
Properties of plaster of paris
Plaster of paris is a white powder which is insoluble in water.
When plaster of paris is mixed with water, crystals of Gypsum
are produced again, but this time they are set to form a hard
solid mass.

d
Uses of plaster of paris
It is used in making chalk for writing on black boards.

he
It is used in making casts of statues, toys, models etc.
It is used by doctors to support fractured bones.

is
re S
It is also used in dentistry, in ornamental work.
It is used in making fire proof material.
B
bl EXERCISES
be T
pu
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following. choose
K

the right answer

1) In the given plastics______________. is a thermosetting plastic.

a) polythene b) PVC
c) polystyrene d) melamine
2) Cement is a mixtue of
a) calcium silicate, calcuim aluminate and gypsum
b) calcium silicate, calcium hydroxide
c) calcium aluminate, calcium hydroxide
to

d) None of the above

3) The chemical name of Na2 CO3.10H2O is
t

a) sodium bicarbonate b) sodium carbonate decahydrate

No

c) sodium hydroxide d) sodium hydrate

4) The fire proof jackets are made up of
a) nylon b) silk
c) plaster of paris d) cotton

153
 II. Match the following
A B
1) Slurry a) teflon
2) Nonstick cookware b) biodegradable
3) Cellulose c) sodium hydroxide
4) Caustic soda d) sodium bicarbonate

d
e) homogeneous mixture

he
f) sodium carbonate

III. Answer the following questions

is
re S
1) Name two types of plastics. Write any two differences between
B
them.
bl
2) Differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable
be T
pu
substances.
K

3) How is washing soda prepared?

4) Mention the properties of plaster of paris.

5) List out the disadvantages of plastics.
6) With a neat labeled diagram explain the process of
manufacturing of cement.
7) How is plaster of paris prepared?
to

8) List out the measures that you would like to take to avoid
plastic pollution.
t
No

154
 Chapter 12

LIFE PROCESSES
After studying this chapter you,
appreciate the need of transport system
define transport system
prepare a microscopic slide of cross section of dicot and monocot stem

d
identify xylem and phloem tissue in cross section of stem

he
recognize the importance of transpiration in conduction of water
differentiate between transport in amoeba and higher animals

is
appreciate the function of human heart
re S B
While eating breakfast, Ramya get hiccups. Her mother insists
bl
her to drink water. Ramyas hiccups stops after drinking water. Ramya
be T

thanks her mother for getting her water on time. Ramyas mother
pu
insists her to thank the water supply department which has
K

transported water from the water source to her house. Ramya wonders
what if there would have not been this transport mechanism. She

wonders if at all there is a transport mechanism in her body also!!

When thirsty, she consumes water. How does this water reach all the
cells? How does the chapathi consumed for breakfast by Ramya is
digested. How do the digested food molecules reach all the cells?
Surely there has to be a transport mechanism in organisms.
Ramya wonders whether plants also have such a transport
to

mechanism. Ramya waters a potted plant regularly. She observes

that the plant grows day by day. She comes to a conclusion that
water absorbed by the roots are some how transported to the rest of
t

the plant body.

No

She conducts an experiment taking the help of her science

teacher. She collects a fresh parthenium plant. Her teacher insists
her to collect a mococot plant also. A thin section of both dicot and
monocot stems are taken. They are observed under a compound
microscope. She draws the same in her science note book. The
drawing is similar to the figures given below.

155
 d
Fig 12.1 C.S of dicot and monocot stem.

he
She takes the help of her teacher, and labels the parts. The
labellings xylem and phloem draws her attention. Her teacher
explains that xylem is a water conducting tissue and phloem is a

is
re S
food conducting tissue. Ramya recalls the definition of tissue that
she had learnt in eighth standard. Her teacher helps her to conduct
B
bl
another experiment, which is narrated below.
be T
pu
A balsam plant with a transparent stem is taken. Its roots are placed
K

in a beaker containing water. A few drops of eosin stain are added

to it. Water turns pinkish red in colour. The plant is kept in the

beaker for about one to two hours. Pinkish red streaks are observed
in the stem of balsam plant. Also the venation of the leaves turn
pinkish red. A transverse section of the stem reveals that xylem is
the only tissue which is pinkish red. This makes Ramya understand
that xylem helps in conducting water.

Water which is absorbed by roots is conducted throughout the plant

to

body by xylem. Water moves in only one direction from roots to shoot.
This movement is against the gravitational force. If water has to move
upwards, then there has to be some force which pulls it against gravity.
t
No

How is this force obtained? Let us try to understand this by a simple

experiment.

Take a potted plant. Water it well. Cover the plant by a polythene

sheet. The polythene sheet should be colourless and transparent.
You may also use a bell jar instead of a polythene sheet. Take care
that you cover only the plant, but not the complete pot.

156
 Keep the plant in a bright, well
lit place for about four to five hours.
You may observe water droplets on
the inner surface of the polythene
sheet. From where has these water
droplets come from? It is evident that
the water droplets are from the plant.
Thus plant has excreted water. This
is called transpiration. If

d
transpiration takes place through

he
cuticle then it is called cuticular Fig 12.2 Experiment to
transpiration. If transpiration takes demonstrate transpiration
place through the bark, then it is

is
re S
called lenticular transpiration. If transpiration takes place through
stomata, then it is called stomatal transpiration. Transpiration is
B
bl
not evaporation. Transpiration is a physiological process, whereas
be T

evaporation is merely a physical process. Thus force to pull water in a

pu
plant through xylem is obtained from transpiration.
K

Ramya very innocently asks her teacher if human beings and

other animals have xylem and phloem to conduct water and food.
The teacher replies that xylem and phloem are plant tissues and
they are not present in humans and other animals. Ramya recalls
that Amoeba is unicellular, thus movement of materials is by diffusion
and osmosis. She recalls studying about respiration of cockroach and
human beings. She decides to learn about transport mechanism in
cockroaches and humans.
to

Ramya decides to play doctor game with her friends. She has a
stethoscope with her. She imitates her doctor. She tries to find out
t

the heart beat using the stethoscope. She places the stethoscope on
No

the chest of one of her friends. This proves that heart is situated in
the chest cavity. The chest cavity also comprises lungs.
She observes figure 12.3 and concludes that the heart is present
in between the two lungs. She appreciates the presence of ribs, the
bones which protect the delicate muscular heart. One of her friends
decides to get a sheep or goats heart from a butchers shop.

157
 Pleural
space
Lungs

d
Fig12.3

he
Position of heart in human body

They take the heart specimen to their teacher. The teacher

is
explains the structure and function of the heart. The teacher reinforces
re S
that a sheep or goats heart is almost similar to human heart. Ramya
B
bl
on observing the heart infers that the heart is conical in shape. The
teacher shows certain tubular structures and identifies them as blood
be T

vessels. There are three types of blood vessels, arteries, veins and
pu
capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry
K

blood into the heart. Capillaries help in transporting blood into and
away from the cells.

The teacher cuts the heart specimen longitudinally. Ramya

observes certain chamber-like structures. She observes that there
are four chambers in the heart. The teacher names the chambers as
auricles and ventricles.

pulmonary artery
to

aorta

pulmonary vein
t

Left auricle
No

Right auricle
Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Fig 12.4 V.S of human heart

158
 Ramya draws the diagram in her note book. It is almost similar
to the figure 12.4. She identifies auricles and ventricles of the dissected
heart, taking the help of labelled diagram. She also differentiates the
heart into two parts, left heart and right heart. Left part of the heart
has two chambers, left auricle and left ventricle. Right part of the
heart has two chambers right auricle and right ventricle.
Ramya learns the functions of auricles and ventricles from her
teacher. Auricles receive blood and ventricles pump blood. She comes
to a conclusion that heart receives and pumps blood. She has a
question. Why should blood be pumped to all parts of the body? You

d
may also have the same or similar question. Nutrients are transported

he
to each and every cell. Is that all?? Metabolic waste materials produced
in the cells are carried out of the cell by blood. So blood is a material
transporting medium. What does blood contain? To know the answer
to this question, Ramya approaches a lab technician Mr.Khan.

is
re S
Blood Circulation
B
blAmhma` g_`H$ n[aUV` `aVoOmo ^yVgma
na_gy_ g ag B`w`Vo
be T
pu
V` X` WmZ_&
K

g X`mV MVw{de{VY_ZraZw{d`......
H$Z eara_a Vn`{V dY`{V Yma`{V

`mn`{V M A>hoVwHo$Z H$_Um&&

Susrutasamhita - sutrastanam 14.3
The very subtle energy from the well-digested food is called rasa (the nourisher
liquid). Its place is the heart. From the heart through the 24 arteries, it satisfies,
nourishes, supports and maintains the entire body day after day, propelled
by some unseen act.
to

Mr.Khan a lab technician, prepares a slide of human blood. He

allows Ramya to observe the same under a compound microscope.
She uses oil immersion magnification to observe the slide. Blood slide
can be prepared in your schools science lab too.
t
No

Fig. 12.4(a)
159
 d
he
Fig. 12.4(b) Blood cells

She draws the diagram of the observed slide. It is similar to the

is
re S
diagram given here. Mr.Khan helps Ramya to identify the blood cells.
You may also do the same. Ramya wants to differentiate between the
B
bl
three types of blood cells based on their structures. Help her in this
be T

task with the help of figure 12.4 (b). You may write down the
pu
differences based on their functions, taking the help of your teacher,
K

in the form of a table.

Do you know?
Blood is a liquid connective tissue. Blood cells are found in a
liquid called plasma.

Ramya wants to know that how blood is circulated in her body.

She approaches her teacher for the same. The teacher with the help
to

of the following flow chart explains blood circulation.

t
No

Fig. 12.5 Flow chart

160
 Ramya summarizes the same as follows.
Oxygen rich blood enters into the left auricle from the lungs
through pulmonary vein.
This oxygen rich blood enters the left ventricle through
bicuspid valve.
Left ventricle constricts as a result oxygen rich blood is
pumped out of the heart.
This oxygen rich blood reaches the cells through aorta and

d
its branches.
On reaching the cells, blood exchanges oxygen with that of

he
carbon dioxide.
This carbon dioxide rich blood reaches the right auricle

is
through superior and inferior venacavas.
re S
Carbon dioxide rich blood enters the right ventricle through
B
bl
tricuspid valve.
Right ventricle constricts as a result carbon dioxide rich blood
be T

is pumped out of the heart.

pu
This carbon dioxide blood reaches the lungs where exchange
K

of gases takes place.

Thus this circulatory cycle repeats, until we are alive.

Thus heart expands and contracts to receive and pump blood
respectively. As blood is pumped out of the heart, pressure is exerted
on the arteries. This pressure wave exerted on the arteries is called
pulse. Pulse can be felt in any artery that runs close to the body
surface. It can be detected easily near the wrist, sides of the fore
head, neck and ankles. You may record your pulse rate and compare
to

it with the pulse rate of your friends. This shall be a very interesting
activity.
t

Do you know?
No

Every minute the heart pumps about five litres of blood.

In 24 hours heart beats about one lakh times, circulating about
10,000 litres of blood.
Humans have about 4.5 to 5.5 litres of blood in their body.
Blood pressure of a normal human being is about 120/80 mm
of Hg.

161
 Ramyas aunt is admitted in a hospital. Ramya goes to the
hospital to visit her aunt. She finds that her aunt was infused with a
colourless fluid through veins. She hears from her aunt that she is
being given blood through veins. Ramya is confused; she feels that it
is not blood. If it were to be blood, then its colour would have been
red. The colour fluid that was being infused to her aunt was colourless.
She decides to visit the blood bank of the same hospital to get more
information. She observes a few posters in the blood bank. A few are

d
given below. You may also read them.

is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

The slogan a bottle of your blood may save three lives drew
Ramyas attention. She learns that blood components can be separated
to

and later transfused. She finds out from the lab technician that her
aunt was transfused with lymph. She understands that unlike blood,
lymph a component of blood is colourless. She infers that the cells
t
No

that contain red pigment is absent in lymph. Hence, she describes

lymph as blood devoid of RBC and a few proteins that are present in
RBC. She stays in the blood bank for a while and observes a few
blood collections. She observes that finding the blood group of the
donor is very important before drawing the blood. She finds the lab
technician grouping blood as A+, A, AB+, AB, O+ and O. She
observes the technician using certain chemicals to group the blood.

162
 The same test may be done in your lab
also by your science teacher. Remember
sterilized needles should be used to prick your
fingers. Here is another figure. What inference
can be drawn from its observation?
After finding the blood group, the donor
is screened for certain diseases which are Fig. 12.6
transmitted through blood. If the donor is free Blood groups and

d
blood transfussion
from such diseases, only then his blood will
be accepted for donation. Before drawing the blood, the donors blood

he
pressure is also measured. Usually BP of a normal adult will be 120/
80mm of Hg. After all these procedures, the blood drawn may be

is
transfused to the patient, as per the patients requirement.
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 12.7(a) Fig 12.7(b)

While walking back from the blood bank Ramya has a question.
She doubts if at all lymph is produced in the human body too!! If yes
how it is been circulated? She searches the internet and finds the
answer. She has summarized the same, and is given below for your
to

convenience.
Blood carries nutrients to cells.
Blood flows through the arteries towards the cells.
t

To the cells it is the capillaries which squeeze this fluid tissue.

No

The lumen of the capillaries is smaller than the RBC.

As a result blood that enters the cell is devoid of RBC and a
few proteins.
This fluid is called the lymph.
Lymph being rich in WBC provides immunity.
Lymph is circulated through lymphatic system.

163
 When Ramya returns to the ward, she finds the nurse drawing
blood from her aunt. She learns from the nurse that blood is drawn
through the veins. She recalls that blood circulates through blood
vessels. She infers that this type of circulation is closed type of
circulation.
In humans, blood flows in blood vessels, hence circulation is
said to be closed type of circulation. If so is there an open type of
circulatory system too?? In which organisms do we find such open
type of circulation?? Ramya finds the answer to these questions by

d
the assistance of her teacher. She had learnt about phylum arthropoda

he
in an earlier lesson. She develops interest in studying about
cockroachs circulatory system. She browses the internet and gathers
information. She has summarized her internet research findings as

is
follows.
re S
Cockroach is an invertebrate.
B
bl
Cockroach belongs to phylum arthropoda.
Cockroach has a 13 chambered heart.
be T
pu
Its blood is colourless as it does not contain haemoglobin.
K

There are no blood vessels to circulate blood.

Exchange of gases takes place through diffusion.

Ramya draws the diagram of cockroachs circulatory system. You

may also do the same. Compare the circulatory systems of cockroach
and human beings, what conclusion can be drawn?
t to
No

Fig. 12.8

There are various disorders related to human heart. Here a few

of them are listed. You might have heard to people speaking about
holes in their heart. This is a condition found from their birth. These
holes are called the septal holes. Holes may be found in the walls
that separate left and right auricles. In such a case what may happen
to the patient?

164
 In a few other patients the valves of the heart narrow. If the
valves narrow then what may happen to the functioning of the heart?
Though the heart is full of blood, it cannot utilise this blood for
its needs. Blood has to be supplied to the heart cells by coronary
artery and its branches. If there is some obstruction in the coronary
artery, then cells of the heart will not receive sufficient blood. This
may result in heart attack.
The heart functions throughout our life. So it is very important

d
to keep it healthy. Ramya has decided to list a few health tips to keep
the heart healthy. Help her in doing so.

he
EXERCISES
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the incomplete

is
re S
statements/questions. Choose the answer.
B
bl
1. Chamber of the human heart which receives oxygen rich
blood is
be T

a. Left auricle b. Right auricle

pu
c. Right ventricle d. Left ventricle
K

2. Blood component which provides immunity is

a. WBC b. Plasma
c. RBC d. Platelets
3. Plant tissue which transports water is
a. Parenchyma b. Xylem
c. Phloem d. Collenchyma
4. Transport of materials in amoeba is by
a. Tissues b. Osmosis
to

c. Diffusion d. Diffusion and osmosis

II. Answer the following
t

1. What is the need for transport system?

No

2. Explain transport system of cockroach.

3. Differentiate between open and closed type of circulatory
systems.
4. Explain circulation in human beings.
5. Draw a labeled diagram of VS of human heart.

165
 Chapter 13

CHEMICALS IN OUR DAILY LIFE

After learning this chapter you,
know the meaning of fertilizer.
classify the different types of fertilizers.
list the properties of good fertilizers.

d
list the uses of fertilizers.

he
reason out for the wide usage of fertilizers .
explain the process of synthesis of ammonia.
explain the process of manufacture of Super phosphate.

is
re S
describe the judicious way of using fertilizers.
B
bl
As we all know that all organisms require food for their existence.
Food is a substance which nourishes the body. Animals and plants
be T
pu
require balanced diet which helps in keeping the disorders away
K

which are caused due to different deficiencies and also regulates the
metabolic activities in them. If animals do not get nutritious food

then it leads to disorders.

Some of the burning issues of the country are poverty, starvation
and hunger. People either do not get food itself or if at all they get, it
does not contain nutrients in the required amount.
In the same way plants
also suffer from disorders if
they do not get nutritious food.
to

They require potassium,

calcium, magnesium,
nitrogen, phosphorous and
t
No

sulphur along with traces of

iron, manganese, copper,
zinc, molybdenum and
Boron. These mentioned
elements are usually present
in combined form in the soil Fig. 13.1(a) Fig. 13.1(b)
if they are not present; they Healthy Plant Plant with dificiency

166
 are added to the soil as and when required. If these nutrients are
not adequately supplied for a long time it results in deficiency
disorders like this (see the picture).

Kariyanna is a farmer who is worried about his plants and yields

in his farm. The plants have stunted growth, leaves are slightly
turning yellow and the yield is not satisfactory. He has used traditional
method. He goes to a nearest agricultural department who helps

d
him to get his farms soil tested. He was informed that the soil is
deficient in some nutrients like Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium

he
and he also gets an advice to use supplementary materials. They are
added to the soil to increase its fertility. They are nothing but

is
fertilizers. The use of fertilizers has greatly enhanced the productivity
re S
of crops. The development of high-yielding varieties of major crops
B
bl
and their large scale introduction have no doubt reduced hunger in
the world.
be T
pu
Activity 13.1
K

Observe two different fields where in one of them follows crop

rotation and other do not. List the differences that you notice.

Farmers A,B, and C use different types of fertilizers for their fields.
Farmer A finds that his field needs more of nitrogen, B finds that his
field needs potassium and C finds that his field needs phosphorous.
There are different types of fertilizers available based on the need of
the soil and the type of crop.
to

Fertilizers are classified into (i) Natural fertilizers (organic manures)

and (ii) Artificial fertilizers.
t

Natural manures are refuses of plants and animals which are

No

bulky in nature and supply nutrients in small quantities and organic

matter in large quantities.

Artificial fertilizers are those which are manmade having chemical

compositions suitable for a definite crop. Artificial fertilizers are
classified as follows:

167
 Artificial fertilizers

Nitrogenous Fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers Potassium fertilizers

There are mainly four Fertilizers containing Some examples

nitrogenous fertilizers. phosphorus are called of potassium
The main raw material phosphatic fertilizers. Some fertilizers are
used in making nitrogenous of them are as follows. a Potassium nitrate
fertilizers is ammonia gas.

d
a Calcium dihydrogen (KNO3),
The common examples of
phosphate or

nitrogenous fertilizers are
a. Urea NH2.CO.NH2,
b. Ammonium sulphate
he
b Potassium
superphosphate Ca(H2PO4)2, chloride (KCl) and
b Ammonium hydrogen cPotassium
phosphate or ammophos

is
sulphate (K2SO4).
re S
(NH4)2SO4, (NH4)H2PO4,
Deficiency of
c. Ammonium nitrate c Ammonium phosphate
B
d.
bl
(NH4NO3), and
Sodium nitrate
(NH4) 3PO4.
potassium causes
the leaves to die out
early.
be T

d. Di-ammonium phosphate
pu
( N a N O 3) . S u i t a b l e (NH4)2HPO4.
fertilizers are added
K

Deficiency of phosphorus in
according to the need of
the soil causes stunted
the soil, for example, a

growth in plants and graying

field with leguminous
of leaves.
plants such as pulses
need not be given
nitrogenous fertilizers.

You might have observed the green leaves sometimes gradually

turn into yellow color. What is the reason?
t to
No

Fig. 13.2

168
 Activity 13.2
Visit a web site and collect information on the raw materials used
and the procedure of manufacturing fertilizer and also learn the
composition of different fertilizer
Manufacture of Urea: (A Nitrogen based fertilizer)
Urea is widely used as a nitrogenous fertilizer. It is readily soluble
and hence acts quickly, but it is easily washed away. It has very high
nitrogen content (46%). It is manufactured from ammonia, and the

d
reaction proceeds in two steps.

he
2NH3 + CO2 NH2COONH4
Ammonia + carbondioxide Ammonium Carbomate

is
NH2 COO NH4 NH2CO.NH2 + H2O
re S
Ammonium carbomate urea + water
B
bl
In the soil, urea slowly hydrolyses to ammonium carbonate.
be T
pu
NH2.CO.NH2 + 2H2O (NH4)2CO3.
K

urea + water Ammonium Carbonate.

Do you know this? Nitrogen promotes protein syntheses,

Phosphorous promotes root growth and potassium promotes

Flowering!

Characteristics of a good artificial fertilizer

1. It should be soluble in water so that it can penetrate the soil
and thus it may be easily assimilated by the plants
to

2. It must have essential elements in the form of a compound,

which can be easily assimilated by plants.
3. It should not alter the acidity or alkalinity of soil.
t

4. It should be fairly stable i.e. it should not decompose rapidly

No

in soil and lose its essential elements.

5. Its storage properties must be good, with little or no tendency
to setting or deliquescence.
Do you know this? The mixed fertilizer called NPK (nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium) is commonly used.

169
 Activity 13.3
Visit a farm house and collect information about type, percentage
and composition of the different fertilizers used.

Do you know the uses of fertilizers and how it helps in growth of

the plants?
1. They boost crop yields.
2. increases the protein content of the plants

d
3. imparts dark green color to the leaves.

he
4. improves overall quality of the plants
5. helps in blooming and seed formation.
6. increases vigour, resistance to frost and insects, pests and

is
re S
diseases
B
bl
7. helps in the development of healthy root system.
8. makes the stalks stronger
be T
pu
9. increases vigour and disease resistance in the plants
K

10. enhances the synthesis of carbohydrates.

11. aids the ripening of cereals and fruits.

Activity 13.4
Take three similar potted plants. Do not provide any external nutrient
to the First pot. Put organic manure to the second and chemical fertilizer
to the third. List the changes you observe in long run.

Disadvantages of fertilizer:
to

1. Constant application is needed

2. Causes soil pollution, water pollution
t

3. Causes plant toxicity

No

4. Leads to biomagnifications.

Think ! In a farmers fair there were two shops, one was selling
greens and vegetables grown using manure and other was selling
greens and vegetables grown using chemical fertilizers. Crowd
was more in the first shop. Why?

170
 The organic manures enrich the soil with nutrients. They replenish
the general deficiency of nutrients in the soil.

Know this : Since organic manures contain nutrients in small

quantities they are needed to be applied in large quantities.

The organic manures add organic matter (called humus) to the

soil which restores the soil texture for better retention of water and
for aeration of soil. For example, organic matter present in the

d
manures increases the water holding capacity in sandy soils and

he
drainage in clayey soil.

The organic matter of manures provides food for the soil organisms

is
such as earth worm, bacteria, fungi, etc which provide nutrients to plants.
re S
Know this : Organic manures release their nutrients slowly over
B
bl
time and dont need to be replenished as often, they dont pollute
environment and does not cause plant toxicity.
be T
pu
One of the major constituents of all living organisms is nitrogen.
K

It is in combined form. Nitrogen is required for all body activities. We

get nitrogen through food. Plants also require nitrogen. Naturally

they obtain nitrogen directly from the soil or we supply it externally

in the form of fertilizers like urea, ammonium phosphate, sodium
nitrate. Now let us learn how ammonia is synthesized.
The most important commercial process of Ammonia synthesis is
the Haber-Bosch process. Nitrogen (obtained from liquification of the
air) and hydrogen (obtained
to

by the electrolysis of water) nitrogen

are mixed in the ratio of About
1:3. Mixture is heated to 5000C
200 atm
t

450-550 0c, compressed to

No

high pressure such as Catalyst

150-200 atmospheric unreacted
gases
pressure and passed over hot Hydrogen recycled
gases are cooled
Fe2O3, Al2O3 mixture acts as and ammonia
turns to liquid
catalyst which results in
Ammonia. Fig. 13.3
liquid ammonia
Ammonia synthesis

171
 N2+3H2 2NH3

Fritz Haber and Bosch were awarded

Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1918 and
1931 respectively for their work on high
pressure reactions.
Carl Bosch Fritz Haber
Ammonia as fertilizer Fig. 13.4

d
It is easily soluble in water

he
It can be easily obsorbed by plants.

Manufacture of superphosphate

is
re S
A well powdered phosphate rock or bone ash mixed known
quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid is introduced into a cast iron
B
bl
chamber provided with mechanical stirrer and two valves at the bottom.
be T

Each valve opens in a big chamber called den. The mixture is stirred
pu
for 2 to 5 minutes and then dumped mechanically into one of the
K

dens through the valve. The mass is kept in the den for about 24
hours.

The following reaction occurs in the den.

Ca3 (PO4)2+2H2SO4+4H2O Ca (H2PO4)2+2CaSO4.2H2O+heat

Super phosphate
to

A mixture of calcium sulphate

Think !
andcalcium dihydrogen phosphate
t

is obtained. This mixture is called What is triple superphosphate?

No

super phosphate.

Judicious use of fertilizers

The amount of fertilizers added to the soil varies from crop to
crop. They should only be used when necessary. Excessive use of
fertilizers degrades the quality of soil in the long run, for example,

172
 excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers makes the soil and water rich
in nitrates. Nitrogen rich water is not good for drinking. Nitrates from
the soil also flow into rivers and lakes with rainwater and enhance
the growth of weeds and algae. This decreases the oxygen content of
water leading to death of aquatic life. Excessive use of fertilizers can
change the nature of the soil making it either too acidic or too alkaline.

EXERCISES

d
I. The Four alternatives are given to each of the following

he
incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer

1. The symbol of most essential elements required for

is
re S
development of all the plants
a. N, P, K b. S, Pb, K
B
bl
c. K, Cu, F d. P, Ca, Pt
be T
pu
2. The leaves die out early is because of the deficiency of
K

a. Nitrogen b. Phosphorous
c. Potassium d. Iron

3. The traces of these element is required for the plants

a. Iron and Silver b. Calcium and Plutonium
c. Nitrogen and Nickel d. Iron and Manganese

4. An example for Nitrogenous fertiliser is

a. Super phosphate b. Urea
to

c. Potassium sulphate d. Potassium Chloride

5. Characteristics of good fertilizer is

t
No

a. Non Toxic b. deliquescent

c. Insoluble in water d. Non Toxic, deliquescent and
water soluble
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Ammonia is highly ______________ in water.

173
 2. In the manufacture of Superphosphate bone ash is mixed
with ______________
3. N2 + 3H2 2NH3 is an example for __________ reaction.

4. The decrease of the _______________ content of water leading to

the death of aquatic life.

III. Match the following

d
A B

he
1. Super phosphate a. (NH4)2HPO4
2. Urea b. (NH4)H2PO4

is
3. Ammophos c. K2SO4
re S
4. Di-ammonium phosphate d. NH2.CO.NH2
B
bl
5. Potassium sulphate e. Ca (H2PO4)2+2CaSO4.2H2O
be T
pu
IV. Answer the following briefly
K

1. What is fertilizer?
2. What are the characteristics of good fertilizer?

3. List out the uses of fertilizer.

4. How is Superphosphate manufactured?
5. Explain the Habers process of manufacturing Ammonia with
a neat diagram.
6. What are the disadvantages of Artificial fertlizers?
to

7. How is Urea manufactured?

8. We have to use fertlizers judiciously. Discuss the validity of
t

this statement.
No

9. Name the most important elements required for a plant

growth.
10. What is the importance of soil testing for a farmer?
11. Give examples for NPK fertilizers.
12. What are the special properties of manures over artificial

174
 Chapter 14

CELL DIVISION
After studying this chapter you,
recognize cell division.
appreciate the need for cell division.
distinguish vegetative and reproductive cells.

d
identify the various stages of mitosis through microscope.

he
appreciate the need for mitosis
recognize various stages of meiosis
appreciate the role of meiosis in sexual reproduction

is
re S
differentiate between meiosis I and meiosis II
B
bl
differentiate between mitosis and meiosis
be T

Dhruthi and Anusha are playing hide and seek with their friends.
pu
One of their friends Akram has a fall, while playing. He cuts his skin
K

near his knee. After 15 days the wound heals. Observe fig 14.1.

The seed sprouts and grows into a new plant. Remember the
days when you were in your primary classes. You were not as tall as
you are today. You have also grown. Through these instances a
few questions arise. How did the cells get replaced in the injured
skin? How is it that we grow? Observe the figure.
t to
No

fig 14.01
Stages of seed germination

175
 The height of the wall increases with the increase in the number
of bricks. Likewise the living organisms grow with the increase in the
number of cells. How do cells increase in number? Cells increase in
number by a process called cell division.

d
is he
re S B
bl Fig 14.02 Wall construction

Now with the help of figure define cell division. Here is a story
be T
pu
told by a mother cell to Dhruthi and Anusha students of ninth
K

standard. Remember, the cell which is ready for cell division may be
regarded as mother cell.

Mother Cell Hello dear Dhruthi and Anusha, do you remember

me. You had seen me in standard eight.

Dhruthi Yeah, I do remember you are an animal cell. How

have you come in ninth standard also??
to

Mother cell I need to tell you a story..... a story about myself.

How I divide into daughter cells. I need to tell you
about my division.
t
No

Anusha We already know what cell division is, thanks for the
pictorial representation. The process in which a
mother cell divides itself into two or more daughter
cells is called cell division.

Dhruthi There are different types of cells. So, will there be

different types of cell divisions?

176
 Mother cell There are basically two types of cells. Let us
understand it with the help of the following activity.

Activity 14.1

Take a young stem of a dicot or a monocot plant. Cut a very thin

section across the stem. Observe this cross section under a compound
microscope. The cells that you observe grow. These cells which help in
growth are the vegetative cells.

d
Anusha Mother cell, now I understood what vegetative cells are.

he
Mother cell You might have heard of pollens and ovules in your
previous class. These are the reproductive cells of

is
re S
higher plants.
B
Dhruthi bl Yes, I do remember, these cells fuse with each other
be T

in a process called fertilization. This further result

pu
in the formation of seeds. These seeds help in the
K

germination of new plants. So pollens and ovules are

the reproductive cells, as they help in reproduction.

Mother cell - In human beings, sperms and ova are the reproductive
cells. They are called gametes.They fuse together
during sexual reproduction and form a zygote. You
will read more about this in chapter 15. Now, I think
you are aware of vegetative and reproductive cells. I
to

shall continue my story.

I have a few microscopic structures in the cytoplasm, they are
called organelles. I shall name a few, which are required for the
t
No

understanding of cell division. They are the centrioles and very

importantly the nucleus. Look at fig 14.03

I am ready to undergo division. I have prepared myself by storing

food, water and other substances for division. This preparatory stage
can be called interphase. DNA also replicates during this preparatory
stage. You will learn regarding DNA replication in standard ten.

177
 Centrioles

Chromatin network
Nucleus

d
is he
Fig 14.03 A Mother cell Cell ready for division
re S B
bl
There are two types of cell divisions just as there are two types of
cells. One type of division takes place in the vegetative cell where as
be T

the other type of division takes place in reproductive cell. Generally

pu
K

Mitotic cell division takes place in vegetative cells where as meiotic

cell division takes place in reproductive cells.

Mother Cell Mitosis is divided into four phases. They are prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Children
observe figures 14.03 and 14.04 and note the changes
that have taken place during prophase.
t to
No

Fig 14.04 Prophase stage

178
 Dhruthi Centrioles have changed to star shaped structures
called asters. In between the asters spindle fibers
are formed. Chromatin network has changed to
chromosomes. Nucleolus and Nuclear membrane
disappear.

d
is he
re S
Fig 14.05 Chromosome
B
bl
Mother cell Look at fig 14.05. The chromosome has two parallel
strands called chromatids. They are held together
be T

by a centromere. Observe figure 14.04 and figure

pu
14.06. Now compare these figures and note the
K

changes that have taken place during metaphase.

Anusha Chromosomes are arranged at the centre of the cell.

Asters have moved to opposite poles of the cell. Spindle
fibers are attached to the centromere of the
chromosomes.
t to
No

Fig 14.06 cell at metaphase stage

179
 Think! Why should the chromosomes be arranged at the centre of
the cell?

Mother cell Now observe figure 14.07 and compare it with

figure 14.06. Note the changes that have taken place
in the anaphase stage.
Anusha The centromere of the chromosomes have divided.
Thus daughter chromosomes are formed. Daughter

d
chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.

he
daughter

is
re S
Chromosomes
B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 14.07 Anaphase stage

to

Mother cell This results in equal chromosomal numbers in both

mother and daughter cells. Remember, mother cell
also had the same number of chromosomes. Therefore
t
No

mitosis can be called equational cell division. Now

observe fig 14.08 and compare it with fig 14.07.

Dhruthi Nuclear membrane has reappeared around each set

of Chromosome. Nucleolus has reappeared. Thus two
daughter nuclei are formed.

180
 d
is he
re S B
bl Fig 14.08 Telophase stage
be T
pu
Mother cell With this nuclear division comes to an end. Later
K

cytoplasm divides in to two, resulting into two

daughter cells.
t
to
No

Fig 14.09 Formation of daughter cells

181
 There is another type of cell division called meiosis which takes
place in reproductive cells.

Know this : Reproduction is a boon to any organism as it helps

in the continuation of species. What if sexual reproduction would
not have taken place? There would not be any scope for evolution.

d
If sexual reproduction has to take place then it is essential that

he
meiosis takes place. Let us know how meiosis takes place. Just like
in mitosis, in meiosis too there is interphase. Meiosis is

is
re S
broadly classified into two stages Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Meiosis I has four phases namely prophase I, metaphase I,
B
bl
anaphase I and telophase I. Now observe figure 14.10 and figure
be T
pu
14.11 (a to d).
K
t
to
No

Fig 14.10 Mother cell

182
 d
he
Fig 14.11 (a) Fig 14.11 (b)

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
to

Fig 14.11 (c) Fig 14.11 (d)

Prophase - I
t
No

The changes that take place during prophase I are

Centrioles have changed to star shaped structures called asters.

In between the asters spindle fibers are formed.

Chromatin network has changed to chromosomes.

183
 Paternal and maternal chromosomes have paired with each
other.
The inner chromatids have exchanged their segments with
each other.
Nucleolus has disappeared.
Nuclear membrane has disappeared.

d
Think! Why should the paternal and maternal chromosomes

he
exchange their inner chromatid segments?

The next phase is metaphase I. Observe figure 14.12. Now let

is
re S
us list the changes that have taken place during metaphase I.
B
bl
be T
pu
K
t to
No

Fig 14.12 Metaphase I

Chromosomes are arranged at the centre of the cell.

Asters have moved to both the poles of the cell.
Spindle fibers are attached to the centromere of the chromosome.

184
 Now observe figure 14.13. The cell is in Anaphase I stage. Let
us list the changes that have taken place during this stage.

d
Inter zonal fibre

is he
re S
Fig 14.13 Anaphase I
B
bl
Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of
be T

the cell.
pu
In between the two sets of chromosomes interzonal fibers
K

are formed.

As centromeres do not divide, daughter cells will be having only

half the number of chromosomes when compared to the mother
cell. Therefore meiosis I is also called reductional cell division. The
next phase is telophase I. Now observe figure 14.14. Let us list the
changes that have taken place during telophase I.
t to
No

Fig 14.14 Telophase 1

185
 Two daughter nuclei are formed.
Chromosomes have changed to chromatin network.
Nucleolus reappears.
Nuclear membrane reappears.
With this the first nuclear division comes to an end. The
cytoplasm may or may not divide. Meiosis I comes to an end with
the completion of telophase I. With this meiosis II begins. Meiosis
is further divided into prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II

d
and telophase II. Observe diagrams related to each phase and note

he
the changes that take place.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 14.15 Cell ready to undergo meiosis II

t to
No

Fig 14.16 Prophase II

186
 Centrioles have changed asters.
In between the asters aster fibers are formed.
Chromatin network has changed to chromosomes.
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane and dissolved.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 14.17 Cell in metaphase - II

Asters have moved to opposite poles of the cell.

Chromosomes are arranged at the centre of the cell.
Spindle fibers are holding the centromere of the
chromosomes.
t to
No

Fig 14.18 Anaphase II

187
 Centromere of the chromosomes divides.
Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles.

d
is he
re S B
bl Fig 14.19 Telophase II
be T
pu
Chromosomes have changed to chromatin network.
K

Nucleolus has reappeared.

Nuclear membrane has reappeared.

Four daughter nuclei are formed.

With the completion of telophase II, nuclear division also
completes. As a result of the division of cytoplasm, four daughter
cells are formed.
t to
No

Fig 14.20 Telophase II

188
 These cells have only half the number of chromosomes as that
of their mother cell. These cells are the reproductive cells which take
part in sexual reproduction. Summarise the differences between
mitosis and meiosis in the form of a table.

Mitosis Meiosis

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
t
to
No

Comparison of mitosis and meiosis

Thus cell division plays a very important role in growth, repair

and healing of wounds, and also in reproduction.

189
 Exercises:
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the incomplete
statements / questions. Choose the answer.
1. The preparatory stage of cell division is
a. Prophase b. Anaphase
c. Interphase d. Metaphase
2. The stage of cell division in which centromere divides is

d
a. Anaphase II b. Anaphase I

he
c. Telophase I d. Telophase II
3. Meiosis plays an important role in

is
re S
a. Growth b. Replacement of dead cells
B
bl
c. Reproduction d. Healing of wounds
4. The stage immediately after prophase II is
be T
pu
a. Metaphase I b. Telophase I
K

c. Metaphase II d. Telophase II

5. A cell has 46 chromosomes in it. It undergoes meiosis

division. The number of chromosomes present in daughter
cells is
a. 23 pairs b. 46
c. 46 pairs d. 23
to

II. Answer the following

1. What is cell division?
2. Explain prophase of meiosis I.
t
No

3. Explain the importance of metaphase in mitosis.

4. Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis.
5. Differentiate between anaphase I and anaphase II.
6. Write the significance of mitosis and meiosis.

190
 Chapter 15

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
After studying this chapter you
define what reproduction is.
learn why living organisms reproduce.
learn about asexual and sexual reproductions.
explain how amoeba reproduces.

d
differentiate between male and female cockroach.

he
learn about the male and female reproductive systems of
cockroach.
learn about the male and female reproductive systems of human

is
beings.
re S
learn the process and importance of menstrual cycle in human
B
female.
bl
learn about the sad story of female infanticide in India and its
be T

possible after effects.

pu
come to know how twins are formed.
K

acquire knowledge about Assisted Reproductive Techniques (ART)

such as IVF.

Dear children, in this chapter you are introduced to human

reproductive systems and other important information about sex.
Knowledge of reproductive system helps you to learn about the changes
that occur within your bodies. It removes the ignorance and
misinformation that corrupt your minds; it prevents you from committing
errors in your judgements about interaction with the opposite sex. Proper,
to

authentic knowledge of sex can minimise the incidence of shameless

indulgence in immoral sex, teenage pregnancy and irresponsible
parenthood.
t
No

Knowledge of reproductive system enriches your mind. It boosts

your confidence as you enter puberty. If you are not fed with adequate
information about changes that occur in your body, you become afraid
or confused about the situation you face. You may grow up timid and
lack the courage to face the society around you. So learn and
understand the given information with an open mind. Grow up into a
responsible citizen.

191
 Reproduction is a very important character of living organisms.
Reproduction means production of young ones which resemble the
parents. Reproduction is necessary because an organism cannot live
for ever. After birth it gradually grows into an adult, becomes old and
finally dies. If animals die like this, a day will come when all animals
of a species disappear and the species becomes extinct. Hence, in
order to maintain and continue the species animals reproduce.
Remember!

d
Reproduction is not at all essential for the survival of an

he
individual. It is, however, essential for two reasons:
i. To continue ones progeny
ii. It provides group immortality by replacing the dead member with

is
re S
new ones for the survival of the species.
B
bl
Activity 15.1
Dissolve about 10 gm of Sugar in 100 ml of water.
be T
pu
Take 20 ml of this solution in a test tube and add a pinch of yeast
K

granules to it.
Put a cotton plug on the mouth of the test tube and keep it in a

warm place.
After one or two hours, put a small drop of yeast culture from the
test tube on a slide and cover it with a cover slip.
Observe the slide under a microscope.
Activity 15.2
to

Wet a slice of bread and keep it in a cool, moist and dark place.
Observe the surface of the slice with a magnifying glass.
Record your observations for a week.
t
No

Compare and contrast the ways in which yeast grows in the first
case and how mould grows in the second.
Reproduction in animals occurs in different ways. In lower
organisms like Amoeba it is very simple. Only one amoeba takes part
in the process. This type of reproduction is called asexual
reproduction.

192
 Think ! Have you heard of animals arising from non-living things?
Small maggots arise from cow dung or dead bodies of animals.
When a mango fruit is cut open an insect emerges from it. How is
this possible? Do non-living things give rise to living beings? Discuss
this with your friends and teachers.
During favourable conditions, amoeba stops moving, its nucleus
divides into two, the cytoplasm in the middle of the amoeba becomes
gradually narrow and divides into two parts. Each part contains a

d
nucleus. Thus two new amoebae are formed. This type of reproduction
in which a single amoeba divides into two is known as binary fission.

he
During unfavourable or drought conditions amoeba reproduces
by another method known as multiple fission. During this process

is
re S
amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia, stops movement and becomes
more or less spherical. A hard resistant cover develops around the
B
bl
body. It is known as cyst.
be T
pu
K
t
to

Fig. 15.01
No

AMOEBA - ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION BY BINARY FISSION

The amoeba is now said to be in an encysted condition. The

nucleus divides into many daughter nuclei. This is followed by the
division of the cytoplasm into as many pieces as there are nuclei.
Each nucleus is surrounded a cytoplasmic piece. In this encysted
condition amoeba spends the unfavourable period.

193
 Think! Try to find out what are the conditions which are favourable
and unfavourable to amoeba.
When conditions once again become favourable the cyst wall
breaks and each uninucleate piece of cytoplasm escapes and becomes
a new amoeba.

d
is he
re S
Fig. 15.02 AMOEBA-MULTIPLE FISSION
B
Activity 15.3
bl
be T

Mention four animals in which both asexual and sexual

pu
reproduction occur.
K

Mention two animals which are bisexual, i.e., the same animal
possesses both male and female reproductive systems.

Let us study the process of reproduction in a more complex animal,

the cockroach. Cockroach is a multicellular animal. It has well
developed reproductive system. The sexes are separate there are
male and female cockroaches.
Think ! In lower organisms asexual reproduction takes place. But
to

in higher organisms it is replaced by sexual reproduction. Why?

What advantage does sexual reproduction confer to these organisms?
The male reproductive system of cockroach consists of:
t
No

i. A pair of testes present in the abdomen.

ii. Mushroom shaped gland
iii. Small seminal vesicles are also found associated with
mushroom gland.
iv. All sperms of a seminal vesicle are glued together into a
large bundle called spermatophore.

194
 d
he
Fig. 15.03 Reproductive System of Cockroach

The female reproductive system of cockroach consists of:

is
re S
i. a pair of ovaries
B
bl
ii. a pair of oviducts
iii. a vagina
be T

iv. a genital chamber

pu
v. a pair of sperm sacs
K

vi. a pair of colleterial glands.

Each ovary is made of 8 ovarian tubules located in the abdominal

segments. An oviduct arises from each ovary. They fuse and form the
vagina which opens into genital chamber. The colleterial glands also
open in genital chamber.
During sexual reproduction the male
cockroach transfers the sperm into the
sperm sacs of the female. An egg is
to

released from each ovarian tubule. Hence

16 eggs are released at a time. The sperm
stored in the sperm sacs are used for
t
No

fertilizing the 16 eggs. Soon after Fig. 15.04

fertilization the colleterial glands secrete OOTHECA ATTACHED TO THE ABDOMEN
a fluid which forms a hard cover around
the eggs. This cover is known as egg case or ootheca. The 16 fertilized
eggs are arranged in two rows. The ootheca may be shed in a concealed
place. It is sticky and adheres to the wall or door or table or such
objects. The ootheca is dark brown in colour.

195
 The eggs hatch into small young ones. They differ from the adult
in having a smaller size, absence of wings and reproductive system.
Such young ones are known as nymphs. The newly hatched nymphs
are generally white in colour. Later a brown substance called chitin
is deposited on the skin, making the cockroach look brownish. Chitin
is very hard and it does not allow the nymph to grow. The nymph
tears the chitinous skin, frees itself and starts growing.
Think! Cockroaches are generally brown in colour. But during

d
early stages of development we come across cockroaches which

he
are white in colour. What is the reason?

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 15.05 Life Cycle of Cockroach

But soon again chitin is deposited and the growth stops. Thus,
the nymph does not grow continuously but grows in instalments.
There is frequent tearing of the chitinous skin so that it can grow.
to

This process of shedding or tearing the body skin periodically is known

as moulting.
This occurs about 5-6 times before the nymph has fully grown
t

into an adult. Thus the different stages of the life cycle of cockroach
No

consists of: adult, eggs and nymph.

Think ! Insects undergo moulting. What is the reason for this? Can
you recollect a similar process in any higher group of animals?
Discuss with your teachers and learn.
In some insects the eggs hatch into young ones which very much
resembles the adult except in size. This type of development is said

196
 to be direct. In some insects, however,
the eggs hatch into young ones which
differ totally or partially from the adult.
The young ones which are markedly
different from the adult are called larvae.
If the larva has to grow into an adult it
has to undergo a series of changes all
over the body. All such changes that
occur in the larva so as to resemble the

d
adult are collectively known as Fig. 15.06

he
metamorphosis. This type of Adult cockroach with young ones
development involving larva and
metamorphosis is said to be indirect.

is
re S
Think! Have you seen any vertebrate animal which has a larval
B
bl
stage in its development and undergoes metamorphosis?
be T

Think! The young one of a butterfly is called a larva or caterpillar.

pu
Similarly, can you call the child as the larva of man?
K

In Charakasamhita Sharirasthanam, human embryo is described as :

J^` Mdm[a MVw{dYm{Z ^yVm{Z _mVm{nVg^dm{Z&

AmhmaO`m_H$Vm{Z Md gd` gdm{U ^dpV Xoho&&
MaH$g{hVm earaWmZ_ 2.26
Garbhasya chatvaari chaturvidhani Bhutani Matapitrusambhavani I
Aaharajanyathmakruthani chaiva Sarvasya sarvani bhavanthi dehe II
(Charakasamhita Sharirasthaanam 2.26)
to

An embryo has four components, derived from - Mother, Father,

Food & Developed by itself.
t

Now let us learn how reproduction occurs in human beings. Boys

No

and girls belong to two different sexes. There are certain body parts that
develop only in boys and parts that only girls have. As they are still
young, these parts are not yet fully developed. But as they begin to
grow, several changes take place. These changes are normal and a part
of life and you need not be afraid of such changes. As a child, know that
your body is yours, and you should feel proud of it. You should also like
to know the different organs in your body and their functions.

197
 Biologically the main aim of sexual reproduction is to make the
sperm and the egg to fuse, resulting in the making of a baby.
Reproduction in humans takes place by sexual method. In this method
two sexual cells, one from the male and another from the female,
come together and fuse. The resulting cell is known as a zygote.
Since the sexual cells of male and female fuse, the resulting child
receives some characters of the male parent and some characters of
the female parent. After fertilization the female carries the offspring
in her uterus through pregnancy leading to child-birth.

d
Know This: The testes are placed outside in the scrotum where the

he
temperature is about 2-3 degrees less than the body temperature.
Sperms are delicate and cannot tolerate the high temperature of the
body. Hence this arrangement.

is
re S
The sexual cell of the male is known as sperm and the sexual cell
of the female is known as ovum. Sperms are produced in the
B
bl
reproductive system of the male while the ova are produced in the
reproductive system of the female.
be T
pu
Although the timings of these changes are different for every
K

person, the stages of puberty generally follow a set sequence:

In the male, hair begins to appear in the pubic area and later

it grows on the face and underarms.

His voice becomes rough.
Boys undergo a growth spurt during puberty as they reach
their adult height and weight.
The male reproductive system becomes functional. Puberty is the
start of adolescence.
to

The male genitals include:

the testicles.
the duct system, which includes the epididymis and the vas
t

deferens.
No

the accessory glands, which include the seminal vesicles

and prostate gland.
the penis.
Testis : In a male there are two testicles or testes found in a special
pouch called scrotum. Testis produces and stores innumerable
microscopic cells called sperms. Each sperm has an oval head and a

198
 long tail which helps in swimming. About 5
hundred million sperms are deposited at a time
out of which one succeeds in fertilizing the
egg. The testis secretes a male sex hormone
known as Testosterone which helps in the
normal development of sperms. Life span of
sperm after ejacuation is about five to seven
days. Most of them may die in one or two days.

d
Sperm duct: From each testis a long tube
arises. It is the sperm duct. The sperm ducts

he
of the two sides unite to form a common duct Fig. 15.7
called urethra. The urethra opens out through
the penis.

is
re S
Penis : It is a muscular structure. It enables the insertion of sperm
B
bl
into the female reproductive system.
The male system is assisted by a pair of sac-like seminal vesicles
be T
pu
which open into the sperm duct, and a prostate gland. The secretions
K

of these glands form whitish fluid called seminal fluid. It mixes with
the sperm to form semen.

The female reproductive system is found in the woman. It enables

a woman to:
Produce eggs
Protect and nourish the fertilized egg until it is fully developed.
Gives birth to a child.
The female reproductive system starts functioning after a girl
to

attains puberty. These changes are initiated by hormonal signals from

the brain to the ovaries. The ovaries, in turn, produce hormones that
stimulate the growth, function and transformation of the brain, bones,
t

muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts and sex organs. Their hips start to
No

widen. Puberty transforms a girl into a woman. It means that she has
reached the adolescent stage. Girls generally enter puberty around
the ages of 11 or 12.
Think! The ovum is generally spherical and undifferentiated. But
the sperm is long, slender and is highly specialized; it is differentiated
into a head, middle piece and a tail. What is the reason for this?

199
 The female reproductive system consists of the following parts:
A pair of almond-shaped glands is present on the upper right
and left sides of the uterus. They are called ovaries. Each ovary
produces a number of ova or eggs. Only one egg usually ripens every
month. The two ovaries release the eggs alternatively every month.
The release of an egg from the ovary is known as ovulation.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T

Uterus
pu
K

Fig. 15.08 Reproductive System

The ovaries secrete two important female sex hormones Estrogen

and Progesterone. Estrogen helps the growth and maturity of the
ovum and progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy and
maintains pregnancy.
A pair of tubes is present below the ovaries. They are called
to

Fallopian tubes. They are about 10 centimetres long. Each Fallopian

tube has a funnel at its base. The two ducts open into the uterus at
its upper corners.
t

Uterus is an inverted triangular sac-like structure. It is commonly

No

called womb. When a woman is not pregnant, it is about three inches

long and two inches wide. Its walls are thick, muscular and very
strong. They can expand to accommodate a growing child.
The uterus narrows down into a hollow muscular tube called
vagina. Its walls are highly muscular. Because of this property the
vagina can expand to allow a baby through it during childbirth.

200
 Think! A uterus is present in the group Mammals. The developing
embryo is placed here during its development. Where does the
embryo of other animal groups develop? What difference do you
notice in the development of a mammal and other groups of
animals?
The vagina serves three purposes:
1. It receives the sperms from the male.
2. It acts as the pathway for a baby during childbirth.

d
3. It is the passage for the menstrual blood to leave the body from

he
the uterus.
In a mature woman, there is a Know This :

is
regular reproductive cycle which extends
re S
to a period of 28 days. This cycle is called
B
bl
menstrual cycle. It begins when an
ovum matures. At that time the walls of
be T

the uterus become thick and spongy with

pu
plenty of blood supply. Ovulation usually
K

occurs in the middle (14th day) of the

menstrual cycle.

An egg has a limited life span of

between 24 to 48 hours. If, at that time,
it fuses with a sperm, the woman can
become pregnant. The fertilized egg
moves into the uterus and develops into a child. During pregnancy
the menstrual cycle stops.
to

If the egg is not fertilized, the menstrual cycle continues. 14

days after ovulation, the soft tissues lining the uterus breakdown.
The broken tissues along with the blood are discharged from the
t
No

uterus through the vagina. This process is known as menstruation.

Menstruation generally lasts 3 to 5 days. When menstruation ends
another egg begins to ripen in the ovary and the whole cycle starts
afresh.
When a ripened egg drops into the Fallopian tube it is pushed
ahead towards the uterus. It takes several days for the egg to reach
the uterus. The egg encounters a sperm towards the terminal part of

201
 the Fallopian tube. The egg and sperm fuse there. The process of
fusion of the male and female sexual cells is known as fertilization
and the result of fertilization is known as zygote. Within about 5-6
days after fertilization, the zygote reaches the uterus. On reaching
the uterus the zygote embeds itself deep in the soft, spongy wall of
the uterus. By repeated divisions a ball of cells is formed. Up to the
first 8 weeks of development the zygote is known as embryo. The
embryo enters the uterus and attaches to its inner wall. The
reproductive cycle in a woman is guided and controlled by 4 important

d
hormones. They include:

he
a) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
b) Luteinising hormone (LH)

is
c) Estrogen
re S
d) Progesterone.
B
bl
Follicle stimulating hormone helps in the growth of ovarian follicles
be T

in the ovary. It also stimulates the ovary to secrete the hormone

pu
estrogen. Estrogen helps in the development of secondary sexual
K

characters in woman. It also helps in the repair of the inner lining of

the uterus after menstruation.

Luteinising hormone helps in the maturation and release of

mature egg from the follicle (ovulation). After the egg is released the
empty follicle is stimulated to secrete the hormone progesterone.
This hormone helps in the inner lining of the uterus to become thicker
and also maintains pregnancy in the uterus. If the egg is not fertilised,
secretion of estrogen and progesterone stops, the lining of the uterus
to

breaks down and menstruation occurs. Since the egg and sperm unite
with one another within the body of the female, fertilization in human
beings is said to be internal.
t

Internal fertilization confers certain advantages. It generally

No

occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals. The benefits of internal

fertilization are:
a. The egg is safe and protected from predators in the
reproductive system of the female.
b. Fertilization of the egg is ensured.

202
 c. Less number of young ones are produced.
d. After internal fertilization the female secretes a protective shell
around the egg (as in reptiles and birds) to protect the
developing embryo inside. Hence the egg can be deposited in
a dry environment for development.
The embryo starts development in the uterus of the mother.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
Fig. 15.09
K

Uterus With Foetus

What is gestation?

Gestation is the duration of pregnancy; or, it is the period of growth

of the foetus from conception to birth.
The gestation period of the human foetus is about 38 to 40 weeks
or about 280 days.
Gestation periods of some animals
to

Animal Gestation period

Dog 61 days
t

Cat 64 days
No

Monkey 164 days

Human 266-280 days
Cow 279-292 days
Horse 330-342 days
Elephant 616 days

203
 There was a glorious time in our country when a girl child was
adored as Goddess and treasured as an asset. The arrival of a girl
child was greeted with great celebration. She was, after all, the gift
of God. But we have moved on to the 21st century - we are a highly
advanced and civilized society. Technology has improved to such an
extent that we can pre-determine the sex of the growing foetus in the
womb of the mother between the 13th and 16th week.
Know This: Swami Vivekananda said the best thermometer to the

d
progress of a nation is its treatment to its women It is not possible

he
for a bird to fly on one wing.
In many parts of our country sons are traditionally viewed as the
main bread-winners and daughters as a burden or liability having

is
re S
to pay heavy dowry to get them married. Lack of economic
independence, social customs and traditions have reduced the female
B
bl
to a secondary status.
be T

Think! You are the only son of your parents. Imagine that your
pu
mother has gone on a holiday to your grandparents house in another
K

city for one month. List the various problems and difficulties you
and your father face in her absence.

Who determines the sex of the Child : Who determines the sex of
the child? It is the daughter-in-law, says the mother-in-law. If she
does not bear a male child this time she is doomed. But this is far
from truth. It has been genetically established that it is the son, and
not the daughter-in-law, who determines the sex of the child! Again,
it is sheer chance!
to

This has led to a large scale killing of the female child in India. It
is estimated that in the last 2 decades around 10 million girl children
t

have been mercilessly murdered by female infanticide. According to

No

the findings of the United Nations, an estimated 2000 unborn girls

are illegally terminated every day in India.
The 2011 census puts Indias population as 1.21 billion and the
sex ratio is 927.23 females: 1000 males. Such large scale female
infanticide is going on though pre-determination of the sex of the
foetus is legally banned by law.

204
 d
is he
Fig. 15.10
re S
An awareness poster against female foeticide
B
bl
Know This : In the rich state of Haryana, where female infanticide
is the highest, 36% of men in the age group of 16 to 45 have remained
be T
pu
unmarried due to non-availability of girls. At the time of
K

independence, there were 946 women per 1000 men. As on 2011, it

stands at 861 women. What a tragedy!

It is the duty and responsibility of the younger generations to

change this dangerous trend. Can you imagine a society without
women? Is it ever possible? Such a society has to face the following
potential consequences:
Increase in violence against women and denial of basic right
to them.
to

Increase in sex related crime.

Adverse impact on reproductive health of women due to
repeated pregnancy and abortions.
t
No

Adverse impact on mental health of women as they are

normally blamed for their inability to produce a son.
Difficulty in finding a life partner.
Have you heard of twins? Twins are two or more young babies
who are simultaneously born from one mother in the same pregnancy.
There is, however, always a gap of at least a few seconds, or usually
several minutes, between the births.
205
 Twins are of two types:
1. Monozygotic twins
1. Dizygotic twins.
Monozygotic twins
develop from one ovum. To
begin with, an ovum is
released from one of the
ovaries in the normal process;

d
it is fertilized by a sperm. The

he
zygote starts dividing. When
the zygote is in the 2-cell
stage, due to some unknown Fig. 15.11 (a) Fig. 15.11 (b)

is
re S
reasons, the two cells separate and become independent. Each cell
develops into a separate baby. In this case both the babies have
B
bl
identical genetic components and hence have common features
including sex. They are said to be identical or maternal twins.
be T
pu
K

to

Fig. 15.12 (a) Fig. 15.12 (b) Fig. 15.12 (c)

Identical Twins Fratenal Twins Siamese Twins
t
No

Dizygotic twins develop from two different ova. Very rarely, two
ova are released at the same time instead of one. Both ova are fertilized
by two different sperm. Each zygote develops into a baby. The two
babies need not be identical because their genetic components are
quite different; they may belong to the same sex or different sexes.
Such twins are called non-identical or fraternal twins. In a
reproductive cycle if more than two ova are released at the same time

206
 and all of them are fertilized simultaneously and develop into children
in the same pregnancy, multiple births occur.
Know This : Siamese twins are identical (monozygotic) twins joined
together at birth. Siamese twins are so called because it was first
reported in Siam (now Thailand) in 1811. The twins were named
Chang and Eng Bunker (1811-1874). They were associated with a
circus company for many years and earned lots of money.

d
Activity 15.4
Watch CDs/DVDs regarding human development and twins (triplets

he
and quadraplets) in your school AV room. The DVDs can be procured
from National Geographic.

is
Soon after marriage the main and immediate aim of the couple is
re S
to beget children. In normal course a couple should bear children in
B
bl
about one years time. But due to many reasons some women do not
become pregnant even after one year of married life. Such couples
be T

face fertility problems. They approach their doctors for treatment for
pu
infertility. Some of them are fortunate to become pregnant. But again,
K

others are unlucky. Such couples are left with the only alternative
they resort to artificial methods of becoming pregnant.

Any procedure adapted to aid in conception, development and

birth when natural processes fail to function normally is known as
assisted reproductive technology (ART). Many childless couples have
now become proud parents due to such assisted reproductive
techniques.
Men and women are equally responsible for infertility. One main
to

reason for infertility among women is their damaged Fallopian tube.

If the passage of the Fallopian tube is jammed or blocked, the egg
cannot travel up towards the uterus and sperm too cannot reach the
t

egg for fusion. Under such conditions the egg is taken out of the
No

Fallopian tube and placed in a liquid medium in a petri dish in a

laboratory. Then sperms of the husband are collected and added to
the petri dish. Fertilization of the egg occurs in the petri dish, outside
the body of the woman.
Think ! If the uterus of a woman is defective or surgically removed,
can she still bear children?

207
 This is known as in vitro fertilization (IVF). After fertilization
the zygote is inserted into the uterus of the woman for normal
implantation and development.

d
is he
Fig. 15.14
re S
Female reproductive system with damaged Fallopian tube
B
bl
Know This : Worlds first test tube baby On
be T

July 25, 1978, the worlds first test-tube baby

pu
a girl child - was born in Bristol, England. She
K

was named as Louise Joy Brown. Dr. Robert

Edwards and Dr. Patrick Steptoe were the two

doctors who successfully created the first test tube

baby. Edwards was awarded Nobel Prize for
Medicine in 2010 for creation of the first test tube
Louise Btown-
baby. But he had to wait for 32 long years for worlds 1st
this honour. test tube baby

Think! Is IVF the only alternative for infertility? Are there any
to

alternatives? Search for an answer.

Since fertilization occurs in a glass container (petri dish) it is said

t

to be in vitro fertilization (IVF). IVF literally means the joining of an

No

egg and a sperm in a glass container. The child born out of this
process is called test tube baby by the common man.
Know This : The term in vitro is a Latin word for in glass, because
conception takes place in the laboratory in a glass dish. A baby
develops from an egg that was fertilized outside the body and later
inserted into the mothers uterus for further development.

208
 The first successful test tube baby in India was produced by Dr.
Subhash Mukhyopadhyay on October 3, 1978 in Kolkata, just 70
days after the first test tube baby of the world, Louise Brown was
born. The female child was named as Durga alias Kanupriya Agarwal.

d
is he
re S B
bl Fig. 15.15
be T
pu
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in 2005
K

acknowledged Mukhyopadhyay as the creator of Indias first test tube

baby. His work has been recognised by foreign scientists. He has

been officially regarded as the first doctor to perform in-vitro

fertilization in India. Medical scientists opine that had Dr. Subhash
been allowed to publish his work and released adequate funds to
complete his research, he would probably have overtaken Dr. Edwards
and would have grabbed the coveted Nobel award.

EXERCISES
to

I. Four options have been given for each question. Select the
most appropriate answer from them
t

1. Reproduction in amoeba takes place by:

No

a) budding b) binary fission

c) laying eggs d) giving birth to young amoeba.
2. The male sexual cell is called:
a) sperm b) ovum
c) egg d) embryo.

209
 3. The young one of a cockroach is called:
a) Larva b) caterpillar
c) nymph d) tadpole.
4. The process of the union of an egg and a sperm is known as:
a) asexual reproduction b) multiple fission
c) zygote d) fertilization.

d
5. Test tube baby means:
a) The egg is fertilized in a test tube and a baby is born in a

he
test tube in the laboratory.
b) Egg is fertilized in the womans body and the child

is
re S
develops in a test tube.
c) Egg is fertilized in a petri dish and the child develops in a
B
bl
test tube.
be T

d) Egg is fertilized in a petri dish but development takes

pu
place in the uterus.
K

6. During the development of cockroach the young nymph sheds

its body skin several times to grow. This process is known as:
a) Metamorphosis b) Moulting
c) Menstruation d) Direct development.
II. Fill up the blanks with appropriate words
1. Indias first test tube baby was created by ____________.
to

2. If a couple are unable to deliver a baby even one year after

normal married life, this condition is known as _______________.
t

3. When an egg is fertilized outside the body of a woman, this

No

technique is known as ______________.

4. When twins are conjoined at the time of birth they are called
______________ twins.
5. When an egg is fertilized in a woman, it develops into a child
in the ______________
210
 III. Match the following
Column A Column B
1. Cyst a. woman
2. Sperm sac b. Amoeba
3. Fallopian tube c. Man
4. Scrotum d. Cockroach

d
IV. Answer the following questions

he
1. Expand IVF.
2. When does Amoeba reproduce by multiple fission?

is
3. What is the function of sperm sac in cockroach?
re S
4. What is metamorphosis?
B
bl
5. What is ovulation?
be T

6. On which day of the menstrual cycle is the ovum released?

pu
K

7. How are monozygotic twins produced?

8. What is implantation?

9. What is the function of Follicle Stimulating Hormone?

10. What is gestation?
t to
No

211
 Chapter 16

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
After studying this chapter you,
identify the use of convex lens in day-to-day life.
tabulate the differences between simple microscope and
compound microscope.

d
draw ray diagrams to show the working principle of astronomical

he
telescope and terrestrial telescope.
state the uses of optical instruments in Astrophysics, Microbiology
and Medical sciences.

is
re S
Eye is a wonderful organ. It is like a window to the world. But
B
bl
minute things and the details of distant objects like stars are not
visible to the eye. Human curiosity to study them led to the invention
be T
pu
of the optical instruments, which can extend the range of our vision.
K

When your watch is out of order, you visit a horologist. Have you
observed the instrument used to examine the small parts of a watch?

A palmist uses a device which helps him in observing the pattern

of lines on the palm. What is the device used?
In the above cases the device used to see and study the minute
parts and particles which the naked eye cannot see is a Simple
Microscope. It is nothing but a convex lens of shorter focal length
provided with a frame and a handle. It is more commonly known as a
to

hand lens or a magnifying glass.

t
No

Fig. 16.1 Hand lens

212
 Activity16.1
Make your own reading lens.
Put a drop of clean water on a transparent glass plate.
Take a metal ring. Fasten transparent plastic sheet, pour water.
Now you will get almost a Plano-convex lens.

Let us recall how the convex

lens produces an enlarged virtual

d
image of an object when the

he
object is placed within the
principle focus. In this position,
the lens behaves like a simple

is
Fig. 16.2
microscope. The formation of an
re S
image can be understood using the ray diagram.
B
bl
Know this: The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object
be T
pu
is called magnification of a lens M = Image size / Object size can
K

D
be shown that M = 1 + For a simple microscope where : D= least
f

distance of distinct vision

f = focal length of the convex lens. the value of D is constant, for
a normal eye, it is 25cm).

The uses of a simple microscope are

1. to observe the magnified virtual image of small and near objects
to

2. used by watch repairers and jewelers

3. to read small letters
4. used by palmists to read the lines on a palm.
t
No

When doctors advise for a blood test you go to a pathologist. The

blood cells are so minute that a simple microscope cannot be used to
see them. Similarly very small organisms like bacteria and fungi cannot
be viewed through a simple microscope. You need a microscope of
higher magnification called a Compound Microscope for this purpose.
We can get a magnification 20 to 500 times by using a compound
microscope.
213
 The microscope which consists of two convex lenses of
different focal lengths separated by a constant distance co-axially
in a tube is called a compound microscope.

d
he
Fig. 16.3 (b)

is
re S
Fig. 16.3 (a)
B
bl
Construction
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses. They are
be T
pu
fitted co-axially on the outer ends of a cylindrical sliding tube. The
K

lens of smaller focal length directed towards the object is called

objective. The other lens of larger focal length held close to the eye

is called an eye piece.

Working
By varying the distance between the object and the objective using
rack and pinion (a sort of gear arrangement) arrangement a clear
image can be obtained. Let us consider a tiny object AB placed
between F and 2F of the objective. A magnified real inverted image
to

A1B1 is formed beyond 2F of the objective. This image acts as the

object placed within Fe of the eye piece. The eye piece forms a magnified
virtual erect image A''B'' on the same side of the object A'B'. The final
t

image inverted with respect to the object AB is as shown in the above

No

ray diagram
The microscope is used to see tiny objects, germs, plant cells,
blood corpuscles etc. in laboratory of bioscience.
Telescope:
You know that moon has mountains and craters. Do you know
how were satellites of planet Jupiter, which are so far from the earth
214
 were discovered? What do you think is the
instrument used to observe the changes in
the appearance of Sun or moon during an
eclipse? To make distant objects appear
close to ones eye, we need an instrument
called telescope.

The first telescope was designed by

John Lippershey in 1608. In the year 1609,

d
Galileo made a telescope to observe distant

he
celestial bodies. Fig. 16.4 John Leppershey

Astronomical telescope and Terrestrial telescope are two types of

is
telescope.
re S
A telescope which is used to view celestial objects such as
B
bl
stars, planets and satellites is called an Astronomical Telescope.
be T
pu
Astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses of different
K

focal lengths, fixed co-axially on the outer ends of a cylindrical sliding

tube. The lens of larger focal length is objective and the lens with a

smaller focal length is the eye piece.

t to
No

Fig. 16.5

Let us study the working of astronomical telescope. The rays from

a distant object AB form a parallel beam of light. This parallel beam
of light is incident on the objective lens. Real and inverted image A'B'
is formed at the focus of the objective. The distance between the

215
 objective and the eye piece is now adjusted to get the image of the
distant object within the focal length of the eye piece. The real image
A'B' acts as an object for the eye piece. The eye piece now acts as a
magnifying glass, it produces a virtual image A''B'' of the distant
object with a little magnification.

Activity 16.2
Take two cylindrical tubes such that one slides over the other. Fix

d
two convex lenses of different focal length at free ends. Hold it in front
of the eye so that the lens of longer focal length is towards a distant

he
object. Viewing the object through the lens of shorter focal length, adjust
the tubes one over the other to get a clear image of the distant object.
Observe that the distant object appears very close to the eye and also

is
re S
inverted.
B
bl
Know this : Depending upon the needs, like capturing the different
stages during eclipse, the eye-piece in the telescope may be replaced
be T
pu
by a camera or some electronic recording equipment.
K

The Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) with its head quarters

in Bangalore is a premier national institute of India for the study of

and research on topics pertaining to Astronomy and Astrophysics

related subjects.
The institute has a network of laboratories and observatories
located in various places in India, including Kodaikanal, Kavalur
(Tamil Nadu), Gouribidanur (in Karnataka, a Radio telescope which
identify the stars emitting radio waves is installed), Hanle (J&K) and
to

Hosakote (Karnataka).
t
No

Hanle( Jammu & Kashmir) Kodaikanal (Tamilnadu)

216
 Know This: The objective of the telescope
should have a large aperture if fine
details and a bright image are required.
In the case of refracting telescope the
objective is a combination of lenses. But
objective of very large aperture cannot be
manufactured. Therefore in very large
telescopes the objective is a paraboloidal

d
mirror instead of a converging lens. These

he
are called reflecting telescopes. First
reflecting telescope was constructed by Newton in 1668. A
Photograph of a reflecting telescope made by Sir Isaac

is
Newton and presented to the Royal Society in 1671 is shown
re S
above.
B
bl
Think ! The aperture and focal length of the objective of a
be T

microscope are small. Why?

pu
K

The aperture and focal length of the objective of a telescope

are large. Why?

In an astronomical telescope, the final image is inverted with

respect to the object, it does not matter whether the image is inverted
or erect in case of heavenly bodies like the stars, planets or satellites
which are nearly spherical. This creates practical difficulty if it is
used to see the distant objects on the earth, as in the following fig.
t to
No

Fig. 16.6 (a) Fig. 16.6 (b)

Original Picture as it appears in Astronomical
Telescope

217
 To remove this difficulty, a telescope which is used to view the
errect image of the distant objects on the earth, is called Terrestrial
telescope.

The terrestrial telescope is Galilean Telescope designed by

Galileo in 1609. It forms an erect image of a distant object. In this
telescope a convex lens is used as objective and a concave lens as the
eye piece.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 16.7

Parallel beam of incident rays from a distant object AB are focused

by the objective O. A real inverted and diminished image A'B' would
have been formed at its focus. The eyepiece intercepts the converging
rays in between. A'B' then acts as the object for the eye piece. The
concave lens diverges the rays and produces a virtual erect image
to

A''B''. Note : fo > fe

Camera
t

When you go out on a picnic you see many beautiful things and
No

scenes in nature. Eye can capture these images as long as the object
is in front of it. What should be done to make the image remain
permanently on the screen even if the object is removed? The
instrument used to obtain permanent image of an object or a scene
is called a photographic camera.

218
 Know this: A simple conventional camera depends entirely on
chemical and mechanical processes. It consists of a light-tight box.
At one end of the box there is a convex lens and other end of the
box a movable film is mounted. Just behind the lens, there is a
circular diaphragm with an aperture of variable diameter to control
the amount of light reaching the film. Behind the diaphragm there
is a shutter of variable speed to control the time of exposure of the
film. The box is provided with bellows (focusing ring) to adjust

d
distance between the lens and the film. When the shutter is opened,
light rays coming from the object fall on the light sensitive

he
photographic film fixed in the camera and an image of the object is
formed on the film. The exposed film is removed from the camera

is
and chemically processed to get the negative. From the negative,
re S
the actual photograph of the object is obtained.
B
bl
be T

Film
pu
Image
K

x lens
Conve

Bellows
Fig. 16.8 (a) Fig. 16.8 (b)

Now a days digital cameras have completely replaced film cameras.

digital Camera is just like a conventional camera, it has a (series of)
to

lenses that focus light to create an image of a scene. But instead of

focusing this light on to a piece of a film, it focuses it on to a
semiconductor device that records light electronically.
t

All digital cameras have a built in electronics, which converts

No

the electronic information into digital data.

Note : The digital camera has no film. Instead it has a sensor that
converts light into electrical charges.
Charge coupled device (CCD) and complementary Metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) are two types of sensors.

219
 Binocular

Is it not a pleasure to watch cricket match live in a stadium? Can

you watch the minute details of the match sitting in the gallery? Or
see a distant animal clearly in a wild life safari? These are possible by
using a device called Binocular.

The optical instrument used, for field work like military operations,
in a play ground to watch matches, in sight seeing is binocular.

d
he
PP1 Reflecting prisms
P P1

is
re S B
P1
P
bl
be T

Fig. 16.9 (b)

pu
Fig. 16.9 (a)
K

It consists of two astronomical telescopes mounted side by side,

one for each eye. It is provided with a screw by means of which

focusing can be adjusted. Each telescope contains two total reflecting
prisms, which help in inverting the image formed by the objective. As
a result the final image is erect and magnified.

EXERCISES
to

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following

incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer
t

1. The optical instrument which is used to view cricket match is

No

a. simple microscope b. compound microscope

c. astronomical telescope d. binocular

2. Telescopes make the far objects appear

a. farther b. nearer
c. highly magnified d. disappear

220
 3. The type of lens used as a simple microscope
a. binocular lens b. Plano concave lens
c. concave convex lens d. convex lens

4. The final image in a compound microscope is

a. real and inverted b. virtual and inverted
c. real and erect d. virtual and erect

d
II Fill in the blanks

he
1. Name of an optical instrument which is used to see erect
image of a distant object is _____________.
2. The type of lens used to make objective of an astronomical

is
re S
telescope is ______________.
B
bl
3. The lens placed towards the object in an optical instrument
is called__________.
be T
pu
4. The first telescope was designed by _____________.
K

III Match the following

A B
1. Simple microscope a) real and highly magnified
image
2. Compound microscope b) virtual and diminished image
3. Astronomical telescope c) virtual and magnified image
to

4. Binocular d) real and diminished image

e) erect and magnified image
t

f) virtual and lightly magnified

No

g) erect and diminished image

IV Answer the following in a word or in a sentence each

1. What is a telescope?
2. Name the two types of microscopes.

221
 3. What is a photographic camera?
4. Mention any two uses of a simple microscope.

V. Answer the following

1. Explain the working of a compound microscope.
2. Mention any two uses of a binocular.
3. Write any two differences between a binocular and a

d
terrestrial telescope.

he
4. Explain the method of construction of an astronomical
telescope.
5. Give scientific reason for the following.

is
re S
a) Focal length of the eye piece of a compound microscope is
B
bl
larger
be T

b) A telescope of a binocular has two total internal reflecting

pu
prisms.
K

6. With the help of a labelled ray diagram show the formation of

an image in

a) a simple microscope b) a compound microscope

c) an astronomical telescope.
7. Write any two differences between a simple microscope and a
compound microscope.
8. Write any two similarities between Astronomical telescope and
to

terrestrial telescope.
t
No

222
 Chapter 17

CIRCULAR MOTION
After studying this chapter you
identify the type of circular motion.
give reason for circular motion as an accelerated motion.
give examples for centripetal force and centrifugal force.

d
write expression for centripetal force.

he
differentiate between centripetal force and centrifugal force.
identify centripetal force and centrifugal force in day to day life.

is
re S
You must have enjoyed the ride in a giant wheel. And also you
have played with a top. Have you ever thought the type of motion
B
bl
involved in these activities? The body moves along a circular path.
be T

Such a motion is called as circular motion.

pu
K

When you are riding on a giant wheel, you are moving in a circular
path by changing your position. This type of circular motion in which

a body moves in a circular path with the change in its position is

called a revolutionary motion.

Where as in a top, the body moves in a circular path about an

axis without change in its position. This type of circular motion is
called rotatory motion.
to

Activity 17.1
Identify the type of circular motion in the following.
t

1. Merry go round
No

2. Compact disc in a player

3. Movement of electrons around the atom
4. Motion of the earth causing day and night.
5. Pulley used to draw water in a well.
6. Movement of stars around the centre of a galaxy

223
 Activity17.2
Observe a clock with minute and hour hands. Both
the hands rotate about a fixed point O at the centre.
Imagine a line passing through the centre of clock and
perpendicular to the plane of the clock.
This imaginary line passing through the centre of the clock and
perpendicular to the plane of clock is called the axis of rotation.

d
A

is he
re S B
bl
be T

B
pu
Fig 17.1 Spinning top
K

The imaginary line AB in the above figure is the axis of rotation.

Activity 17.3
Identify the axis of rotation in the following examples. Giant Wheel,
motion of door, steering of vehicles, mixer blade.
Centripetal Force
Activity 17.4
to

Take a piece of thread and tie a stone at one of its ends. By

holding the thread at the other end move the stone to describe a
horizontal circular path with constant speed. Now suddenly release
t
No

the stone and check the direction of motion of the stone. The stone
moves along a straight line tangential to the circular path. Why? This
is because once the stone is released, it continues to move along the
direction it has been moving at that instant. Repeat the activity and
release the stone at different positions.
Note : Do it in an open field when no one is around.

224
 From this activity, you observe that the stone is moving with
constant speed, that is uniform circular motion. But its velocity is not
uniform. The direction of velocity is different at different points. A
body is said to be accelerated, if the velocity of a body changes either
in magnitude or direction. Hence the motion of a stone in circular
path with constant speed is an accelerated motion. There must be a
force acting along the string directed inwards, which makes the stone
move in the circular path. This acceleration is known as centripetal

d
acceleration and the force is known as centripetal force. The direction
of velocity and centripetal force is shown in the figure below.

is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 17.2 A body moving in a circular path

Activity 17.5
Give few day to day examples for uniform circular motion.

Think ! 1. In the activity17.4, if the thread snaps, what would be

the path taken by the stone?
to

2. You might have watched the sharpening of knives on a rotating

wheel. The sparks appear to be ejected from the rotating wheel.
What is the direction in which the sparks move?
t
No

Let us consider an object of mass m, moving along a circular

path of radius r, with a velocity v. Its centripetal acceleration is given
by v2/r The magnitude of this force is given by Newtons second law of
motion as
F = mass x centripetal acceleration.
Hence centripetal force, F = mv2/r

225
 Do you know? : When an athlete throws a discus in a sports meet,
he/she holds the discus in his/her hand and gives it a circular
motion by rotating his/her own body. Once released in the desired
direction, the discus moves in the direction in which it was moving
at the time it was released.

Centripetal force in nature, may arise in different cases due to

different reasons namely mechanical tension, gravitational force of

d
attraction, magnetic force, electric force etc. This can be understood

he
by the following examples.

Examples

is
re S
1. A bucket of water is tied to a string and spun in a circle. The
tension force acting upon the bucket is the centripetal force
B
bl
required for circular motion.
be T
pu
K

Fig. 17.3
Spinning of the string tied to a bucket of water
to

What should be the speed of rotation in the above experiment

t

so that water does not fall out when the bucket is in vertical circular
No

motion.
The formula is g=v2/R. v indicates the velocity of the motion. R
indicates the radius of the circular path. The acceleration due to
gravity g= 9.8 ms -2 . Then v 2 /R 9.8. If R = 70cm then
v2/0.7 9.8 v2 0.7X9.8, v 2.6 m/s.

226
 2. As the moon orbits the Earth, the force of gravity acting upon the
moon is the centripetal force required for circular motion.

d
Fig. 17.4 Moon orbiting the earth

he
3. Electrostatic force between the electron and nucleus is the
centripetal force for the uniform circular motion of the electron.

is
re S
e-
B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 17.5 Electrons spinning around the nucleus

4. Every cyclist must have noticed that the mud from the bicycle
tyre flies off tangentially when there is no sufficient frictional
force between it and the tyre to keep it moving in a circle.

5. Motion of a Motor cyclist in a curved path or circular path is also

an example of the centripetal force. A Motor cyclist turning a
to

corner instinctively inclines his body inwards i.e. towards the

centre of the curved path (see fig below.)
t
No

Fig. 17.6 Motar Cyclist in a circular path

227
 Centrifugal Force
When you go on a merry-go-round you are experiencing an
outward force. So you must exert a force to keep from flying off the
merry-go-round. The greater the speed of rotation of merry-go-round,
the greater the outward force.
This force is known as the centrifugal force. It is also called pseudo
force. This depends on the mass of the object, the speed of rotation,
and the distance from the centre. The more massive the object, the

d
greater the force; the greater the speed of the object, the greater the
force; and the greater the distance from the centre, the smaller the

he
force. Centrifugal force is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the centripetal force.

is
re S
Know This : A coordinate system in which Newtons laws hold
good is called inertial frame. If not, it is called as non-inertial frame.
B
bl
For example, a frame which is at rest or in uniform motion, without
be T

acceleration is inertial frame and a rotating frame is a non-inertial

pu
frame.
K

The centrifugal force ceases to exist, the moment the body

stops rotating. Hence it is called frame dependent force. The physical

origin of this force cannot be traced and therefore the centrifugal

force is called pseudo force or fictitious force.

Activity 17.5
Open an umbrella and keep it upside down. Hold the handle
and spin it very fast. Now place a small ball on the spinning umbrella.
to

You observe that the ball does not stay in its place, it is pulled outside
the circular path. The centrifugal force is because of the inertia of
circular motion. You can experience this in the joy rides like spinning
t

circular disc seen in the public parks.

No

Know This : When you feel an outward force

in a merry-go-round, do the people standing
outside also feel the outward force? Fictitious
force is felt only by objects or persons inside a
rotating frame. People outside explain it as due
to inertia of motion.

228
 There is a common confusion between centrifugal force and
centrifugal reaction. The centrifugal force has already been explained
above.
When you are rotating a stone tied to a thread, your hand holding
this thread experiences an outward force which is equal in magnitude
to the centripetal force. This force on the hand is a reaction to the
centripetal force and is called centrifugal reaction.
Note that the centrifugal force and centripetal force do not form

d
an action-reaction pair as they are acting on the same body.

he
Applications of pseudo centrifugal force are as follows

1. Centrifugal force is what dries clothes in a washing machine. It

is
re S
spins the clothes to get the most of water out of them. Water
B
bl
experiences centrifugal force and goes out through the holes in
the wall of the spinning drum.
be T
pu
K

to

Fig. 17.7

Activity 17.6
t

Make your own centrifugal drier. Take a used tin without a lid,
No

make perforations on the side. Tie two rubber bands and twist the
rubber bands, put a wet cloth inside the tin, Release the rubber bands
so that the tin starts rotating. Water is driven away through the
perforations.

2. The medical community often uses a device specifically for creating

a centrifugal force commonly called a centrifuge. This spins blood

229
 samples to separate the solids from the liquids, which helps in
analysing the blood sample. With the blood spinning the heavier
portions tend to settle towards the bottom of the vial.

3. Cream separator
A given volume of a cream has smaller mass than equal volume of
the skimmed milk. So a smaller force is required to hold the
cream in a circle of a given radius. Hence if cream particles and

d
milk particles are set in rapid rotation, the milk particles will

he
have greater force to move to the outside of the vessel, the cream
particles remaining near the centre.

is
re S
4. A centrifugal governor is a device that controls the speed of an
engine by controlling the amount of fuel used. It works on the
B
bl
principle of centrifuge.
be T
pu
EXERCISES
K

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following. Choose

the right answer

1. The force responsible for drying of clothes in a washing

machine is
a. gravitational force b. centripetal force
c. centrifugal force d. electro static force
to

2. Force involved in uniform circular motion is given by

a. mv2/r b. mvr
t

c. mr2/v d. mrv2
No

3. A cyclist moving in circular track leans towards the centre

a. to gain in momentum
b. to gain necessary centripetal force
c. to gain necessary centrifugal force
d. to gain speed

230
 II. Fill in the blanks
1. At any point in a circular motion the direction of linear velocity
of the particle is________________.
2. The direction of centripetal force is____________.

III Answer the following questions

1. Write the difference between revolutionary motion and

d
rotatory motion. Give one example for each.

he
2. A body moving in a circular path with constant speed is an
accelerated motion. Why?

is
3. Define centripetal force. Write the expression for it
re S
4. Give an illustration for centrifugal force.
B
bl
5. Give two applications of centrifugal force.
be T
pu
K

VI. Match the following

A B

1. Linear speed of a particle a. rotatory motion

in a uniform circular motion
2. Centripetal force b. constant
3. Spinning top c. circular motion
to

4. Electron revolving around d. towards the centre

a nucleus
e. linear motion
t
No

231
 Chapter 18
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
After studying this chapter you
explain the term orbit and orbital of an atom
identify the types and shapes of orbitals
State the Paulis exclusion principle, Hunds rule and Aufbau

d
principle

he
calculate the number of electrons in different shells & subshells.
write the electronic configuration of elements
know the importance of electronic configuration of an element

is
re S
In class 8, you have learnt about the Bohrs model of an atom.
B
bl
According to Bohrs theory, electrons revolve around the nucleus in
be T

orbits. Shells are denoted as K, L, M, N, O or 1, 2,3,4,5 .

pu
and so on respectivelly.
K
t
to
No

Fig. 18.1

Know this
The maximum number of electrons in a shell is determined by
2n2, where n is the shell index number .

232
 Experiments during 1930, clearly established that an electron
in motion has the properties of a particle as well as that of wave. You
know that the electron revolves in the closed orbits around the
nucleus. This can be visualised as a stationary wave or a cloud of
electrons.
Therefore the concept of orbit is no more totally valid The three
dimensional region in space around the nucleus, where there is
the existence of probability spots of electrons in an orbital.

d
There are some differences between orbit and orbital as in the

he
following table.

is
Orbit Orbital
re S B
bl
It is a definite path, in
which the electron revolves
It is the three dimensional
region around the nucleus, in
be T

round the nucleus. which accomodates maximum

pu
probability spots.
K

The atomic orbitals are mainly of four types. They are s-orbital,
p-orbital, d-orbital and f-orbital.
s-orbital is spherical in shape, p-orbital has dumb bell shape and
d-orbital has double dumb bell shape.
Shell J Subshell J orbit/orbital
t to
No

Note
F - orbitals have
more complex
shape

fig 8.2 shape of s orbital

233
 Know this : The names s, p, d and f are derived from the
spectroscopic terms: sharp, principal, diffuse and fundamental
respectively. s, p, d & f orbitals can accommodate maximum of 2,
6, 10 & 14 electrons respectively.

Every shell consists of subshells which slightly differ in their

energies, and each sub shell has a specified amount of energy. K-
shell has only one sub shell (1s), L-shell has two sub shells (2s and

d
2p) M-shell has 3 sub shells (3s,3p,3d) and N-shell has four sub

he
shells (4s,4p,4d,4f) as shown in figure.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 18.3
Shells and Subshells
to

Note: in an atom, the total number of sub shells is equal to the

t

shell index number.

No

Know this: s-sub shell has only one orbital called s-orbital. p-sub
shell has three orbital of equivalent energy. They are called px, py
and pz. d sub shell has five orbitals of equivalent energy. They are
called dxy, dyz, dzx, dx2-y2 and dz2. f-sub shell has 7 orbitals.

234
 Every electron in an atom is associated with some specific energy
and location with respect to the nucleus. It is called as the state of
the electron.
In an atom, the state of each electron is
different with respect to the nucleus. To describe
the state of the electron completely, four
quantum numbers are used. They are,
1) Principal quantum number(n)

d
2) Azimuthal (subsidiary) quantum

he
number (l)
3) Magnetic quantum number (m) and

is
Fig. 18.4 FrederichHund
re S
4) Spin quantum number(s) 4-2-1896 to 31-03-1997
B
bl
Let us study about the distribution of
be T

electrons in shells, subshells and orbitals.

pu
K

The distribution of electrons in different

orbitals is known as electronic configuration

of the element.

The filling of electrons into the orbitals of

an atom takes place according to the Aufbau
principle, which is based on the Paulis exclusion
principle and the Hunds rule of maximum
multiplicity. Fig. 18.5 WolfangPauli
25-04-1900 to 15-12-1958
to

Paulis exclusion principle states that no two electrons in the

same atom will have the four quantum number identical. In other
words no two electrons will have identical n, l, m and s values. This
t
No

restricts the number of electrons in a single orbital to two.

Distribution of electrons in a subshell :

Hunds rule state that among the orbitals of same energy
electron do not start pairing until all these orbitals are singly
occupied. This rule applies for p, d and f subshells.

235
 The word Aufbau in German means
building up:
The aufbau principle states In
the ground state of the atoms the
subshells and orbitals are filled in
order of their increasing energies.
In other words, the electrons first
occupy the lowest energy orbital

d
available to them, and enter in to higher

he
energy orbitals only after the lower
energy orbitals are filled. The order in
which the energies of the orbital

is
re S
increase and hence the order in which
the orbitals are filled is as follows;
B
bl
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s, -
Fig. 18.6 Order of filling of orbitals
be T

----
pu
Hydrogen atom has only one electron which goes in the orbital
K

with lowest energy, namely 1s. The electronic configuration of the

hydrogen atom is 1s1 meaning that it has one electron in the 1s

orbital. The second electron in helium (He) can also occupy the 1s
orbital. Its configuration is therefore, 1s2. As mentioned above, the
two electrons differ from each other since they have opposite spins,
as can be seen from the orbital diagram (as shown in the table 18.1).
The third electron of lithium (Li) is not allowed in the 1s orbital
because of Pauli Exclusion Principle. It, therefore, takes the next
to

orbital with electronic configuration 1s22s 1. The 2s orbital can

accommodate one more electron. The beryllium (Be) atom has four
electrons, the first two electrons enter 1s orbital and the next two
t
No

electrons enter into 2s orbital. The boron (B) has five electrons; the
first two electrons enter into 1s orbital. The next two electrons enter
into 2s orbital. The last electron enters into 2px orbital.Carbon atom
has 6 electrons. The first two electrons enter into 1s orbital. The next
two electrons enter into 2s orbital. The fifth electron enters into
2pxorbital. The sixth electron does not enter into 2pxorbital. Instead
it enters in the vacant 2pyorbital.

236
 18.1

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Know This : Versatility of Carbon atom. Electronic configuration

of carbon atom in ground state is 1s2, 2s2, 2p2 and in excited state

is 1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz1.

Observe the table. The first two electrons enter into 1s orbital,
the next two electrons enter 2s orbital, the fifth sixth, and seventh
electron enter 2px, 2py and2pz orbitals respectively. The eighth, ninth
and tenth electron enter 2px, 2py and2pz orbitals respectively.(electron
to

pairing starts after the 2px, 2py and2pz orbital are all singly occupied
according to Hunds rule). The unpaired electrons play an important
role in the formation of chemical bonds.
t
No

Question
Write the maximum number of electrons that can occupy each of
the following a) 3d shells, b) 2s orbital, c) shell with n = 4.

Think ! Is all subshells accommodate the same number of electrons?

237
 Electronic configuration of elements up to atomic number 20

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
t
to
No

238
 Question

Write the electronic configuration of Oxygen, Sodium, Magnesium,

Chlorine and atom of nearest noble gas of these atoms. Compare the
configurations and write your conclusion.

The electronic configuration of an atom plays an important role

in determining the chemical behaviour of the element and physical
properties like magnetism and electrical conductivity.

d
he
Octet rule: The stability of an atom/ion with eight electrons in the
outermost shell is called the octet rule.

is
re S
Know This : If atomic number of an atom is 21, its alternate
configuration is [Ar]3d1, 4s2. Instead of is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6,
B
3d1, 4s2. bl
be T
pu
Activity 18.1 See the following example and write the electronic
K

configurations of 19K39, 17Cl35, 29Cu64.

Example : Sulphur.

Number of protons P = 16, Neutrons N = 16

Electrons e = 16,
Atomic Number = Z = P+ = e- = 16

Atomic Mass = A = Z + N
A = 16 + 16
to

A = 32

Valence electrons = 6e
t
No

Electronic configuration
Sulphur
1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s2
3px2 3py1 3pz1
K L M

239
 EXERCISE

I. Four alternative are given to each of the following incomplete

statements/questions. Choose the right answer.

1) Which among the following shells has the highest energy.

a. L b. M c. K d. N
2) The sub-shell present in L-shell are

d
a. s and d b. s and p c. s, p and d d. s, p, d and f

he
3) Among 4s, 3d and 4p, subshells the one having the least
energy is

is
a. 4s b. 4d c. 3d d. 4p
re S
4) The maximum electrons accomodated in M shell (energy
B
bl
level) is
be T

a. 2 b. 32 c. 18 d. 8
pu
5) The number of valence electrons in Al27 is ___________.
K

13

a. 13 b. 3 c. 27 d. 8

6) Identify the element which has completed the octet structure

a. K 19 b. Ca20 c. Na11 d. Ar18

II. Fill in the blanks

1) The shape of p-orbital is _____________.

to

2) The number of electrons that do not participate in chemical

reaction in an atom of atomic number 17 is __________.
t
No

3) The electronic configuration of Nitrogen atom is _____________.

4) The electranic configuration of the noble gas nearest to the

element scandium (21) is, __________.

5) The direction of spin of two electrons present in a single

orbital are _________.

240
 III Answer the following
1) Explain atomic orbital with the necessary diagram.
2) State Paulis exclusion principle.
3) State Aufbau principle.
4) What is meant by electronic configuration? Explain with an
example.

d
5) Write the electronic configuration of the following atoms.

he
a)Oxygen (Z=8) b) chlorine (Z=17)
c) calcium (Z=20) d) Ne(Z=10)

is
6) State Hunds rule.
re S
7) Name the subshells of an atom which is being influenced by
B
bl
Magnetic field.
be T

8) Write the difference between orbit and orbital.

pu
K
t
to
No

241
 Chapter 19
CHEMICAL BOND
After studying this chapter you
define the term chemical bond.
differentiate between Ionic and covalent bonds.
explain the bond formation in Sodium chloride.

d
recall the meaning of Covalent bond, Hydrogen bond, Pi bond,

he
Sigma bond and Metallic bond.
list out the properties of compounds based on the chemical

is
bonding.
re S
distinguish between oxidation and reduction reactions.
B
bl
Vinod was thirsty and he asked for water to drink. Mother
be T
pu
gave water.
K

In the school he asked his teacher about the formation of water.

Teacher told that water is formed when Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Let us recall one more reaction which you have studied in your
previous class.
Activity19.1
to

Immerse an iron nail in copper sulphate solution for few minutes.

Observe the deposit of copper on iron nail.
t

CuSO4 + Fe FeSO4 + Cu
No

Atomic number of iron is 26 and an atom of iron consists

of 26 electrons. Do all these 26 electrons participate in chemical
reaction? No, only a few electrons participate. These are called valence
electrons.

242
 Observe the structure of sodium atom. How
many electrons does the sodium atom consist?
Will all the electrons participate in chemical
reaction? No, in case of Sodium only one
electron is present in its outermost shell which
participates in chemical reaction. Hence the
Sodium atom has 1 valence electron.
Fig. 19.1 Structure of

d
sodium atom Electrons present in incomplete shell

he
(usually ultimate and penultimate shell)
decide the properties and valency of that element. Valence electrons
determine the formation of the chemical bond.

is
re S
Know this: Valency
B
bl
The combining capacity of an atom of an element is called
be T

valency.
pu
K

Ex: Valency of Na is 1. Recall : What are valence

electrons?
Valency of Mg is 2.

Some of the elements exhibiting

more than one valency are said to have variable valency.
Ex: Iron has 2 valencies, +2 (Ferrous) and +3 (Ferric).
Copper also has 2 valencies, + 1 (Cuprous) and + 2 (Cupric).
to

The formation of chemical bond is determined by valence

electrons. Sodium and Chlorine atoms are together in Sodium
t

chloride this is due to the balance between the valence electrons of

No

Sodium and valence electrons of Chlorine. Chemical bond is not

merely an attraction or repulsion. It is the equilibrium between
attraction and repulsion so that atoms are held at a particular distance.
The important factor which determines the properties of the
compound is the strong linkage. The linkage that binds atoms is
chemical bond.

243
 d
Fig. 19.2 G.N. Lewis and Walter Kossel

he
In 1916, G.N. Lewis and Walter Kossel put forward independently

is
the electronic theory of valency. According to electronic theory of
re S
valency, atoms having less than eight electrons in their valence
B
bl
shell have a tendency to attain a stable noble gas configuration.
be T

The attainment of stable octet configuration or noble gas

pu
configuration is done by transfer, gain or loss of electrons or by sharing
K

of the electrons among the atoms. This results in the formation of a

kind of net force between the atoms which is called chemical bond.

For example consider the

Chemical bonding in sodium chloride.
Let us look at the electronic configuration of Sodium and
Chlorine:
The atomic number of sodium (Na) is 11 and its electronic
to

configuration is
Na 2, 8, 1
t

There is only one electron in the outermost (valence) shell. In

No

order to obtain the stable noble gas configuration of 8 electrons in

the outermost shell, it has two options the first option is to gain7
electrons to get the electronic configuration of argon (2, 8, 8) which is
energetically very difficult; the second option is to lose the only valence
shell electron and attain the configuration of the noble gas

244
 d
Sodium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Chlorine 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

he
Fig.19. 3 Structure of sodium and chlorine atoms

neon (2, 8). This option is energetically feasible. Sodium therefore,

is
re S
has a tendency to lose one electron present in the valence shell so
B
bl
that the sodium ion (Na +) formed acquires the stable electronic
configuration of neon.
be T
pu
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to number of
K

protons. When an atom loses an electron number of electrons reduced

by one, where as number of protons remain the same. Thus an atom

loses a negatively charged particle and becomes positively charged.

This charged particle is called an ion. A positively charges ion is
called Cation. Since it moves to wards cathode in an electrode
systems.
Na Na+ + e-
2,8,1 2,8
to

Think! How is an anion formed?

t

The atomic number of chlorine is 17 and its electronic

No

configuration is 17Cl 2,8, 7

There are 7 electrons in the valence shell of Chlorine atom. It

can obtain the electronic configuration of neon (2, 8) by losing 7
valence electrons, which is energetically rare, but the electronic
configuration of argon (2, 8, 8) by gaining an electron which is quite
245
 feasible. Therefore, Chlorine atom takes up the electron lost by
-
Sodium atom and is changed into Chloride ion Cl . The negative ion
is an anion, since it moves towards anode in an electrode systems.
-
Cl + e Cl
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8

Activity19.2
Complete the following table.

d
he
Name of the Ions formed
compound Cation Anion

is
Na + Cl -
re S
NaCl
Cl -
B
bl KCl
NaOH Na + ?
be T
pu
After Sodium has given an electron to Chlorine, the electrons
K

and protons no longer balance in each of the atoms.

Lets add up the charge:

Sodium: 10 electrons = 10- Chlorine: 18 electrons = 18-

11 protons = 11+ 17 protons = 17+

net charge = 1+ net charge = 1-

to

+ -
t
No

Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)

Fig. 19.4 Formation of sodium chloride

246
 The atoms, which have lost or gained electrons become charged :

Na and Cl .
+

As you know, opposite charges attract.

Therefore, the Na+ ions and Cl- ions are strongly attracted to
each other by electrostatic force of attraction. This attraction which
sticks the ions together is called an ionic bond.
Millions of ions bond together to form crystals. It should be noted
that sodium chloride does not exist as a molecule, but aggregates of

d
oppositely charged ions.

he
This process can also be shown as below :
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl-

is
re S
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7 2, 8 2, 8, 8
B
bl
While writing the formula of an electrovalent compound, the
charges on the ions are omitted. Thus, sodium chloride is written as
be T

NaCl and not as Na+ Cl-. This is a convention.

pu
Cl-
K

Na + Cl Na+ +
(1s22s22p63s1) (1s22s22p63s23p5) (1s22s22p6) (1s22s22p63s23p6)

Na+ + Cl- NaCl

Know this: An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of
one or more electrons from the valence shell of one atom to the
valence shell of another atom.
Activity 19.3
to

Atomic number of magnesium is 12 and chlorine is 17. With the

help of the above example, explain the bond formation between
magnesium and chlorine.
t

Ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the

No

oppositely charged ions resulting in the formation of ionic molecule.

But sodium ion and chloride ion never form a pair even though
we write the formula as NaCl by convention.
Remember : Name of negatively charged ion ends with a suffix-
ide. Example chloride, bromide and oxide etc.

247
 d
Fig. 19.5 Sodium chloride lattice structure

he
A giant sodium chloride crystal is formed in such a way that +ve
sodium ion is surrounded by ve chloride ion and negative chloride

is
ions are surrounded by positive sodium ions.
re S
Know this : Let us consider a small crystal of sodium chloride
B
bl
which is adhered to your hand, say 58.5 g, contains 6.023 X 1023
sodium ions and equal number of chloride ions.
be T
pu
Interpretation of the behaviour of the ionic compound
K

Strong electrostatic force of attraction exists between +ve ion

and ve ion of the ionic compound.

Since a crystal consists of uncountable number of +ve ions

and ve ions obviously a large amount of energy is required to
separate the ions and mobilise them.
Hence their melting point and boiling point are more.
Melting and Boiling compounds
to

Ionic Compound Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K)

LiCl 887 1600
t

NaCl 1074 1686

No

KBr 1007 1708

KI 953 1600
CaCl2 1045 1900
CaO 2850 3120
MgCl2 981 1685

248
 Know this : Formula of sodium chloride is NaCl, but NaCl crystal
neither containes Na nor Cl. Infact it contains Na+ and Cl - . Na+Cl-
also does not represent sodium chloride. Since isolated pair of Na+
cation and Cl- anion never exist, but a giant crystal of Nacl exists.
Activity 19.4
Examine the structure of common salt crystal. It is in the form of a
regular cube. Even after we powder it (table salt), we will get the
particles with pointed ends. We can sense the sharp edges of the

d
particles by our fingers, solids of such characteristics are called

he
crystalline solids
A Crystal of an ionic compound consists of ample number of
positive ions and negative ions. As they are closely bound to each

is
re S
other, they cannot move freely.
B
bl
Think it over: Imagine that you and your friends are tied to the
pillars in the play ground can you play? No. Why?
be T
pu
Activity19.5
K

Insert 2 electrodes in a solid ionic compound taken in a beaker

and find out whether they conduct electricity. They do not conduct

electricity. Just add water and stir well they start conducting electricity.
Remember: Electrovalent compounds are good conductors of
electricity in aqueous solutions and in molten state but they are not
conductors in the solid state.
Activity 19.6
to

Take a beaker add 50 ml of water add about 1 gm of common

salt.What happens? It settles at the bottom. It takes a few minutes to
dissolve. But, stirring with a glass rod will make the crystal disappear
t

quickly. Visible crystals become invisible. They became invisible

No

because, the ions are separated and they started moving throughout
the bulk of the solution. With the help of a spoon, taste the solution
from the surface, middle and bottom. What conclusion can be drawn?
The solution tastes equally salty from any part of the solution in the
beaker. This implies that salt molecules are evenly distributed
throughout the solution. Sodium chloride being an ionic compound,
dissolves completely in water.
249
 Positive ion (in the case of sodium Na+, ) such ions are called
cation. Negative ion as (in this case of chloride ion) are called anion.
Sodium chloride dissolves in water how? The force of attraction
between the ions is drastically reduced in water medium. Therefore
they get separated and start moving.
Remember: Ionic compounds dissolve in water and dissociate into
their ions. This process is called ionization.
Activity19.7

d
Take equal amount (say 10 ml) of benzene, kerosene, ether , carbon

he
tetra chloride in different test tubes. Add 1g of common salt to each
test tube and stir it. In which solvent does common salt dissolve?
Observe the common salt wont get dissolved in the above mentioned

is
re S
solvents (organic solvents). In organic solvents, force of attraction is
not reduced to the extent as in water, hence the dissolution will not
B
bl
take place in spite of the effort. Hence ionic compounds are soluble
in water but not in organic solvents.
be T
pu
Covalent Compounds
K

Activity 19.8
Take a small piece of wax in a china dish and heat it. Take few

crystals of Potassium chloride in a spatula and heat it. Note your

observation.
Wax melts in a short duration where as Potassium Chloride does
not melt within the same duration.
Wax differs from Potassium chloride with respect to its melting
point. Likewise, there are various differences between wax and
to

Potassium chloride. If properties are different then the way in which

the atoms combine to from the molecule will also be different.
As you know, Potassium chloride being an ionic compound, it is
t

formed by the complete transfer of valence electrons from potassium

No

atom to chlorine atoms. Is there any other method in which a molecule

of compound can be formed? Let us try to answer this with the help
of the following example.
So there are some compounds which have relatively low melting
points and boiling points at room temperature. Some compounds
which have such a low melting point and boiling point are liquids
and gases at room temperature.

250
 Find out !
What is LPG?

d
The constituent malucules of LPG and wax contain a class of

he
compounds called covalent compounds.
The number of valence electron in case of hydrogen atom is one.

is
But the stable electronic configuration demands 2 electrons. There
re S
could have been transfer of electrons and a stable state of two electrons
B
bl
could be attained. This does not happen because both hydrogen
atoms attract the pair of electrons formed by equal force. Therefore
be T

sharing of valence electrons leads to stability. Thus, Hydrogen molecule

pu
(H2) is formed by the sharing of valence electrons. Hence the bond
K

that is formed by the sharing of valence electrons is a Covalent bond.

to

Fig. 19.6 Covalent bond in hydrogen molecule

There will be a tug of war for the shared pair of electrons between
two hydrogen atoms. Since both have one proton only, the electron
t

pair resides exactly in the middle. Hence this is also called homo
No

nuclear covalent bond.

Formation of Methane (CH4) Molecule
Methane is a compound of carbon and hydrogen. Its molecular
formula is CH4. Its molecule will have one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms.

251
 Atomic number of carbon is 6,
and its electronic canfigration is 2,4.
Carbon atom has 4 electrons in its
valence shell. Its valency is four
(Tetravalent). Hence it requires four
more electrons to attain the octet
structure. Therefore in molecule of
methane one carbon atom contribute
4 eletrons and each hydrogen atom

d
contribute one electron. Thus they

he
share 4 pairs of electrons to form four
covalent bonds. By this sharing
carbon and hydrogen atoms attain Fig. 19.7 Covalent bonding in methane

is
the inert gas configuration of Ne(2,8)
re S
and helium He(2) respectively. The formation of CH4 molecule may
B
bl
be represented by Lewis dot formula as given in figure 19.7.
be T

In a methane molecule, different atoms are present Hetero nuclear

pu
covalent bond is formed between carbon and Hydrogen atoms.
K

Formation of Oxygen molecule, O2

An atom of oxygen has six electrons in its valence shell. In order

to get the stable electronic configuration of the next inert gas neon
(2,8). It needs two electrons. Therefore, two oxygen atoms combine to
form a molecule of oxygen, O2, by sharing two pairs of electrons (i.e.,
4 electrons) between them, each oxygen atom contributing two
electrons. Thus, the two oxygen atoms in O2 are bonded through a
double bond, O = O. The formation of O2 is shown in the figure 19.8.
to

O=O
t
No

Fig. 19.8
Formation of oxygen molecule, O2

252
 Formation of Nitrogen molecule (N2)
Nitrogen atom has 5 electrons in its
valence shell and requires three electrons
to complete the octet structure. Nearest inert
element neon (Ne10) This is achieved when
2 nitrogen atoms combined by contributing
Fig. 19.9
3 electrons to form triple covalent bond ()
Nitrogen molecule

d
between them. In this process, both the

he
nitrogen atoms complete their outermost octet and acquire the
electronic configuration of neon. The formation of N2 molecule is
shown as in figure 19.9.

is
re S
Activity 19.9
B
bl
What similarities and differences do you observe in the formation
be T
pu
of bonds in these molecules?
K

Note your findings in the table given below:

Molecule Tick appropriately

electrons shared pairs of electrons shared

yes no

1. NH3 1/2/3/4
to

2. Cl - Cl 1/2/3/4

3. O3 1/2/3/4
t
No

Activity 19.10
Classify the following, based on the number of electron pair
shared shels: Br2, H2 , O2 and N2

253
 Single Double Triple

Hydrogen bond

d
In some compounds a hydrogen atom is held by rather strong

he
forces of two atoms. For example in [F - H - F] (some times hydrogen
is attracted to more than two atoms). It was first thought that hydrogen
formed two covalent bonds, but it is now recognised that it can only

is
re S
form one covalent bond. since hydrogen has the electronic structure
1s1. The hydrogen bond is most simply regarded as a weak electrostatic
B
bl
attraction between a lone pair of electrons on one atom and a covalently
bonded hydrogen atom.
be T
pu
The hydrogen bond is formed only with the most electronegative
K

atoms [of these, F, O, N and Cl are the four most important elements].
These bonds are very weak.

Remember: The attractive force that binds hydrogen atom of one

molecule with electronegative atom of the other molecule of the same
or different substance is known as hydrogen bond.
Hydrogen bonding in water
Water is a
covalent compound
to

formed by sharing of
electrons between the
two hydrogen atoms
t

and an oxygen atom.

No

The shared pair of

electrons lean more
towards electronegative
oxygen. As a result of
this oxygen atoms get
a slight negative Fig. 19.9
charge and hydrogen
254
 atoms get slight positive charge. Such molecules are called polar
molecules and the property is called intermolecules is called polarity.
Negatively polar oxygen atom attracts positively polar hydrogen atom
leading to the hydrogen bonding.
Let us consider ammonia as an example. The attraction between
slighltly positively charged hydrogen and slightly negatively charged
nitrogen is responsible for this bond. Hence ammonia exists in liquid

d
state under normal temperature and pressure.

he
Examples for Hydrogen Bond.

1) H2O (water)

is
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hydrogen bond
B
bl
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pu
K

covalent bond

2) HF (hydrogen flouride)
to

covalent bond hydrogen bond

3) NH3 (ammonia)
t
No

hydrogen bond covalent bond

255
 Metallic Bond
Metals are attractive because of their lustre. Cooking container
and electric circuits are made with metals because of their thermal
and electrical conductivity respectively. Coins and metallic wires are
produced because malleability and ductibility respectively.
All the above mentioned properties of
metals can be understood by knowing the
metallic bond.

d
Metallic ions are arranged in crystalline

he
forms. In metals the electrons of same energy
levels form a number of Arrays. These arrays
of electrons occupy the entire metal and are Fig. 19.11

is
called bonds Electron Sea Model
re S
The positive ions of a metal get submerged in the delocalized
B
bl
electrons. These delocalized electrons without fixing to a particular
atom occupy the entire metal. The positive ions of the metal are held
be T
pu
in position by these delocalized electrons. Hence metallic bond is
formed. There is no directionality in metallic bonds as in the covalent
K

bonds.

We can imagine that a lattice of positive ions of the metal as

submerged in the electron flow. Such a model is called electron sea
model or electron gas model.
Remember: In metal, the nuclei forms a lattice which is surrounded
by delocalized electrons.

Oxidation and Reduction reactions

to

Suhas saw his cycle chain has

changed the colour to reddish brown
t

and it was not moving. He went to

No

his father and complained the same.

He was curious to know why the cycle
chain was brownish red in colour.
His father told that the chain has
corroded and that reddish brown

256
 powder was the rust. Rust is formed when Iron reacts with humid
air. We have studied about oxidation and Reduction reaction in our
previous class.
You have learnt that electrons take part in the chemical reactions.
There are two ways that electrons can act. One of them is transfer of
electrons other process would be sharing of electrons between the
two atoms.
Now let us consider the following situation;

d
An iron nail is immersed in copper sulphate solution (cupric

he
sulphate solution). If this experiment is observed, we see a deposit of
copper on iron nail. The blue CuSO4 turns in to green copper sulphate
solution.

is
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Note : This can be a aboratory investigation.
B
bl
The reactants are;
Fe + CuSO4
be T
pu
The products are,
K

FeSO4 + Cu L
CuSO4 and FeSO4 are ionic compounds hence they are found as

(Cu + SO4- -). This can be represented by a chemical equation

++

Fe + Cu+ + SO4- - Fe+ + SO4- - + Cu L

The one which has not changed is SO4- - ion.
Iron atom has become iron ion. What particle has it lost?
Cupric ion (Cu+ +)has become Copper. Where did it get 2 electrons
from?
to

From this thinking the following conclusions can be drawn.

Conclusion I:
t

Each of the iron atom has lost 2 electrons to become iron ion
No

(Fe ).
++

Similarly cupric ion (Cu+ +)has gained 2 electrons to become copper

(Cu).
The iron is oxidised to iron ion and cupric ion is reduced to copper,
That means in this chemical reaction we see both loss of electrons
and gain of electrons.

257
 The loss of electrons is termed as oxidation and the gain of
electrons is termed as reduction. As both reduction and oxidation
has simultaneously happened in this reaction, this reaction is called
redox reaction. Redox reaction is an important chemical reaction.
Activity 19.11
In the formation of NaCl from sodium and chlorine you see such a
loss and gain of electrons.

d
Write a paragraph to substantiate that it is a redox reaction.

he
Know This: Oxidation also has damaging effects on food and
eatables. When materials containing fats and oil are kept for a

is
longtime, they become rancid and their smell and taste change due
re S
to oxidation. To prevent the oxidation antioxidants are added to
B
bl
foods containing fats and oil.
be T

Activity 19.12
pu
K

In the reactions given below, identify the oxidised and reduced

species.

1) H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S

2) 3Fe2O3 + 6Al 6Fe + 3Al2 O3

3) 2Na + H2 2NaH

EXERCISES
to

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following. Choose

the right answer
t
No

1. A covalent bond is formed when

a. transfer of electrons take place
b. sharing of electrons take place
c. both sharing and transfer of electrons takes place
d. neither sharing nor transfer of electrons takes place.

258
 2. Which of the following compounds do not contain covalent
bond?
a. CH 4 b. MgCl2
c. SiCl4 d. NH3

3. In case of sodium chloride, the chemical bond is formed by

a. the transfer of valence electrons
b. the sharing of electrons

d
c. exchange of electrons d. both a) and b)

he
II. Match the following

is
A B
re S
1. Ionic bond a) sharing of electrons.
B
bl
2. Covalent bond b) pair of electrons
be T
pu
3. Metallic bond c) transfer of electrons.
K

4. Hydrogen bond d) delocalized electrons

e) hydrogen positive and

electronegative element
III. Answer the following briefly
1. What is chemical bond?
2. What is octet configuration?
to

3. Write the difference between ionic compounds and covalent

compounds?
t

4. Write Lewiss electorn dot formula of water (H2O)

No

5. a) Explain the bond formation in sodium chloride.

b) Explain how Zn + 2AgNO3 2Ag + Zn(NO3)2 Red-ox
reaction.
6. What is a hydrogen bond? Give examples.

259
 7. What is an electron sea model?
8. Isolated oxidation reaction is not possible only redox reactions
take place. Why?
9. Describe hydrogen bonding in water
10. Explain the term metallic bonding.
IV. Give scientific reasons

d
1. Metals conduct electricity.

he
2. Ionic compounds have high melting point and boiling point.
3. Covalent compounds dissolve in organic solvents.

is
4. Water exists in liquid state over a wide range of temperature
re S
0 0C to 100 0C.
B
bl
5. Antioxidants are added to foods containing fats oil.
be T
pu
K
t
to
No

260
 CHAPTER 20

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
After studying this chapter you
recall the terms related to wave motion.
recall the term electromagnetic wave.
distinguish between mechanical wave and electromagnetic wave.

d
list out the general properties of electromagnetic waves.

he
list out the seven broad ranges of electromagnetic waves.
explain the method of producing different ranges of
electromagnetic waves.

is
re S
recognize that visible light is a part of electromagnetic radiations
B
bl
list out the uses of electromagnetic waves.
be T

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
pu
You have studied about waves, for example sound waves and radio
K

waves earlier.

How are waves produced?

Activity 20.1
In a tray filled with water, dip your finger. Observe the circular
waves. Observe the pattern of their movement. They appear to move
towards the edges. Do they really move? Put a piece of small wood on
the surface of water. You will find that the piece of wood simply
moves up and down and does not move towards the edges.
to

Activity 20.2
Take a toy spring called slinky. Hold it with
your hand and give it a small jerk. It moves up
t
No

and down. You find a pattern of rarefactions

and compressions which appear to move from
one end to another. But there is no real movement
of any ringlet from one end to another. Fig 20.1 Slinky

You know that disturbance created in a medium travel in the

form of a wave. Wave motion is a means of transporting energy in a
medium. Recall the graphical representation of a wave.
261
 Activity 20.3
In the graphical representation of a wave given below mark
i) wave length ii) Amplitude iii) trough iv) crest v) Line of propagation.
vi) displacement at a point.

= wavelength
A = amplitude

d
Y
A

is he
re S B
bl
be T

Fig. 20.2
pu
K

In the activities 20.1 and 20.2 you have observed that there are
vibrations. In the activity 20.1, the vibrations are perpendicular to the

line of propagation of energy. In the activity 20.2 the vibrations are

parallel to the line of propagation. Recall that the type of wave in the
activity 20.1 is transverse and the type of wave in the activity 20.2 is
longitudinal. Water waves are transverse waves. Spring waves and
sound waves are longitudinal.
Waves which need a material medium to transport mechanical
to

energy are called Mechanical waves. Recall that the sound waves
which are mechanical in nature cannot travel in the absence of a
material medium. Recall the experiment you have studied about it in
t

8th standard.
No

Electromagnetic waves and Electromagnetic radiations

Activity 20.4
In a tray filled with water dip two fingers and create two waves at
a distance from each other. Observe the two waves intersecting with
each other.

262
 Activity 20.5
Take about 30cm of insulated
copper wire. You can use the wire
from an old transformer or motor. You
can get it from mixer grinder repair
shop. Wind it around a pencil stick.
Fig. 20.3
Pass current through the wire from a
single pentorch cell. A magnetic field is produced around the coil. You

d
can test it using pins.

he
From this activity you can conclude that magnetic field is found
around a wire connecting electric current. Just like you create
disturbance in water to produce waves, you can create disturbance

is
in electric and magnetic fields. Yes, it is possible by changing the
re S
electric field. Instead of direct current if alternating current is passed
B
bl
through the coil you can create disturbance in the electric field and
magnetic field.
be T
pu
Note : Do not try this using alternating current used for domestic
K

supply. If alternating current is passed through the coil, changing

magnetic field is produced. Disturbances produced in electric field

produce disturbances in magnetic field. These mutually

perpendicular fields propagate in all directions in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic wave consists of varying electric and magnetic
fields in mutually perpendicular planes. The electromagnetic wave
propagates in the direction perpendicular to both electric field and
to

magnetic field. Hence it is a transverse wave.

t
No

Fig. 20.4
263
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
All the electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light i.e.
3x108 m/s in vacuum.
They do not need any material medium for their propagation.
Electromagnetic waves are three dimensional transverse
waves.
Electromagnetic waves have wide range of frequencies which
react differently with matter.

d
Activity 20.6

he
Using sticks and aluminium wire make a model showing the
propagation of electromagnetic waves.

is
re S
The Electromagnetic Radiation and Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves have a very wide range of frequencies or
B
bl
wave lengths. The orderly arrangement of electromagnetic waves
be T

according to their frequency or wavelength is known as

pu
Electromagnetic spectrum. The entire range of electromagnetic
K

spectrum is divided into different regions. In different regions of the

spectrum the electromagnetic waves are named differentely. Each

region of the spectrum overlaps the adjoining regions at both the

ends. The range of wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves varies
-12
from 102m to about 10 m.
The order of wavelengths and frequencies of different regions is
given in the following diagram and the table.
t to
No

Fig. 20.5

264
 Exercise 1 : Calculate the frequency of an electromagnetic wave
which has a wavelength of 3000m.
Use the formula Velocity = frequency wavelength
i.e C =

Note: All these radiations are emitted from the star SUN

Think ! Gamma rays, X- rays and 98% of ultraviolet rays do not

d
reach the surface of the lithosphere. Why? What will happen if

he
there is no atmosphere on the earth? Which layer of the atmosphere
protects us from ultraviolet rays?

is
re S
Electromagnetic Radiations and their uses
B
Radio waves
bl
Whenever you find leisure, you may switch on the radio or the
be T
pu
TV to listen to music or see visuals. Recall the working of radio that
K

you have learnt in your previous class. Radio waves are responsible
for working of Radio. Radio waves are produced by dipole antenna in

an oscillator coil. These are the waves of longest wavelengths amongst

all the electromagnetic waves. Radio waves are an invisible form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Exercise 2 : Recall the steps of Radio transmission and reception.
Recall the contribution of Hertz, Jagadish Chandra Bose, Marconi,
Blair in this regard.
to

Activity 20.7
Visit a Radio station and TV station and
t

collect the information about transmission

No

of programs.

Radio waves of shorter wavelength are

used in communication systems like Radars Fig. 120.6
(RAdio Detection And Ranging) and TV broad casting. Radio waves of
longer wavelength are used in radio broad casting.

265
 These waves are used in police radios and wireless systems to
send signals from one place to other place.
In mobile and satellite communication , radio waves are used.
The special uses of radio waves are in GPS (Global Positioning
System). The mobile phones with GPS helps to know about your
position i.e. where you are and the direction in which you are
supposed to move.

d
Know this: The wavelength of radio waves transmitted from AIR,

he
Bangalore is about 500 m and the frequency is about 600 kHz
(kilo hertz).

is
re S
Microwaves
B
bl
You might have heard of microwave ovens which are used to cook
food. It is curious to know that in these ovens only the food gets
be T

heated up but not the vessel. How is it possible? This is because of

pu
the special characteristic of microwaves. The wavelengths of
K

microwaves are comparable to distance between water molecules.

Water molecules absorb these waves and their kinetic energy increases

and water becomes hot.

Longer wavelength microwaves are also used in mobile phones.
Microwaves are also called short wavelength radio waves. These
waves are produced by special vacuum tubes (called klystrons,
magnetrons and Gunn diodes).
to

Activity 20.8
Observe and collect information about the
t

working of microwave oven. One should use

No

Borosilicate glass utensils for cooking inside

the microwave oven. Metallic utensils should
not be kept inside the oven. Why? Find out.
Fig. 20.7
Microwaves are also used in Radar and
satellite communication. They are used for analysis of atomic and
molecular structure.

266
 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
Hertz was a German physicist who developed
radio waves in the laboratory. He was the first to
conclusively prove the existence of electromagnetic
waves by engineering instruments to transmit and
receive radio pulses. The scientific unit of
frequency - cycles per second - is named hertz
in his honour.

d
he
Infrared Radiation (IR radiation)
If you go to any tourist place, you may be interested to take
photographs at night and also in mist and fog. Is it possible through

is
re S
an ordinary camera to take photographs in such situations? Infrared
B
radiation photography is most suitable in such conditions, since
bl
infrared radiations can penetrate without much scattering. Infrared
be T

radiations were detected by William Herschel in 1800. Hot bodies

pu
and molecules are the sources of Infrared radiations. The natural
K

source of infrared radiation is the Sun. These radiations have heating

property. This property is used in solar cookers and solar water heaters.

As they have heating effect, they are used to dry the fruits. They
are used to treat paralysis, sprains, dislocations and fracture of bones.

Know This : To get relief from muscular pain the affected part is
gently massaged. The friction produces heat energy. The blood
vessels get dilated and stimulate the blood circulation. Instead of
to

massaging, pain can be relieved by infrared lamps.

As Infrared radiations are not visible and they are not absorbed
t

much in the medium, they are used as signals in war. They are also
No

used in remote control of television set. They are also used in analysis
of molecular structure.
Activity 20.9
With the help of your teacher , prepare the working models that
work on solar energy.

267
 Fig. 20.8 (a) Fig. 20.8 (b) Solar panels
Solar Cooker for water heater

Sir Frederick William Herschel (1738-1822)

d
Herschel was a German-born British astronomer,

he
technical expert, and composer. Herschel became
most famous for the discovery of Uranus. In addition
to two of its major moons, Titania and Oberon, he

is
re S
also discovered two moons of Saturn.
B
bl
Visible Light
be T
pu
Visible light is used in our daily life to see the spectacular world
K

around us. This is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum

which our eye can sense. This portion of the spectrum which lies

between violet and red regions has different frequencies of radiation

(VIBGYOR). The visible spectrum was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton.
It is possible to see this spectrum by passing sun light through a
prism. The sun, electric bulb, flame and other hot bodies are sources
of visible light. Plants use visible light to prepare food. Many optical
instruments work by employing visible light.
to

Visible light can be artificially produced by heating a substance

to a high temperature. Example: Filament of a bulb, carbon particles
of a burning candle. Visible light can also be produced by fluorescence.
t

A flourescent lamp is a gas discharge lamp, that uses electricity to

No

excite mercury vapour. The excited atoms produce short wave length
UV light. This causes phosphorscences to flourescences resources
producing visible light.
Know this: Different animals are sensitive to different range of
wavelengths. For example, snakes can detect infrared waves, and
the visible range of many insects extends well into the ultraviolet.

268
 Activity 20.10
Pass light through a prism and observe
the spectrum of visible light (VIBGYOR)

Fig. 20.9 Dispersion of light

Think : Observe solar cells in a calculator or a wrist watch. Notice

d
that it has 7 or 8 rectangular blocks. Each rectangular block has
smaller pieces in it. Why is it so?

he
Activity 20.11

is
Collect advertisement leaflets on modern water purifiers. Find out
re S
the meaning of UV treatment and RO treatment.
B
bl
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV radiation)
be T

You have observed that in hospitals, surgical instruments are

pu
sterilized in boiling water to avoid infections. But now a days, in big
K

hospitals, surgical instruments are sterilized by exposing them to

ultraviolet rays, because these rays have a special nature of killing

the germs, viruses and bacteria. You might have also also observed
the welders wear a black goggle or glass masks to protect their eyes
from sparks produced by welding arc. These sparks give ultraviolet
radiation.
Sun also produces ultraviolet radiations. But we are lucky that
most of the ultraviolet radiations are absorbed by the ozone layer of
to

the earth. Otherwise, if we are exposed to ultraviolet radiations for a

longer time, it causes skin cancer. Depletion of ozone layer is taking
place due to pollution. If the depletion takes place we will get exposed
t

to harmful effects of ultraviolet rays. Hence it is our responsibility to

No

protect ozone layer from all sorts of environmental pollution.

Ultraviolet rays were discovered by J W Ritter in 1801. They are
produced by electrically heated filament covered by quartz. They cause
fluorescence in many substances which led to the development of
the fluorescent lamp. Glass is opaque to ultraviolet rays. Only visible
light comes out of fluorescent tube lights.

269
 They can also be used to test purity of gems. They are used in the
treatment of rickets, diseases of bones, skin diseases. They are used
up by our body in the synthesis of vitamin-D. They are also used in
the operation of photoelectric alarms, detection of forgeries in the
documents and to examine finger prints on different surfaces.

Activity 20.12
Collect information about a forensic laboratory
and collect information on examination of finger

d
prints and forgery in documents.

he
Fig. 20.10

Johann Wilhelm Ritter

is
re S
Ritter was a German chemist, physicist and
philosopher. His first involvement with science
B
bl
began when he was 14 years old. He became an
be T

apprentice to an apothecary in Liegnitz (Legnica),

pu
and acquired a deep interest in chemistry. He made
K

many experimental researches on chemistry,

electricity and other fields.

Xrays
You know very well that, when a person undergoes bone fracture
in an accident, he/she visits orthopedic surgeon. Immediately the
surgeon suggest for x-ray film of the fractured region of the body. Do
you know why? It is for diagnosing whether the bone is cracked or
not. The x-ray film helps to locate the fracture.
to

The X-rays were discovered

by a German scientist Wilhelm
t

Roentgen in 1895. X-rays have

No

a number of industrial and

medical uses, which are
associated with the ability of it
to penetrate through matter. X-
rays are produced when high
speed electrons hit a metal
target of high melting point. Fig. 20.11 X-ray tube

270
 X-rays are used to show bone structure and assist the medical
professionals also in diagnosis. They are also used to detect foreign
bodies like coins, pins in bodies of humans and animals. X-rays are
mainly used in therapy to destroy malignant tumors and to cure skin
diseases. X-rays are used to study crystal structure. The wavelength
of X-rays is comparable to the distance between the atoms of a crystal.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

d
He was a German physicist. In the year 1895
he produced and detected electromagnetic radiation

he
in a wavelength range today known as X-rays or
Rontgen rays. This achievement adorned him the

is
first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.
re S B
bl
Know this: Soft X-rays of longer wavelengths are used for radiation
diagnosis (fracture). Hard x-rays of shorter wavelengths are used
be T
pu
for radiation therapy.
K

Activity 20.13
Visit an X-ray laboratory and collect information
about working of an X-ray machine.

X-ray machine
Fig. 20.12
Gamma Rays (-rays)
to

Gamma rays were discovered by Henry Becquerel. They are

obtained by radioactive substances. They are most energetic
t

electromagnetic radiations of shortest wavelength. They can easily

No

penetrate through metallic sheets and human body and cause

immense biological damage.
They are widely used in the medical field because they can easily
kill cancer cells. But the most difficult part of using gamma rays in
industry is that they are produced only by radioactive elements and
not by simpler techniques at present.

271
 The different electromagnetic waves and the hazards caused by
them :

Wave Dangers/Hazards
Radio Waves None
Microwaves Internal heating of body tissue
Infra-red Skin burns

d
Light High intensity couses damage to vision

he
Ultra-violet Skin cancer and premature cataract (Long
(Short wavelength) wavelength UV rays are useful to synthesize
vitamin D in our body)

is
re S
X rays Mutations in cells and severe burns to the skin.
B
bl
Gamma Rays Cancers and cell mutation (Hereditary disorders)
be T
pu
Activity 20.14
K

Identify the uses of electromagnetic radiation used in the following.

Cell phones, Global positioning satellite, lamps used in photographic

dark rooms.

Know This: Radiography is the use of X-rays to view a non-

uniformly composed material such as the human body. By using
the physical properties of the ray an image can be developed which
displays areas of different density and composition.
to

A heterogeneous beam of X-rays is produced by an X-ray generator

and is projected towards an object. According to the density and
composition of the different areas of the object a proportion of
t

X-rays are absorbed by the object. The X-rays that pass through
No

are then captured behind the object by a detector (film sensitive to

X-rays or a digital detector) which gives a 2D representation of all
the structures superimposed on each other. Computed Tomography
(CT scanning) is different from plain film tomography, in that
computer assisted reconstruction is used to generate a 3D
representation of the scanned object/patient.

272
 Type of Wave Wavelength (m) Frequency (Hz) Energy (J)
(Range) (Range) (Range)

Radio Waves > 110-1 < 3109 < 210-24

Microwaves 110-3 to 110-1 3109-31011 210-24-210-22

Infrared Rays 710-7-110-3 31011-41014 210-22-310-19

Visible Light 410-7-710-7 41014-7.51014 310-19-510-19

d
Ultra Violet 110-8-410-7 7.51014-31016 510-19-210-17

he
Rays

X-Rays 110-11-110-8 31016-31019 210-17-210-14

is
re S
Gamma-Rays < 110-11 > 31019 > 210-14
B
bl
Note : The enery tableted is the energy of a photon of that radiation.
be T
pu
EXERCISES
K

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following

incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer

1. In vacuum, electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of

a. 3 108 m/s b. 3 106 m/s
c. 3 10-8 m/s d. 3 1018 m/s

2. Infrared radiations are used in

to

a. microwave ovens b. long distance photography

c. microscopes d. treatment of cancer
t
No

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words

1. Electric and magnetic field in Electromagnetic wave are

mutually _____________ to each other.

2. The range of wavelength of visible light is______________.

273
 3. The rays used to show bone structure is _____________.

III. Match the following

A B
1. Microwaves a. J.W. Ritter
2. Infrared radiation b. Wilhelm Rontgen
3. X-rays c. Hertz

d
4. Gamma rays d. William Herschell

he
5. Ultraviolet radiation e. Henny Becquerel
f. Newton

is
re S
IV. Answer the following
B
bl
1. What is electromagnetic radiation?
be T

2. Draw the diagram of electromagnetic wave.

pu
K

3. List the properties of electromagnetic waves.

4. Explain the electromagnetic spectrum with a diagram.

5. Write the uses of the following:

a. Radio waves b. Microwaves
c. Ultraviolet radiation d. X-rays
e. Infrared radiation f. Gamma rays
t to
No

It is unwise to be too sure of ones own wisdom. It is healthy

to be reminded that the strongest might weaken and the wisest
might err.
Mahatma Gandhi

274
 Chapter 21
BASICS OF COMPUTER
After studying this chapter you
define computer.
identify the parts of the computer.
identify input and output devices

d
draw the block diagram of computer.

he
differentiate between hardware and software of a computer.
differentiate RAM and ROM.
define languages of computer.

is
re S
list out the uses of computer.
B
bl
In the earlier days we used to spend a lot of time and energy to
perform certain activities like calculating, typing, sending and receiving
be T
pu
information, storage of the data, etc. But now a days these activities
K

can be done with more ease and in less time. How is it possible? It is
because of the invention of computers! You have observed computers

in shops, hotels, hospitals, schools, offices and other business center,

etc. You are also aware of using computers for entertainment purposes
like playing games, listening to music, watching movies, painting,
etc. They are helping people in various fields like reservation of the
tickets, bank transactions, receiving and sending of information
through mails, to collect needed information through internet, to do
complex numerical calculations, type and print the text information
to

in multiple sets, draw complicated diagrams and designs, make movies

with special effects and many more. In this way computer has become
an integral part of our life. We are leading comfortable life with the
t

help of computers. Hence, it is essential for you to know some of the

No

basic concepts of computer.

Computer is an electronic device that transforms data into
meaningful information. This data can be name, weight, height of
students or marks obtained by students in a class. It can process
both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical)
calculations.
275
 Block Diagram of Computer

d
he
Fig. 21.1 Block Diagram of Computer

is
re S
A laptop computer is a personal computer for
B
bl
mobile use. A laptop integrates most of the
be T

typical components of a desktop computer,

pu
including a display, a keyboard, a pointing
K

device such as a touchpad and speakers into a

single unit.

Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871)

Charles Babbage, was an English
mathematician, philosopher, inventor and
to

mechanical engineer considered as father of

computer.
t
No

Functions of a computer
Input
If you want to draw pictures, type a letter or listen to music, you
need to give some instructions to computer. It is done with input
devices like key board. These set of instructions are called input.

276
 Process
The information given to computer through input is processed in
Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is totally an internal process of the
computer system.
Output
Output is the result given by a computer after processing the
data or instructions given to the computer. Output can be in the
form of text, pictures, images and sounds.

d
Storage

he
When you draw a picture or record a sound, it can be used even
after many days or months. It is because, you can save the data in
computers storage devices or external storage devices.

is
re S
Computer System
You know that human beings need body and brain to work.
B
bl
Likewise basically a computer system needs hardware and software
to work. All the physical parts of a computer are known as Hardware.
be T
pu
The programs used to run the computer are called software. The
K

system will not be complete unless we need people who can give
instructions to it. These people are called humanware or the user
that means one who operates the computer. Without any one of the

above the computer becomes non-operational.

Know This: Types of Computers

Computers can be generally classified on the basis of size and
power as follows, though there is considerable overlap.
Personal Computer: A small, Single-user computer based on a
to

microprocessor.
Workstation: A Powerful, single-user computer. A workstation
is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful
t

microprocessor and in general, a higher- quality monitor.

No

Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up

to hundreds of users simultaneously.
Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of
supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform
hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

277
 Know This: PARAM 8000 is
considered Indias first
supercomputer. PARAM is a series
of supercomputers designed and
assembled by the Centre for
Development of Advanced
Computing (C-DAC) in Pune, India.
The latest machine in the series is

d
the PARAM Yuva. Param means

he
supreme in Sanskrit. SAGA-220 is a supercomputer built by the
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It is the fastest
supercomputer in the nation with a maximum theoretical speed of

is
re S
220 TFlops. The name SAGA-220 stands for Supercomputer for
Aerospace with GPU Architecture-220teraflops.
B
bl
be T

Know this: Japanese supercomputer, K Computer is the fastest

pu
computer on Earth. It has a processing power of more than 10.51
K

petaflops as in November 2011. It means it can process 10.51

quadrillion calculations per second (1 quadrillion is equal to

1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000).

Hardware of Computer
The computer parts that you can physically see, touch and feel
are called hardware. It includes input devices, output devices,
processor and storage devices.
to

Input-Output devices
How can we communicate with the computer? This is possible
t

with the help of input and output devices. Input devices send
No

information INTO the computer and output devices bring information

OUT of a computer. These devices are also known as peripherals,
since they surround the processor and storage devices of a computer
system.

There are several Input Devices through which the information

can be sent into a computer. They are discussed below.

278
 Key board
If you want to type alphabets, numbers
or other symbols, you use keys given on the
board called keyboard.
Fig. 21.2
Activity 21.1
Count and write the number of alphabet keys, function keys,
number keys and symbol keys on the keyboard in your computer.

d
Mouse

he
It is a small hand held device used to select menu,
files, start programs etc. using a pointer. It inputs
the data by selecting, opening and dragging icons or

is
options.
re S
Fig. 21.3
B
bl
Think ! Can we have different shaped pointers in the computer
other than arrow?
be T
pu
Do you remember the input device used while
K

playing video games? It is a vertical stick called

Joystick used for video gaming, controlling robots,

etc. It also inputs the data by selecting and

controlling the cursor. Fig. 21.4

If you want to send typed

text, image or drawing to
computer, it is done using
Scanner. It converts text to digital
to

Fig. 21.5
form and sends to computer. For
example Bar Code Reader. You might have seen
prices of books printed in the form of lines generally Fig. 21.5(a)
t
No

on the back cover of the book.

It is a bar code. To read the bar codes and send
information to the computer a machine called
the Bar Code reader is used. Most of the
products in the shop consist of bar codes on
them.
Fig. 21.6

279
 You might have played with touch screen mobiles. You might
have used pen shaped device or needle to select objects directly on a
display screen. This is called Light Pen which is also used to operate
computer. It functions like a mouse.
Know this: Computer Aided Design (CAD) engineers use the light
pens to directly draw on screen.

Touch Screen : Allows to operate/make selections by

d
simply touching the display screen. Examples of touch

he
screen are bank ATMs, mobiles and information
kiosks.
Fig. 21.7
When you have function at your

is
re S
home or went out for a picnic you might have used
digital Camera to take the photographs. This camera
B
bl
stores the pictures taken in the form of digital images Fig. 21.8
be T

in its memory. If you want to see these images, they can be transferred
pu
to a computer by connecting the digital cameras to it.
K

Trackball : It is a computer cursor or pointer control

device. The user rolls the ball to direct the cursor to

the desired place on the screen to select desktop
objects or position the cursor for text entry.
Fig. 21.9 Webcam : You might have seen people
using webcam in some functions to
record the scenes. It is a video camera which records
to

motion picture. This is inbuilt in some computers that

directly send the recorded information to the computer.
Fig. 21.10
Microphone: If you want to record your
t

voice in the form of songs or speech in the computer

No

you use microphones. It is an audio input device

which sends audio signals to a computer.
Fig. 21.11

If you have appeared for any competitive exams, you might have
shaded the circles given in OMR sheets to mark the correct answer.
Have you ever thought how these answer sheets are valued? It is

280
 done using Optical Mark Reader that reads
pen/pencil marks on the documents, check
and give results which are saved to a file in a
computer. You might have seen people
drawing money from ATMs. How is card
used to draw money?
Fig. 21.12
There is a magnetic
strip on card. The device called Magnetic Card
Reader that reads the data from a magnetic strip

d
in a card on which the data can be recorded. This

he
data can be stored in the computer. A bank card
which we use in an automated teller machine
Fig. 21.13 (ATM) has magnetized strip.

is
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Biometric
B
bl
Device takes biometric information about a
be T

person and stores in a computer. Fig. 21.14

pu
K

Know this: Biometers refers to the identification of humans by

their characteristics or traits. A biometric would identify by ones

voice, DNA, hand print, finger print or behaviour.

Activity 21.2
List out the Identification cards in which Biometric information of
an individual is used.
You might have used Bluetooth devices to send or receive text,
to

images or sounds from your mobile to another mobile or computer.

Bluetooth is a wireless technology using which the data can be
exchanged over short distances from mobile devices to computers
t
No

with high levels of security.

While multiplying numbers, if you enter the numbers into the
computer, it will come up with ready answer. Where does it calculate?
This is done in Central processing Unit. This is called the brain of
computer system. After the information is sent into the computer
through input devices, that will be processed in a Processor.

281
 The System unit or Central Processing Unit of a computer
interprets and executes instructions and it has mainly two parts, the
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). The ALU
deals with calculations (arithmetic) and comparisons (logic) of data
and the Control Unit decides when to start receiving data, when to
stop it, where to store data etc. It takes care of processing of all
operations inside the computer. As you are aware, the information
that is processed in the processor can be brought outside through
Output Devices.

d
Some of the output devices are given below

is he
re S B
bl
Fig. 21.15(a) Fig. 21.15(b) Fig. 21.15(c) Fig. 21.15(d) Fig. 21.15(e)
be T

Monitor Printer Plotter Speakers Projector

pu
Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen.
K

This device takes signals from a computer and displays them on a

screen.

Know this: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor was introduced

in 1970s. Its advantages are low energy consumption, smaller and
lighter which are used in portable computer (laptops)

If you want to take the printouts of the work done in computer,

to

you use a printer. Printer is used to produce paper (commonly known

as hardcopy) output of the information processed in a computer.You
might have seen big size boards and flexes printed graphically used
t

for advertisements. How are they printed in such large sizes? This is
No

done using Plotters. It interprets computer commands and makes

line drawings using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of
producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.

If you want to listen to music stored in computer, you need

Speakers. The computers can give the audio output through the
speakers.
282
 If you want to show the work done in a computer to many people
at a time, we use Projectors which project pictures and text information
on a screen which are generated through a computer.
Think it over: How do you say that Fax machine and the modems
are both input and output devices?

Activity 21.3
Collect information and pictures of various inputs and output devices

d
of a computer and make an album.

he
Storage Devices
As you can remember whatever you have learnt, computers also

is
can remember the work done by them. Where do you keep the
re S
knowledge gained? You keep it in the brain as memory. Similarly
B
bl
computers also have memory to store the information. Computer
memory is of two kinds, primary memory and secondary memory.
be T
pu
The main working space of the computer is provided by Primary
K

memory. This is also the main memory of the computer. The primary
memory is of two types - RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM

(Read-only-memory).
Random access memory (RAM)
The information stored in this memory can be changed, erased
or rewritten. In this memory as soon as the computer is switched off
the contents of the primary memory is lost. Hence it is called
temporary memory.
to

Read-only memory (ROM)

This is another kind of memory that has instructions written on
t

it to switch ON the computer. These instructions are programmed

No

during the manufacturing of the computer. The contents of this

memory cannot be altered generally, but can only be read. This
memory is not lost even when computer is switched off. Hence it is
called permanent memory.
If you want to transfer large amount of text, images or songs from
one computer to another you need some external storage device like
283
 CD-ROM or Pendrive which are called secondary memory of the
computer. These are permanent in nature and data saved in this is
retained even if the power goes off.
Activity 21.4
List out the commonly used secondary memory devices used to
store data extremely. Try to understand the readings like 2GB on a
pendrive and 700MB on CD-ROM.

d
Software

he
You know that the computer cannot do anything on its own. You
need to give a set of instructions about what to do, when to do and
how to do. A computer executes these instructions very quickly and

is
accurately. These set of instructions are called programs. The
re S
instructions given to the computer in the form of a program is called
B
Software.
bl
be T

The software which is very essential for a computer to work is

pu
called system software or operating system. System software helps
K

the computer to understand its parts and to recognize the input and
output devices.

The program which is written to the computer to help the user to do

his work is called application software.
Know this
Operating System Software:
DOS, Windows XP, Windows Vista Unix/Linux, MAC/OSX etc.
to

Utility Software: Windows Explorer (File/Folder Management),

Windows Media Player, Anti-Virus Utilities, Disk Defragmentation,
t

Disk Clean, Backup, WinZip, WinRAR etc.

No

Package Software : MS Office 2003, MS Office 2007, MS Office

2011, Macromedia ( Dreamweaver, Flash, Freehand ), Adobe(
PageMaker, Photo Shop ), Nudi, Baraha, Shree for Local
Languages,
Tailored or Custom Software: SAGE (Accounting), Galileo/
Worldspan (Travel), Tally, etc.

284
 When you want to communicate with others you use a language
in which both of you are comfortable with. Similarly if you want to
communicate with computer you need language which is understood
by both you and computer. We use low level languages like machine
and assembly languages.

The computer can understand only machine language or binary

language. Binary language will have only two characters 0 and 1. The
number system that you use for mathematics is base 10. But the

d
poor computer which has no fingers to count uses base two system

he
which has only two digits 0 and 1 with which it does everything.
Even if we write in any language it is converted into machine language.

is
But it is very difficult to write a program using only these two
re S
characters. So assembly language is used in which small English
B
bl
words are used to represent the program which improves
understanding. For example, ADD is used for addition. Compared
be T
pu
to machine language assembly language is easy.
K

Sometimes we use a well thought-out language to write the

programs called High level language. Writing program in high level

language is more easier than assembly language.

Know this: COBOL(COmmon Business Oriented Language),

FORTRAN(FORmula TRANslation), BASIC(Beginners All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code), C, C++ etc.

Know This
to

Assembler is needed to convert assembly language into

machine language.
t

Compiler is needed to convert High Level Language to Machine

No

Language.

Think ! When you are working with computer, sometimes the

instructions given to computer are misunderstood by it and behaves
unusually. Sometimes it is attributed to virus in the computer. What
do you mean by virus? How can it be removed?

285
 Some of the applications of computers are
Computers are used in Smart class rooms where we use smart
boards and interactive boards.
They are used in the field of medicine. We can diagnose
diseases using computers through magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), scanning to examine the internal organs of
the human body. Computers are also used while performing

d
surgery to assist the surgeon.
The financial transactions in the Bank are done through

he
computers. They provide security, speed and convenience.
Computers are widely used in telecommunications. All mobile

is
re S
phones have software embedded in them.
B

bl
Computers are used widely in the Defence. The software is
fixed in almost every weapon.
be T
pu
We can take online exams through computers and get instant
K

results.
We use Computer software in Automated Teller Machines

(ATMs).
Robots are controlled by computer software.
All most all Electronic gadgets run with the help of computers.
Computers are used in aircraft & satellite.
Supercomputers are used to analyze and predict weather.
to

Computers are used to save the images captured in Closed

Circuit TV (CCTV)
t
No

A tablet computer, or a tablet, is a mobile

computer, larger than a mobile phone, integrated
into a flat touch screen and primarily operated by
touching the screen rather than using a physical
keyboard. It often uses an onscreen virtual
keyboard, a passive stylus pen or a digital pen.

286
 Aakash is a project sponsored by the Indian
Government, to design, manufacture, and
distribute low cost Android-based tablet
computers to Schools and Universities in India.
The Aakash is a low-cost tablet computer.

The iPhone is a smart phone

designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The

d
i-phones can work as computers. The

he
first iPhone was introduced to the world
market by Steve Jobs. An iPhone can
function as a video camera, a camera

is
re S
phone, a portable media player, and an
B
bl
Internet client with email and web browsing capabilities, can send
texts and receive visual voicemail, and has both Wi-Fi and 3G
be T
pu
connectivity.
K

EXERCISES

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following

incomplete statement/question. Choose the right answer

1. Which operation is not performed by computer

a. Inputting b. Processing
c. Controlling d. Understanding
to

2. Central Processing Unit is combination of

a. Control and storage b. Control and output unit
t

c. Arithmetic logic and input unit

No

d. Arithmetic logic and control unit

3. The language that is directly understood by the computer

without translation program is
a. Machine language b. Assembly language
c. High level language d. Medium level language

287
 II. Answer the following

1. What are the functions of a computer?

2. Differentiate between RAM and ROM.

3. Draw the block diagram of a computer.
4. Differentiate between optical mark reader and magnetic card
reader.

d
5. Classify the following into input and output devices and

he
explain how they are used to perform input and output
functions.

is
Mouse, Printer, Trackball, optical mark reader, Speaker,
re S
Projector, Light pen, Joystick.
B
bl
6. List the primary and secondary storage devices.
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pu
7. What is the difference between hardware and software of a
K

computer.
8. How are computers useful in the field of medicine?

9. Why is software essential to run the computer. Discuss.

10. We find applications of computers in almost every sphere of
life. Discuss.
t to
No

God, our Creator, has stored within our minds and personalities,
great potential strength and ability. Prayer helps us tap and
develop these powers.
Abdul Kalam

288
 Chapter 22

GRAVITATION
After studying this chapter you
identify contact forces in nature.
give examples for action-at-a-distance forces.
state Newtons universal law of gravitation.

d
give reasons for variation in acceleration due to gravity.

he
You might have visited an orchard to eat guava fruits. When you
shake guava tree ripe fruits fall down. What happens when an empty

is
re S
plastic bottle is squeezed? When you tie a stone to a thread and whirl
it, what change do you observe in the movement of the stone?
B
bl
In all the cases we observe there is a change in the state of the
be T
pu
body, shape, direction of motion respectively. An external agent called
K

force is responsible for all these changes. So a force is a push or pull

upon an object. Force is resulting from the interaction of one object

with the other.

Activity 22.1
Actions Effect of force
When a ball of clay is pressed
When brakes are applied on a moving car
to

When a steering wheel of a car is turned

When ball is hit with a hockey stick
t

If you want to push a desk across a room, you have to apply force
No

on the desk. A book kept on the table is at rest. Do you know why?
The book is exerting force (its weight) on the table. The table in turn
exerts equal and opposite force called the normal force upon the
book to support its weight. When an object slides across the surface
of a desk, the desk exerts frictional force on the book. When a rope
is pulled tightly, the tension force acts on the string.
The forces mentioned in the above examples namely the applied
289
 force, normal force, friction force , tension force etc all exist when the
two objects are in physical contact.
But the forces exist when the two objects are not in physical
contact also.
Examples
1. Force of attraction between sun and earth, figure 22.1a.
2. Electric force between nucleus and electron, figure 22.1b.

d
3. Magnetic force between two magnets, figure 22.1c.

is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
Fig. 22.1 (a) Fig. 22.1 (c)
K

Fig. 22.1 (b)

All forces between the objects can be placed into two broad
categories. The two broad categories are contact forces and forces
resulting from action-at-a-distance.
Now you may ask what the main difference between these two
categories is.
to

Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two
interacting objects are perceived to be physically contacting each
other. Hence the applied force, normal force, frictional force , tension
t

force etc are contact forces.

No

The other category called action-at-a-distance force that results

even when the two interacting objects are not in physical contact
with each other, yet are able to exert a push or pull despite their
physical separation. So the force of attraction between sun and earth,
Electric force, magnetic force etc are action-at-a-distance forces.

290
 Activity 22.2
Group the following forces into contact force and action-at-a
distance force:
(i) Force of attraction between +ve charge and ve charge.
(ii) The tension force in the rope of crane
(iii) Force between the Earth and moon
Activity 22.3

d
Take a bar magnet and a small nail. Displace the nail by bringing
the magnet close to the nail.

he
Gravitational force
You know that the moon, which is the natural satellite of the

is
re S
earth, is always moving around the earth. Have you ever thought
what makes moon revolve round the earth? What makes all planets
B
bl
of the solar system revolve round the Sun? What holds planets and
billions of stars to the galaxy? There is a force of attraction between
be T
pu
the earth and the moon and the sun and the planets. This force of
attraction is called gravitational force.
K

Quantitatively Newton proposed the law of gravitation. According

to Newtons law of gravitation, the force of attraction between any

two bodies varies directly as the product of their masses and inversely
as the square of the distance between them.
t to
No

Fig. 22.2

If m1 and m2 be the masses of two bodies and r be the distance

between them (figure 22.2) and if F be the force of attraction, which
each exerts on the other,

291
 F m1 m2 and also F 1/r2
F m1 m2 /r2
F = G m1 m2 /r2 (1)

where G is gravitational constant, whose value is very very small

and is equal to 6.67 x 10 -11Nm2/kg2.
G is the force between two unit masses separated by unit distance.

d
The particle of mass m2 attracts particle of mass m1, with a force F

he
directed towards particle of mass m2 and particle of mass m1 attracts
particle of mass m2 with a force F that is directed towards particle of
mass m1.

is
re S
The law is universal, in the sense that it holds good right from
B
bl
huge interplanetary objects to the smallest terrestrial ones.
be T
pu
The minimum distance up to which gravitational law is valid is
K

probably not yet known with absolute certainty

Scientists showed that no effect is produced in the gravitational

attraction between the masses by the nature of medium interposed
in between them.
Gravitational attraction between two masses depends only
upon their magnitude, having nothing to do with their nature or
their chemical combination, temperature etc. Gravitational force
to

is always attractive in nature. It is a long range force.

Acceleration due to gravity Earth
t

moon
No

Imagine a situation where you throw a

cricket ball up and it never comes back! This
is not possible for normal velocities, because
the earth attracts every body on or near its
surface towards its centre. This force is called
Gravity. Fig. 22.3

292
 Activity 22.4
Take a small stone. Throw it vertically upwards. You know that it
will go up to a certain height and then it will come back. Why?
Activity 22.5
Take a rupee coin and a small piece of paper. If a coin and the
paper are released together and allowed to fall freely in air, will they
reach ground simultaneously? Explain.

d
Activity 22.6
Take a small piece of paper and keep it on a metal disc of larger

he
radius. Drop the combination together. Observe whether they reach
simultaneously.

is
re S
An important acceleration which affects our daily lives is the
acceleration due to gravity. This is the acceleration with which all
B
bl
objects fall when released from a height above the earths surface.
It is denoted by g. Its unit is m/s2. It is constant for all objects
be T
pu
regardless of their mass. Hence, a heavy body as well as a light body
dropped from a height should reach the ground simultaneously.
K

Guinea and Feather Experiment

Newtons famous Guinea and Feathers In air In vacuum

(or coin and feathers) experiment
conclusively proved that all bodies starting
from rest fall in vacuum with equal rapidity.
A glass tube about a meter long, having
a cap screwed at one end and a stop-cork at
to

the other is taken (figure). A feather and a

small coin are introduced in to the tube. If
the tube is suddenly inverted, the coin
t

reaches the other end earlier than the

No

feather. By opening the stop-cork an air

pump may be connected, the air within the tube is exhausted
thus creating vacuum. Now by suddenly inverting the tube the
coin and the feather fall together and reach the other end
simultaneously.

Think: What is the effect of air resistance on freely falling objects?

293
 The value of acceleration due to gravity is approximately about
9.8m/s2. On the surface of earth, the value is maximum at the poles
and is about to 9.83m/s2. It is minimum at the equator and is about
to 9.78m/s2
Experiment: To determine g using simple pendulum
You can measure the acceleration due to gravity by the simple
pendulum experiment.

d
is he
=10 0
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 22.4 (a) Fig. 22.4 (b)

Set up the apparatus as shown in fig (22.4a). With a tape or metre

scale measure the length of the simple pendulum from the base of
the split cork to the centre of the bob. Make the bob to oscillate with
a small amplitude of the swing is approximately equal to 10. Then
measure period of oscillation (T) for different lengths(say L = 1m,
1.1m, 1.2m, 1.3m)of the pendulum. Using a timer not down the time
taken for say 20 oscillations (to and fro) in say t seconds. The period
to

of oscillations is T = t/20. Find L/T2 for each length. Then using the
formula g =42L/T2 calculate acceleration due to gravity.
Variation in acceleration due to gravity on
t
No

the earth
You know that acceleration due to gravity
g on the earths surface is constant for all
objects regardless of their mass. But it was
found that the value of g varies from place
to place.
Fig. 22.5

294
 Let a body of mass m be placed on the surface of earth of mass M
and radius R as shown in figure (22.5). Now according to the Newtons
law of gravitation the force of attraction on the body due to earth is
F = GMm/R2 .. (2)
The gravitational force (or weight) acting on the same body,
accorging to Newtons II law of motion is F=mg .. (3)
Here g is acceleration due to gravity

d
From equations (2) and (3) we have
mg = GMm/R2

he
or g = GM/R2 (4)
Equation (4) gives the value of acceleration due to gravity at the

is
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earths surface.
B
bl
Activity 22.7
If you are interested in finding the value of acceleration due to
be T
pu
gravity on the surface of Moon, Saturn, Mars, Mercury etc substitute
K

their mass and radius in equation (4)

R
to

Fig. 22.6 (a) Fig. 22.6 (b)

t
No

Know this: From equation (4) we can say that acceleration due to
gravity is inversely proportional square of radius of the earth
g 1/R 2

You know that earth is not perfectly spherical. Its radius at the
equator is more than that at poles. Thus g increases from equator to
the poles.

295
 See the figures 22.6a and 22.6b. In figure 22.6a, the body is at
an altitude (height) h above the earths surface. In figure 22.6b body
is placed at a depth h from the earths surface.
Using equation (4) the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude
h is g = GM/(R+h)2 ..(5)
Similarly acceleration due to gravity at a depth h inside the earth
is g = GM1/(R-h)2 ..(6)
Here the body is attracted by the mass M1 of earth enclosed in a

d
sphere of radius (R-h)

he
The value of g decreases as we go up from the surface of the
earth and also as we go inside the earth.

is
Think! At the centre of the earth g=0. Why?
re S B
bl
Know this: Consider the equation (6) g= GM1/(R-h)2
Now M1 = volume of sphere with radius (R-h) x earths density
be T
pu
= (4/3) (R-h)3
K

where is density of the earth.

Therefore g=G (4/3) (R-h)3 /(R-h)2

Or g =G (4/3) (R-h)
Or g (R-h)
At the centre h = R thus g = 0

EXERCISES
to

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following. Choose

the right answer
1. Gravitational force is always
t
No

a. attractive b. repulsive
c. neither attractive nor repulsive d. zero
2. Unit of acceleration due to gravity is
a. ms-1 b. ms-2
c. ms-3 d. ms-4

296
 3. As the altitude increases, the acceleration due to gravity
a. remains constant b. becomes zero
c. decreases d. increases
4. The relation connecting acceleration due to gravity and
gravitational constant is
a. g = GM/R2 b. g = GM/R
c. g = GMR2 d. g = GMR

d
5. SI unit of gravitational constant is

he
a. N2m2kg2 b. Nmkg2
c. N2mkg-2 d. Nm2kg -2

is
re S
6. At the centre of the earth acceleration due to gravity is
B
a.
c.
bl
zero
9.8
b. infinity
d. 98
be T
pu
K

II Fill up the blank with suitable words.

1. Value of universal gravitational constant G = _______________.

2. Acceleration due to gravity is independent of __________.

3. According to Newtons law of gravitation F = ___________.
4. In vacuum if a coin and a feather are released from the same
height at the same time, then they will reach the
ground____________.
to

III Answer the following questions

1. State and explain Newtons law of gravitational force.
t
No

2. Mention the effect of altitude and depth on the value of

acceleration due to gravity. Give the corresponding
mathematical relation.
3. Describe the experiment simple pendulum to find the value
of acceleration due to gravity.

297
 IV. Solve the following problems
1. A sphere of mass 10 kg is attracted by another sphere of
mass 150 kg, with a force equal to 1.28 x 10-6 N, when their
centres are separated by a distance of 0.28 m. Calculate the
gravitational constant. (Answer: 6.7 x 10-11 S.I. Nm2kg -2)
2. Estimate the mass of the earth, given, radius of the earth =
6.4 x 10 6 m, acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s2 and
gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10-11S.I. units (Answer: 6 x

d
1024 kg)

he
V. Match the following
A B

is
re S
1. Force between the sun a. F = Gm1m2/d2
B
bl
and moon
2. Gravitational constant G b. used to determine
be T
pu
acceleration due to gravity
K

3. Simple pendulum c. depends on masses

4. Newtons law of gravitation d. action at a distance force

e. is universal
to

God, our Creator, has stored within our minds and

personalities, great potential strength and ability. Prayer helps us
t

tap and develop these powers.

No

Abdul Kalam

298
 Chapter 23

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND LASER

After studying this chapter you
define photoelectric effect
explain photoelectric effect
list the uses of photoelectric effect

d
explain the dual nature of light

he
distinguish between ordinary light and laser.
explain the uses of laser in medical field.
explain the uses of laser in industrial field.

is
re S
recall the terms used to explain the production of laser.
B
bl
relate the properties of laser to its uses.
draw diagram of helium - neon laser tube.
be T
pu
You might have come across the story of Rip van winkle written
K

by Washington Irving. The gist of the story is that Rip van winkle
went into deep sleep for 20 years. He thought that he slept for a

night. When he woke up he found so many changes in him and

around him and encountered many problems.
In modern days, technology is advancing so fast that it becomes
difficult to cope up with the changes. For example just sixty years
back radio was considered as a magic box. Soon it was replaced by
transistors, television, computers. Similarly in the field of cable
to

communication we have mobile communication, we do not need

cables.
t

In this chapter you shall study about the revolutionary

No

and wonderful changes brought about by photoelectric effect and

laser.
Photoelectric Effect
Energy can be changed from one form to another. Electricity can
be changed into heat and light. Similarly can you change light into
electricity?

299
 How is light energy converted into electrical signals in the camera
of T.V transmission? Recall the steps of T.V transmission.

d
Fig. 23.1 (a) Fig. 23.1 (b)

he
Solar electrical energy panels
Activity 23.1
In Karnataka many solar electrical energy plants are set up. Collect

is
re S
information about the places in India where solar electrical energy
plants are set up to produce electricity on a large scale.
B
bl
You know that light energy is used in chemical reactions such as
photosynthesis and exposure of photographic films.
be T
pu
What happens if light energy interacts with matter such as metals
K

and non metals?

Metals contain delocalised electrons. Due to the presence of these

electrons which are also sometimes called free electrons, metals

conduct electricity. Delocalised electrons are not closely bound to
the nucleus of an atom and can be dislodged easily by providing
sufficient energy to them. For example when a metal is heated to a
high temperature, the delocalised electrons absorb the heat energy
and get emitted from the metals. This phenomenon is called
thermionic emission.
to

Is it possible to make metal eject electrons by using light

energy? Yes it is possible. A simple experiment was conducted to
demonstrate this.
t

Ejected
Electrons
No

Beamof
Ultraviolet Rays
Polished Zinc
Metal Plate

Electroscope detects that zinc

metal plate gets positively charged
Fig. 23.2

300
 A zinc metal plate was polished to remove the deposit of oxides
and dirt. It was exposed to a source of ultraviolet rays. An electroscope
detected that zinc metal gets positively charged when ultraviolet rays
are incident on it.
You know that atoms are electrically neutral. The number of
protons which are positively charged are equal to the number of
electrons which are negatively charged. If electrons are removed from
an atom it gets positively charged. In the above experiment electrons

d
of the atoms of the zinc plate must have been removed by the energy

he
of the ultraviolet rays. This is the reason for the zinc metal plate
getting positively charged.

is
Certain substances emit electrons when exposed to light or to
re S
any suitable electromagnetic radiation. This phenomenon is known
B
bl
as photo electric effect. The electrons emitted by photoelectric effect
are called photoelectrons.
be T
pu
K

Know this
Wilhelm Ludwing Franz Hallwachs was a

German physicist. He studied physics at the

Universities of Berlin and Strasbourg, where he
was honored under the guidance of AA Kundt.

Hallwachs was assistant of Heinrich, in 1886,

before the photoelectric effect was discovered.
Hallwachs with Hertz, in 1887, carried on the investigations of
to

electromagnetic waves. In 1888 he formulated the hypothesis that

a conductive plate on which to focus ultraviolet light carries a
positive charge because the electrons are thrown out. Interestingly
t
No

this happened with more intensity in selenium. The phenomenon

was seen in the same year by A. Righi. The phenomenon was
called Hallwachs-Effect, now called the photoelectric effect. The
investigation of the photoelectric effect laid the foundation for the
development of the photoelectric cell, photo electricity and Albert
Einsteins quantum light hypothesis.

301
 In 1888 Hallwachs discovered that if zinc plates are kept in an
evacuated quartz glass tube and connected to a battery through a
galvanometer, such that the ultraviolet radiations are allowed to fall
on negative plate, the galvanometer showed deflection. However, when
the ultraviolet radiation were allowed to fall on positive plate,
galvanometer did not show any deflection.
Careful experiments about photo electric effect show that,
i) Photo electric effect is instantaneous. There is no time gap

d
between the incidence of radiation and emission of electrons.

he
ii) Each substance mostly metals have a threshold frequency. If the
frequency of incident radiation is less than the threshold

is
frequency of the metal, photo electric effect is not produced . The
re S
incident radiation should have a greater frequency than the
B
bl
threshold frequency of the metal. Can you define threshold
frequency?
be T
pu
Think it over !
K

Radio waves are found in our surroundings. But they do not

produce photo electric effect on metals. Why? Iron sheet when

exposed to sun light cannot produce photo electric effect. Why?

Which electromagnetic radiation can produce photo electric effect
in most of the metals?

iii) The kinetic energy of photo electrons is directly proportional to

the frequency of the incident radiation.The kinetic energy of the
to

photoelectrons does not depend upon the intensity of the incident

radiation.

Activity 23.2
t
No

Zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet rays can produce photo

electrons. The same zinc metal when exposed to X- rays also produce
photo electrons. What is the difference in the kinetic energy of photo
electrons produced in both the cases? Give reason for your answer
comparing the frequency of ultraviolet rays and X-rays.
The energy of a photon is given by the formula E=h
302
 E = energy of photon
h = Plancks constant
(pronounced as Nu) = frequency of the photon or energy packet
which is incident on the metal.

iv) The number of photo electrons is directly proportional to the

intensity of the incident light on the metal. It does not depend

d
upon the frequency of incident light.

he
Activity 23.3
Photocells which are used in solar electric energy panels produce

is
less number of electrons during cloudy weather. Why? A zinc plate of
re S
four square cm area is exposed to i) 40 watt ultraviolet lamp ii) 60 watt
B
bl
ultraviolet lamp. Both the lamps are at the same distance from the zinc
be T

plate. What will be the difference in i)Kinetic energy of photo electrons

pu
in both the cases? ii) Number of photo electrons in both the cases? Give
K

reason for your answers.

Einsteins explanation of photo electric effect

Albert Einstein received the Nobel prize for explaining the photo
electric effect satisfactorily. Using Plancks quantum theory he
proposed that all electromagnetic radiations are discrete energy
packets called photons. Whenever light is incident on a system, either
to

photons are absorbed or photons are emitted or photons pass through.

When a photon of frequency higher than the threshold frequency of
a metal collides with an electron of the metal then the electron gets
t

ejected.
No

The Kinetic energy of the liberated electrons is given by the

formula mv2 =h-w where m is the mass of the electrons v is the
velocity of the liberated electron, w is the constant for a given metal.
h and represent planks constant and frequency of the photon
respectively.
303
 Why wave theory cannot explain photo electric effect? Imagine
that an iron plate is exposed to sunlight from morning till evening.
The electrons of the atoms of iron should absorb energy and gradually
gain sufficient energy to come out of the atom. But it does not happen.
On the other hand if high frequency X-rays are incident on iron,
photo electrons get ejected instantly.
Imagine that there is a marble in a pit as shown in the figure.
Imagine that you are trying to dislodge the marble by another marble.

d
Even if you try many times with lower kinetic energy, the marble in
the pit may just vibrate and remain there. Collision is not effective. If

he
you hit the marble in the pit with a marble having higher kinetic
energy you will succeed in dislodging the marble instantly.

is
re S B
bl Marble
be T
pu
Marble
K

Pit

Fig. 23.3

The instantaneous nature of photo electric effect suggests that

the incident radiation should be in the form of energy packets called
photons. Photons of suitable frequency can dislodge the electrons of
a metal by colliding with the electrons.
Dual nature of light
to

Wave theory of light can satisfactorily explain interference and

diffraction. The photon theory of light cannot explain these two
observations. Wave theory cannot explain photo electric effect. But
t

the photon theory can explain photoelectric effect. Light has dual
No

nature. One is wave nature and another energy packet photon nature.
Within the photon light may be regarded as wave because we are
using the term frequency to express the energy of a photon, the term
associated with wave.
Analogy and the conversations of scientists are given in the
following figures.

304
 Wave Photon
Theory Theory

d
Fig. 23.4 Continuous flow (a) and quantum flow (b)

is he
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bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 23.5

Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom
of Wurttemberg in the German Empire on 14 March
to

1879. His father was Hermann Einstein, a

salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline
Einstein.
t

Albert Einstein
No

Einsteins contributions
General relativity and special relativity, Photoelectric effect, Mass-
energy equivalence, Theory of Brownian Motion, Einstein field
equations, Bose-Einstein statistics, Bose-Einstein condensate,
Bose-Einstein correlations, Unified Filed Theory, EPR paradox are
a few of his great contributions Notable awards: Nobel Prize in
Physics (1921)

305
 Applications of photoelectric effect
Before discussing about the uses of photoelectric effect let us try
to recall our experiences in modern days. You or your friends might
have come across such experiences.

i) In posh Hotel or modern air ports or modern shopping malls hold

your hands just below the tap and water flows from the tap. After
washing your hands remove the hands and the water stops flowing

d
from the tap. Is it a magic? No, it is based on photo electric effect.

he
ii) A model of Automatic street light. In this model when there is
sunlight street lights will be off. When the sun sets, street lights
will be on. Such models can be designed by you also using a

is
photocell as a switch. You might have seen such models in science
re S
exhibitions. In advanced countries photocells are used as
B
bl
automatic switches of street lights.
be T

iii) You might have observed solar energy panels which are used to
pu
recharge solar lamp batteries. How do they work?
K

In all the above examples there is application of photoelectric

effect. Light energy is used to get electrons from a substance and it is

possible to regulate and control the flow and behaviour of the
electrons.

Photocell is a device which converts light energy into electrical

energy. Solar energy devices contain many photo cells which are
called photo voltaic cells. They contain silicon covered with glass as
to

basic material. Among the numerous application of photo electric

effect the most popular are,
i) In the T.V cameras photocells are used to convert visual light into
t
No

electrical signals. Photo cells are used in the sound reproduction

of cinematography.
ii) In the counting machines, you might have come across such
machines being used in the banks to count the currencies.
iii) To control the aperture and time of exposure in the cameras,
photo cells are used.

306
 iv) Photo voltaic silicon cells are used to convert solar energy into
electrical energy.
v) Photo cells are used in burglars alarm.
Activity 23.4
Collect pictures about solar electrical energy panels from the
newspapers and advertisement leaflets.

Activity 23.5

d
Collect information about the working of burglars alarm.

he
LASER
[Laser is an acronym which stands for Light Amplification by

is
re S
Stimulated Emission of Radiation]
B
bl
Laser in modern life has brought about revolutionary changes in
the medical field and industrial field. You might have played with low
be T
pu
intensity key chain laser also. You have come across the words such
K

as laser printing, laser surgery, laser welding, laser cutting, etc.

Laser is also electromagnetic radiation. It is a special type of light.

All the photons of laser light will be of the same frequency and in
phase.
Activity 23.6
Take a key chain laser light. Pass the light through a prism. Get
the refracted ray on a wall or on a white screen. Do you see a band of
to

colours? The refracted ray will be of the same colour as that of incident
light. That means laser light is monochromatic. It is a single coloured
light.
t

Can you call all single coloured light as laser? No, in single coloured
No

light the photons may not be identical and in phase.

Activity 23.7
In the corner of a dark room stick four or five glowing incense
sticks. [Agarbatti]. Let the room be filled with smoke for 10 to 15 minutes.
Take key chain laser and let the laser travel from one end of the room

307
 to the other end. Observe the path of the laser beam. Repeat the
experiment by taking an ordinary torch light. What difference do you
find? The carbon particles of the smoke scatter light. This is called
Tyndall effect Due to tyndall effect the path of a light beam can be
easily observed. You will find the ordinary light diverges and laser
light does not diverge to a great extent. This property of laser is called
directionality.

d
Diode lasers are very weak and are used in
todays pocket laser pointers. These lasers
typically emit a red beam of light that has a

he
wavelength between 630 nm and 680 nm.

is
re S
Do Not Look Directly Into The Laser Beam.
B
bl
be T
pu
K

Wide cone

of divergence
Ordinary Torch
Light

Highly Directional Beam

(Narrow Cone of Divergence)
t to
No

Why is laser used in the surgery and metal cutting and metal
welding? Laser has high energy density. What do you mean by energy
density? It means concentration of energy per unit area is higher.

308
 Activity 23.8
Refer to activity 10.2 in the chapter on lens.
Accordingly the high energy density together with non diverging
property of laser makes it suitable for cutting a metal and the surgical
operations with highest degree of precision.
Eye surgery : The pinpoint precision of lasers makes them
particularly suitable for Welding detached retinas and sealing
broken blood vessels in the eye. The procedure is painless because

d
the laser passes straight through the patients eyeball. Laser surgery

he
can also help to correct eye problems such as short sight.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
Fig. 23.6 (a) Fig. 23.6 (b) Fig. 23.6 (c)
Laser welding Laser cutting Laser Surgery
K

In addition to the monochromaticity, directionality, high energy

density there is one more speciality of laser. Ordinary light is not

coherent, but the laser light is coherent. Laser has the photons in
phase like the soldiers marching. In ordinary photons will not be in
phase. It is like the soldiers scattered after the parade is over. The
following figures will make it clear.
to

Photons which are not in

phase (odinary light)
t
No

Fig. 23.7 (a) Incoherent light waves

309
 Photons which are in phase

d
Laser

he
Fig. 23.7 (b) Coherent light waves

By now you might be wondering how is such a special light or

is
re S
electromagnetic radiation laser produced. Normal light can be
B
produced by incandescent bulbs, fluorescent lamps and chemical
reactions. bl
be T
pu
Let us study the details of laser light production. You may recall
K

the knowledge of electronic configuration of an atom and structure of

an atom.

Consider two energy states of an electron, the ground state E1

and the excited state E2 When an electron from an orbit of higher
energy E2 transits to an orbit of lower energy E1on its own by emitting
a photon of energy which is equal to h (E2-E1 = h) where is the
frequency of the photon (- it is Greek letter NU) and h is the Plancks
constant, takes place spontaneously, it is called spontaneous emission.
to

Consider a photon of energy E=h incident on a material. The

free electron of an atom absorbs this energy, it raises into higher
energy state (as shown in fig), this process is called excitation.
t
No

Fig. 23.8 (a) Fig. 23.8 (b)

310
 There are certain special substances or systems in which the
electrons once excited can remain in the higher energy state for
longer time. Such systems are called active systems or active media,
which are generally compounds or mixture of different elements.
Consider three energy states E1,E2,E3 in an active medium as
shown in the figure.

d
is he
re S B
bl Fig. 23.10 (b)
be T
pu
Normally large number of electrons exist in the lowest energy
K

state (E1). If light amplification has to take place, it is necessary to

raise atoms to higher energy levels.

The process of exciting the electrons of atoms from lower state to

higher energy state so that excited electrons are more in number is
called population inversion. The process of supplying energy from
an external source, to achieve population inversion in a system is
called pumping
When photons of energy equal to the E3 - E1 are incident, the
electrons from state E1 are excited to E3 because of absorption. Most
to

of the electrons return to the state E1 by spontaneous emission But

some electrons transit from E3 to E2. These electrons remain for a few
milliseconds (3x10-3s). Such an electronic state is called meta stable
state. If another photon of same energy is incident on it, the electron
t

transits to E1 and emits a photon which is exactly the same as the

No

incident photon. This type of emission is called stimulated emission.

The emitted photon is exactly in phase with the stimulating photon.
This makes laser action possible. Thus two identical photons are
produced in stimulated emission. This process is called light
amplification by stimulated emission.
1) Solid laser 2) liquid laser and 3) Gas laser are three types of
lasers.

311
 Ruby laser is an example of solid laser. Dye laser is an example
of liquid laser. Helium - Neon laser is an example of gas laser.
Let us understand the working of He-Ne laser Helium-Neon laser
consists of a narrow discharge tube. It is filled with a mixture of Helium
and Neon in the ratio of 10:1. (The pressure inside the tube is
maintained at 1mm of Hg) M1 and M2 are two mirrors, M1 is completely
reflecting and M2 is partially transparent mirrors kept at the ends of
the tube, such that their surfaces are mutually parallel to each other.
The mixture is ionised by passing direct current, this result in

d
population inversion.
Discharge tube

he
Laser

is
re S
beam
B
blM1 dc M2
be T

source
pu
Fig. 23.11 Helium-Neon Gas Laser
K

Due to stimulated emission photons which travel perpendicular

to the mirror surfaces, move to and fro. This multiple reflections

increase the intensity of light when it reaches a certain level, light
comes out continuously through M 2 as a strong beam of
monochromatic light.
The idea for the laser, which was based on Albert
Einsteins theories of light was developed by Gordon
to

Gould in 1957. The first production was MASER. That

means Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation. Theodore Maiman produced the first
t

working laser in 1960. Maiman generated laser light by

No

Thedore
energizing a ruby crystal with light from a flash tube. Maiman
Although only a few centimeteres long it worked very well. Fig. 23.11

Know this : There are many different types of lasers. The laser
medium can be a solid, gas, liquid or semiconductor. Lasers are
commonly designated by the type of lasing material employed.

312
 Solid-state lasers have lasing material distributed in a solid
matrix (such as the ruby or neodynium yittrium-aluminum garnet
Yag lasers) The neodynium-Yag laser emits infrared light at
1,064 nanometres (nm). A nanometre is 1x10-9 metres. One of the
applications for the ruby laser is in range finding. One of the
main industrial uses is drilling holes through diamond. Nd: YAG
lasers can also be used to remove skin cancers.
Gas lasers (helium and helium-neon-HeNe, are the most common

d
gas lasers) have a primary output of visible red light. CO2 lasers

he
emit energy in the far-infrared, and are used for cutting hard
materials.
Excimer lasers ( the name is derived from the terms excited and

is
re S
dimers) use reactive gases, such as chlorine and fluorine, mixed
with inert gases such as argon, krypton or xenon. When electrically
B
bl
stimulated, a pseudo molecule (dimer) is produced. When lased,
the dimer produces light in the ultraviolet range. Excimer laser
be T
pu
is the key element that has made laser eye surgery possible.
K

Dye lasers use complex organic dyes, such as Rhoda mine 6G,
in liquid solution or suspension as lasing media. They are tunable

over a broad range of wavelengths. Dye lasers are used in

astronomy (as laser guide stars), atomic vapour laser isotope
separation, in medicine, and also in spectroscopy.
Semiconductor lasers, sometimes called diode lasers, are not
solid-state lasers. These electronic devices are generally very
small and use low power. They may be built into large arrays,
to

such as the writing source in some laser printers or CD players.

Dr. C.V. Raman used sodium vapour lamp as a source of

t

monochromatic light. At that time as a source of light namely laser

No

was not discovered. Using sodium vapour lamp, Raman conducted

his famous experiment of Raman Effect. The experiment was useful
to study the molecular structure of organic molecules. Today laser
is used in laser Raman spectroscopy for this purpose.

Apart from surgery, cutting, welding and laser ranging, laser has
other applications too.

313
 Another interesting use of laser is obtaining three dimensional
images which are popularly called 3-D images.The technique is called
laser beam Holography.

Laser is used in optic fibres for communication. The conventional

copper cables occupy more volume. Optical cables occupy small space.
The principle of optical communication is total internal reflection.
Refer to the relevant chapters on light and communication that you

d
have studied earlier. It is also used in magic shows and displays.

he
Can you think of designing automatic photo electric switch for
the domestic use to prevent wastage of electricity by our negligence?

is
re S
If you are the master tailor for a readymade garment factory, can you
suggest a method of cutting clothes for 1000 shirts simultaneously?
B
bl
Your imagination is the limit.
be T
pu
EXERCISE
K

I Four alternatives are given to each of the following

statements or question. Choose the most appropriate

alternative.

1. The electromagnetic radiation that can produce photo electric

effect in almost all metals is.
a) Radio wave b) visible light
to

c) Infrared rays d) Gamma rays.

2) A person wearing a black shirt and a white cap is standing in

t

front of a T.V. camera. The part of the photocell which captures

No

the image of his cap emits more number of photo electrons.

This is related to.
a) Frequency b) Intensity
c) Velocity d) Wavelength.

314
 3) Laser is used in finding the distance between the moon and
the earth. The property of laser used in this process is,
a) Monochromaticity b) Non diverging nature
c) High energy density d) Higher velocity.
4) Radio waves cannot produce photo electric effect on the known
metal because radiowaves.

d
a) have higher frequency b) have lower frequency
c) are absorbed by the air d) are reflected by the metal.

he
5) The following cannot be explained by wave nature of light

is
a) Interference b) Photo electric effect
re S
c) Diffraction d) Refraction.
B
II
bl
Fill in the blanks with suitable answer
be T
pu
1. The energy of a photon is given by the formula _____________
K

2. Light energy can be converted into electricity by ____________

3. The minimum frequency of incident radiation to produce photo

electric effect is called ___________
4. The kinetic energy of photo electrons is directly proportional
to __________
to

5. Laser light when passed through a glass prism cannot produce

band of colours because it is __________
t

III Give reasons for the following

No

1. Sodium metal can produce photo electric effect for ordinary

visible light.
2. A 40 watt bulb and 60 watt bulb though have different
intensities cannot change the kinetic energy of photoelectrons
produced by them from a substance.

315
 3. Ordinary key chain laser light should not be directly viewed.
4. Laser is used in cutting metals.
5. Silicon voltaic cells are used in solar electrical energy devices.

IV Answer the following questions.

1. The time taken by laser to travel from tower A to tower B

and then to reflect back to tower A from a mirror on tower B

d
is 0.000l seconds. Calculate the distance between the two
towers (15km).

he
2. Distinguish between ordinary light and laser light.

is
3. What is dual nature of light?
re S
4. List the applications of photoelectric effect.
B
bl
5. Draw a neat diagram of Helium -Neon gas laser tube.
be T
pu
6. List any three applications of laser.
K

7. Suggest any two situations in which photocells can be used

as automatic switches.

8. What is laser beam holograph?

9. How can photoelectric effect be used to produce electricity.
10. What are i) spontaneous emission ? and ii) and stimulated
emission?
11. What is photoelectric effect? Give Einsteins explanation of
to

the phenomenon.
12. What is population inversion?
t

13. Explain an experiment to demonstrate photoelectric effect.

No

14. State the factors on which the following depend

i) Kinetic energy of photo electrons.
ii) Number of photo electrons.

316
 Chapter 24

ELECTRICITY
After studying this chapter you
distinguish between static electricity and electric current.
give reason for considering electricity as the most convenient form
of energy.

d
define the terms - ampere, potential difference, volt and resistance.

he
state Ohms law.
identify the applications of Ohms law in daily life.
draw circuit symbols showing parallel and series connection of

is
re S
resistances.
B
bl
solve numerical problems on Ohms law.
state the effects of electricity.
be T
pu
illustrate with examples the effects of electricity.
K

analyze the problems faced during the usage of electricity in

daily life.

recongnize the safety devices used at home for electrical circuits.

state the precautions while using electricity.

Earlier you have studied about static electric charges. Also you
are familiar with electrical appliances and their uses. Electricity is
like Alladdins magic lamp. Rub the lamp and the genie appears
to

who can fulfill your wishes. It may be a story, but it is a reality that
just at the press of a button you can change electrical energy into
any other form. Can you use the energy of burning coal to run
t

mixer grinder, TV or Radio? Can you transmit the energy of burning

No

wood to different places? Quartz watches need a small amount of

electrical energy. Can you think of any other source of energy
which can be transported easily, which can be produced on a small
scale as well as on large scale? Can you think of a form of energy
that can be converted into light, heat, mechanical and other forms
of energy as fast as electricity?

317
 Recall : How can the energy of coal be converted into electricity?
How can the energy of flowing water be converted into electricity?
Can you list very small sources of electricity? Can you list the
devices that can produce electricity on large scale?

Remember : Give at least four reasons for considering electrical

energy as the most convenient form of energy.
Activity 24.1

d
Collect information about load shedding and classify your

he
information under the heads meaning, causes and remedial
measures.

is
Remember : Name any one device for the following
re S
i. Conversion of sound into electrical impulses.
B
bl
ii. Conversion of electricity into sound energy
iii. Conversion of electricity into mechanical energy
be T
pu
iv. Conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy
K

Think ! Many of us think that electrical energy is pollution free.

Is it true? How many trees have to be cut to set up a hydroelectric

power station? You will come to know about the other
aspect of electrical energy when you study about the production of
electricity on large scale and production of small sources of energy
such as cells.

Lightning is an atmospheric
to

electrical discharge accompanied

by thunder. The lightning can travel
at speeds of 220,000 km/h and
t
No

can attain temperatures as high as

about 30,000C.
There are about 16 million
lightning storms in the world every year. Lightning causes ionisation in
the air through which it travels. It leads to the formation of nitric oxide
and ultimately, nitric acid, which is of benefit to plant life on earth.

318
 Lightning can also occur within the ash clouds from volcanic
eruptions, or can be caused by violent forest fires which generate
sufficient dust to create a static charge.

You have already studied about static charges. Let us recall the
activities.
Activity 24.2
Take a thermocoal ball. Cover it with Aluminium wrapper (from a

d
chocolate). Suspend it with a thread. Rub a plastic comb with a

he
woolen blanket or with your hair. Touch the suspended ball with the
comb. The thermocoal ball gets negatively charged. If you touch the
thermocoal ball with a glass rod which is rubbed against silk, the ball

is
re S
gets positively charged. The following diagrams illustrate the activities
that can be conducted about the static charges.
B
bl
From the activities, it is clear that there are only two kinds of
be T
pu
charges namely positive and negative.
K

Fig. 24.1 (b)

Fig. 24.1 (a)
Positively charged
Uncharged
+ +

Fig. 24.1 (c) Fig. 24.1 (d)

Oppositely charged Negatively charged
to

+ - - -
t

Know this: Which is positive charge and which is negative charge?

No

They are only names. Scientists use a convention. If they were to

call negative as positive or positive as negative earlier, the same
tradition would have continued. Remember Shakespears
quotation, What is in a name? If Rose be called by any other
name does it lose its fragrance? We follow the tradition about the
types of charges.

319
 What happens if we touch a charged comb with our hands? Why
cannot we charge a metal spoon by rubbing? Many questions can be
answered easily today due to the knowledge of atomic structure.
In 8th standard you have studied that all matter is made up of
small particles called atoms. Atoms have protons, neutrons and
electrons. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively
charged. Neutrons add to the mass of the atom and do not have any
net charge.

d
Know this: Do not say that neutrons are neutrally charged, say

he
that they are electrically neutral. There is no third kind of charge
called neutral charge.
Electrons of the outermost shell of an atom are relatively free. In

is
re S
case of metallic (or conductors) atoms, the electrons of the outermost
shell are delocalized. They move easily from atoms to atoms.
B
bl
Delocalized electrons are responsible for the flow of charges. During
be T

rubbing of two materials, loss of electrons results in positive charge

pu
and gain of electrons result in negative charge.
K

Since electricity is so important to our life, we need to know about

it. Electricity is a form of energy that exists naturally all around us. It

was believed that electricity was some form of magic because they did
not understand it. Greek philosophers noticed that when a piece of
amber was rubbed with cloth, it would attract pieces of paper.
Dr. William Gilbert coined the term electrica, in the year 1600.
It is a Latin word which describes the static charge that develops
when certain materials are rubbed against amber. This is probably
to

the source of the word electricity. Electricity and magnetism are

natural phenomena that are very closely related to one another.
Magnitude of charge of proton = magnitude of charge of electron
t
No

= 1.6 10-19 C
(C - coulomb is the SI unit of charge)
Electric Current
Static charges on insulators like plastic or wood remain at a
specified region. In a metal they can move. Motion of charges are
called electric current.
320
 Measurement of electric current means a measurement of the
flow of electric charges in a given amount of time. It is like measuring
rate of flow of water through a tap.

Electric Current =

I=

d
Example: In a cell, 12 coulombs of charge flow in 20 seconds. The

he
current from the cell is given by 12 coulombs/20 seconds = 0.6
coulombs per second.

is
re S
One coulomb per second is called an ampere. SI unit of electric
current is ampere (A).
B
bl
Just like water in motion forms a water current, electric charge
be T
pu
in motion forms an electric current. Just as water flows from higher
K

pressure to lower pressure, the electric current flows from higher

potential to lower potential. What do you mean by this?

Potential Difference
You know that any charge that comes in the vicinity of another
charge experiences a force of repulsion or attraction.
If more charges of single type are concentrated near one end of a
to

metal wire, they repel one another and tend to move away. Since,
metal allows movement of charges through it (electrical conductor),
the charges move to the end where the charge concentration is less.
t

Thus charges move from a point of higher charge concentration to a

No

point of lower charge concentration.

Know this: Electric current in a metal is due to the motion of the

electrons in the metal. But, in the case of electrolytes, motion of
both positive and negative charges (ions) contribute to electric current.

321
 Consider a positive charge placed in a negative electric field. An
attractive force is exerted on it by the electric field. To take this charge
away from the electric field requires work to be done. (Just like work
needs to be done to lift anything against the gravitational force.) More
the amount of charge more will be the work required to move the test
charge away. It is called Electrical Potential.

The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is the energy

d
required to transport a unit positive charge between those two points.

he
It is measured in volt.

One volt is defined as one joule per coulomb.

is
re S
Thus electric current flows from a point of high electric potential
B
bl
to a point of lower electric potential. It is just like the behavior of
water that always seeks its level. Current flows between two points
be T
pu
that have a difference in electric potential, to balance this inequality.
K

Potential difference (V) =

Example 1: By a 6 V battery we mean the potential difference between

the terminals of a battery is equal to 6 volt. A coulomb of charge
when flowing from one terminal to another will do six joules of work.
If two coulombs of charge are made to flow, then 12 joule of work will
be done.
to

Example 2: The work done in moving 5 coulombs of charge between

two points in an electric field is 30 joule. Calculate the potential
t

difference between the two points.

No

Solution: W = 30 joule, Q = 5 coulomb,

V=

V= = 6 volt.

322
 Know this: As the current flows between two points, every charge
gains energy that is equal to the difference of potential between
them. Two terminals of any battery have a potential difference
between them, which is measured in volts. When you connect any
circuit between the two terminals of the battery, charge flows from
one terminal to the other to equalize the charge imbalance and
continues till the difference between them is equalized.

Potential Difference is also called Voltage

d
he
Know this: Sources to sustain potential difference that cause electric
current are Leclanche Cell, Daniel Cell, Dry Cell, Lead acid Cell
and Generator. The cells convert chemical energy to electrical

is
re S
energy.
B
bl
Electromotive force
be T
pu
The potential difference between the poles of a cell is a measure
K

of electromotive force, or EMF.

Think of electricity flowing in a wire in the same way as the water

flowing in the pipe. The voltage causing the electrical current to flow
in the wire can be considered as similar to the water pressure at the
tap, which causes the water to flow. If we increase the pressure at the
hydrant, more water would flow through the pipe. Similarly, if we
increase electrical pressure or voltage, more
electrons would flow through the wire.
to

It is the potential difference that makes

electrons move in a certain direction within a
t

conductor. Hence it is called electro motive

No

force.

EMF is measured in Volt. Fig. 24.2

Know this: Even though the cause of electric current is called EMF,
it does not represent a force. It has unit volt and not newton.

323
 Electrical resistance
Opposition to the flow of electricity may be termed as electrical
resistance. Earlier under the common properties of metals, you have
studied that metals are good conductors. Is it so? Some of the metals
like copper, silver and gold offer little resistance to the flow of
electricity. They are good conductors. Iron, lead, tin, nickel chromium
and others offer more resistance to the flow of electricity. They may
be termed conductors instead of good conductors.

d
Activity 24.3

he
Take two pipes, one partially filled with sand and the other one
empty. The sand will slow the flow of water in one pipe. The partially
sand filled pipe has more resistance to water flow than an empty

is
re S
pipe. Increase the water pressure at the hydrant and observe the
flow of water in both the pipes. From this can you understand the
B
bl
relation between potential difference and current?
be T
pu
Know this: In a light bulb, the electricity flowing through the filament,
K

or the tiny wires inside the bulb, causes them to glow white hot.
The heat that is generated from electric heaters or the light that we

get from light bulbs is due to resistance.

Think! Electric bulbs are evacuated. Why?

Know this: Can the resistance be zero? Yes! Certain metals, alloys
and ceramics attain a state of zero resistance when cooled to very
low temperatures (about 0 kelvin) Such materials are called Super
to

Conductors.
Superconductivity was discovered in 1911, when mercury was
cooled to 4 kelvin by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. This
t
No

earned him the (1913) Nobel Prize for physics. In the years since, this
field has greatly expanded and many other forms of superconductors
have been discovered. The basic theory of superconductivity, BCS
Theory, earned the scientists - John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John
Schrieffer - the 1972 Nobel Prize for physics. The 1973 Nobel Prize for
physics was shared by Brian Josephson, also for the work on
superconductivity.

324
 Activity 24.4
Make your own potentiometer i.e. a variable resistance with a
bulb as explained below.
On a wooden board, fix two screw nails, A and B at a distance of
about 5 cm from each other. Connect A with one terminal of a 6 volt
cell or battery. Connect the other terminal of the battery to one end of
a bulb. From the other end of the bulb, connect a copper wire attached
with a copper plate with a sharp edge. Fix a pencil lead between A

d
and B. Glide the edge of the copper plate along AB. Observe the

he
brightness of the bulb. You can conclude that the resistance of the
conductor is directly proportional to its length.

is
The factors on which the electric resistance depends are
re S
a) Nature of the material of the conductor
B
b) bl
Length of the conductor
be T

c) Thickness of the conductor and

pu
d) Temperature of the conductor
K

a) As discussed earlier, all materials offer some resistance or

opposition to the flow of current. Some conductors such as copper,

silver, aluminium, gold etc. offer very little resistance to current
flow. Insulators such as glass, wood, paper, etc., offer high
resistance to the flow of current. This is because different
substances have different number of delocalised electrons.
b) The number of collisions that the electrons encounter while
to

moving from one end to the other end of the conductor decides
the resistance of the conductor. As the number of collisions is
more in a longer conductor than the shorter conductor, if the
t

length of the conductor is more the resistance is also more. Hence

No

the resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to the

length of the conductor. i.e. R l.
c) It is easier to travel on a broad road than on a narrow road. In the
same way, the thickness of a conductor is another factor that
affects the resistance. A thick conductor allows the current to
flow easily through the conductor. In an electrical circuit, the

325
 larger the diameter of the wire, the lesser is the opposition to the flow
of current. Therefore the resistance of a conductor is inversely
proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor. i.e., R .
l = length of the conductor and a = area of cross section of the
conductor.
d) Temperature also affects the resistance of an electrical conductor.
In most conductors resistance increases with temperature. This
is due to the fact that as the temperature increases, the random

d
movement of the electrons increase and causes more resistance.

he
Note: Resistance decreases on heating, in case of semiconductors.
Resistivity : Electrical resistivity (also known as resistivity, specific

is
electrical resistance, or volume resistivity) is a measure of how
re S
strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. A low
B
bl
resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of
electric charge.
be T

The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter (m). It is

pu
commonly represented by the Greek letter (rho).
K

Ohms Law

You know that when a potential difference is maintained across

the ends of a conductor, the current flows in it. The relation between
the electric current through a conductor and the potential difference
across its ends was experimentally studied by George Simon Ohm in
1826. The relationship is given in the form of Ohms law. Ohms law
is based on the simple activities conducted in this lesson.
Ohms Law gives relation between current and potential difference.
to

It states that At constant temperature the current flowing through

a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends.
t

If a potential difference of V across a conductor causes a current I

No

through it, then, I V and hence V I

V
Or = Constant
I
This constant is called the electrical resistance and is
denoted by R. V
= R or V= IR
I
326
 Know this: Unit of Resistance: From Ohms Law, R = V/I. The SI
unit of potential difference is V means volt and that of current is I
means ampere. The unit of resistance is equal to volt/ampere and
is called ohm and is named after the name of the scientist Georg
Simon Ohm. It is denoted by the symbol (omega). Therefore 1
ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere. i.e, the resistance of a conductor is said to
be 1 ohm if 1 ampere current flows through it when a potential
difference of 1 volt is applied across the ends of the conductor.

d
High resistances are measured in kilo-ohm and mega-ohm, where

he
1 kilo-ohm (or 1 k ) = 103 and 1 mega-ohm (or 1 M ) = 106 .

Example: The potential difference between the ends of a conductor

is
re S
is 40V. If the conductor draws a current of 4A from the source, what
current will the conductor draw if the potential difference is increased
B
to 100V ?
bl
be T

Solution
pu
Given the potential difference, V = 40 V Current, I = 4 A
K

According to ohms law, R = V = 40 = 10

I 4
When the potential difference is increased to 100 V, the current
V 100
is given by I = = = 10 A
R 10

George Simon Ohm

to

He was a Bavarian (German) physicist and

mathematician. As a high school teacher, Ohm
began his research with the new
t

electrochemical cell, invented by Italian

No

scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of

his own creation, Ohm found that there is a
direct proportionality between the potential
difference (voltage) applied across a conductor
and the resultant electric current. This
relationship is known as Ohms law.

327
 Activity 24.5
V= Potential Defference
Close the thumb on the letter I = amperes
in the magic triangle, you get the R = Resistance
relation for that physical quantity.
A material that follows Ohms law at a given temperature is called
ohmic. Conductors are ohmic and semiconductors are non-ohmic.
Activity 24.6

d
Fill up the blanks in the following table making use of Ohms Law
equation.

he
Sl. Potential Difference Electric Current (I) R = V/I
No. (V) in volts in amperes in Ohm

is
re S
1 8 5 -
B
2
bl 16 - 4
be T

3 - 3 21
pu
K

Do it Yourself : Plot the Potential Difference (V) and the

corresponding Current (I) on the x-axis and y-axis respectively on

the graph for the values obtained in the above table.

Circuit diagram
It is schematic diagram which comprises of different components
of a circuit as given in the table on the next page. The components
are represented by the symbols and are conveniently used in the
circuit. In that table conventional symbols used to represent some of
to

the most commonly used circuit components are given. The figure
24.3 represents a simple circuit diagram.
t

V
No

+ -

+
A Fig 24.3
-
+ -

328
 Basic Electric Circuit

d
Fig. 24.4 (a) Fig. 24.4 (b) Fig. 24.4 (c)

he
Volt meter Ammeter Multimeter

Sl. Component Symbol

is
No.
re S
1 An electric cell
B
bl
be T

2 Wires crossing without joining

pu
K

3 A battery or a combination of cells

4 Plug key or switch (open)

5 Plug key or switch (closed)

6 A wire joint

7 Electric bulb
to

8. A resistor of resistance R
t
No

9. Variable resistance or rheostat

10. Ammeter

11. Voltmeter

329
 Combination of resistors in series and parallel
Is it possible to increase or decrease the resistance of a circuit?
Yes, it can be done. In order to have desired value of resistance in a
circuit, we have to connect two or more resistors together. They can
be connected either in series, or in parallel or both in series and
parallel.
The resistors are said to be connected in series, if they are joined
one after the other end to end conection. Three resistors R1, R2 and

d
R3 are connected in series as shown in figure 24.5 with the other
components of the circuit. Any current going through R1 also goes

he
through R2 and R3. In a series combination, if resistances R1, R2, R3,
. Rn. are connected in series, then the equivalent resistance is

is
equal to the sum of individual resistances. This given by the relation
re S B
bl
be T

Fig. 24.5
pu
K

RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + Rn

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel if they

are connected between two points (A and B) as shown in figure 24.6
The current passing through the circuit is divided at the junction of
the resistors. The low resistance allows more current and the high
resistance allows less current. In a parallel combination, the reciprocal
of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of
to

individual resistances. If resistance, R1, R2, R3, .Rn. are connected

in parallel, then equivalent resistance is given by the relation.
t

A B
No

Fig. 24.6

Battery

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ........................ + 1
R p R1 R 2 R 3 Rn

330
 Sometimes to obtain a required value of resistance from the given
resistors, we connect a few resistors in series and then this series
combination of resistors is connected to two or more resistors which
are in parallel as shown in figure 24.7. A branch of parallel combination
may also have two or more resistors in series combination. In such
cases, we first determine the resistance of each branch of parallel
combination and then determine the equivalent resistance by adding
the resistances of series combination and the total resistance of
parallel combinations.

d
is he
re S B
Example 1 bl Fig. 24.7
be T
pu
Three resistors 3 , 4 and 5 are connected in (a) series and
K

in (b) parallel. Find the equivalent resistance in each case.

Solution

Given: R1 = 3 , R2 = 4 , R3 = 5
(a) In series the equivalent resistance is
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
= 3 + 4 + 5 = 12 .
to

(b) In parallel, the equivalent resistance is

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47
= + + = + + =
Rp R1 R2 R3
t

3 4 5 60
No

60
Or RP = = 1.28
47
Example 2: In the circuit shown in Figure 24.8 calculate the equivalent
resistance between the points a and b.
Solution: In the circuit, two resistors 8 and 8 are connected
in parallel. The equivalent resistance of this part is

331
 1 1 1 2
=+ =
Rp 8 8 8
8
Or RP = = 4 .
2

Fig. 24.8
This part is now connected with another resistor of 7 in series.

d
The equivalent resistance now is equal to

he
Rs = 4 + 7 = 11 .
Hence the equivalent resistance between the points a and b is
equal to 11 .

is
re S
Effects of Electric Current
B
bl
You know that only electrical energy is not enough to lead a
comfortable life. You need to have other forms of energy also, such
be T
pu
as heat energy, chemical energy, mechanical energy, light energy,
magnetic energy etc. You also know that one form of energy could be
K

converted to another form of energy. The other forms of energy could

be obtained by passing electric current through a conductor. The

change of electrical energy to other forms is done using the effects of

electric current.
In day-to-day life, you use electric iron, electric bells, artificial
jewellaries etc. You are surprised to know that in all these, electrical
energy plays a role in different forms. In electric iron, electrical current
produces heating effect. In electric bell magnetic effect of electric
to

current is applied. In manufacturing artificial jewellaries (for example

gold/silver coated) we make use of chemical effect of electric current.
Now you will study the three important effects of electric current.
t
No

Heating effect
Activity 24.7
Take out about 20 cm of one strand of thin copper wire from a
multi strand wire. Wind it on a pen refill and carefully take out to
make it like a spring. Connect it to a dry cell using thick wires. What
do you observe? Connect it to two cells in series. Did the wire glow or
burn out? Do it carefully.
332
 In the above activity you can observe that, if you increase the
voltage, the copper wire burns out due to overheating. It is because
whenever an electric current flows through a wire, the electrical energy
is converted into heat energy. This effect is called heating effect of
electric current.

Know this: Household gadgets like the electric iron, electric kettle,
electric heater, electric stove, immersion rod, electric bulb, electric
cooker, induction stove, geyser, etc. work based on the principle of

d
heating effect of electric current.

he
Activity 24.8
Collect information as to why tungsten is used in the filament in

is
re S
the electric bulbs.
B
bl
Activity 24.9
Observe the coil of an electric stove. Why does it not glow as bright
be T
pu
as the filament of a bulb?
K

Think! In automatic electrical appliances, thermostat switches are

used. Why?
Think! During winter season, in very cold places, electric room
heaters are used. Which heating coil is used and how does it work?

Know this: Electric Fuse:

Electric wires of different
thickness are intended to carry
to

a certain amount of electricity.

If too many appliances are
connected to the same circuit,
t

circuit gets overloaded and the

No

wires gets overheated, causing

the fuse to burn and switch off
electric supply. A fuse is used
to limit the current in an electric
circuit and to safeguard the electrical appliances from the damage.
Normally the fuse wire is an alloy of lead and tin. It has high

333
 resistance a low melting point and breaks the
circuit if the current exceeds the limit. Electric fuses
are always connected in series in an electric
circuit.
These days many houses are now using
miniature circuit breakers (MCB) instead of fuses
to protect the household wiring. It is a bimetallic
strip that bends and trips the switch whenever

d
there is an over loading of the electricity in the circuit. Unlike in a
fuse, the MCB will not be damaged. It can be reset the fault has

he
been corrected.
Activity 24.10

is
re S
Visit a nearby electrical repair shop and discuss more about the
functioning of MCBs with an electrician. Also learn about earth leakage
B
bl
circuit breaker (ELCB).
be T

Measurement of Electricity
pu
Electricity is measured in volt, ampere, and watt.
K

Volt is used to measure the electrical potential. (V)

Ampere is a measure of the amount of electric current. (I)

Watt is a measure of the amount of work done by a certain amount
of current at a certain voltage, i.e, electric power. (P)
P=VI
Know this
The domestic unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour [kWh].
to

kilowatt (kW) : One kilowatt equals 1,000 watts.

kilowatt-hour (kWh) : The basic unit of electric energy equal to
one kilowatt of power supplied to or taken from an electric circuit
t

steadily for one hour.

No

1 KWh = 36 105 joules.

Activity 24.11
Observe the domestic electric bill of your house, see how many
units of electrical energy has been consumed and analyze how the
bill amount is calculated.

334
 Activity 24.12
Calculate the resistance of 100W, 220 V bulb using Ohms law.
Also measure its resistance using a multimeter. Are both your calculated
value and multimeter reading the same? If not, what is the reason?
Activity 24.13
Read the information written on metal plates fixed to an electric
iron, mixer, etc. Note the values of power, voltage and current. Can
you relate them? Does the values obey P = VI? Verify whether the

d
values obey Ohms Law.

he
Chemical effect
Activity 24.14

is
With the help of your chemistry teacher, prepare copper sulphate
re S
solution. Dip in it two graphite electrodes taken from an old dry cell.
B
bl
Pass current using cells or lead acid battery. Observe electroplating of
copper. On which electrode did it get coated? See what happens if
be T

you reverse the direction of current. Use a litmus paper to find that the
pu
solution has become acidic. Also bubbles are observed near one of
K

the electrodes. Why does this happens?

From the above activity you can infer that when the electrical
energy is passed through some solutions they undergo chemical
changes. This is called chemical effect of electric current.
Know this: The process of breaking up of a solution into its
constituent elements is called electrolysis. In general the solution
used in the process of electrolysis is considered as electrolyte. The
to

object or metal on which coating has to be done is called cathode

(negative electrode). The metal to be coated is anode Application
of electrolysis is to split the chemical compounds into its constituent
elements. This process helps to make some elements to deposit on
t
No

some other metals. The process of making thin layer of gold or

silver metal (or any other metal) to deposit on any another metallic
object with the help of electric current is known as electroplating.
Electroplating is used in making of artificial jewellery. It is
also used to avoid rusting of iron.
In the bicycles, iron handles are coated with chromium or nickel
to avoid rusting.

335
 Activity 24.15
List out the house hold articles in which electroplating is used.
Magnetic effect
Activity 24.16
Take a thick iron nail. Wind insulated copper wire on it. Connect
it to a few dry cells in series. Bring the iron nail near small nails or
pins. Observe that the nail has become an electromagnet and attracts

d
pins (figure 24.9 a). The pins fall off if the cells are disconnected (figure
24.9 b).

is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
Fig. 24.9 (a) Fig. 24.9 (b)
K

Activity 24.17 : Take a magnetic compass near a current carrying

wire. Observe the deflection of the magnetic needle (Figure 24.10).

to

Fig. 24.10 (a) Fig. 24.10 (b)

t

From the above activities you can infer that there is a relationship
No

between magnetism and electricity. When an electric current passes

through a conductor it produces magnetic effect. This is called
magnetic effect of electric current.
Think! Is electromagnet a permanent magnet?
Think! How to increase the magnetic effect of current carrying wire.

336
 Know this: Henry Christian Oersted
discovered that when electric current flows
through a conductor, a magnetic field is
created around it.

Activity 24.18

d
Construct an electric calling bell using the principle of
electromagnetism.

he
Think! Why is the principle of magnetic effect used in electric
cranes?

is
re S
Electrical Hazards
B
bl
Electrical fires may be caused by short-circuiting or overloaded
be T

electrical cables. These fires may cause severe damages.

pu
K

Short circuiting is caused due to defective or damaged wiring in

the circuit. The resistance of the circuit becomes almost zero and a

very large current flows through it. A sudden flow of very large current
due to the direct contact of a live wire (source of electric current) and
neutral wire (not the source of electric current) is call short-circuiting.
Know this: In the domestic wiring, the mains supply is delivered
to houses using a three core wiring called the live, neutral and the
earth. The live wire brings in the current and the neutral wire carries
to

the returning current (neither positively nor negatively charged).

The earth wire is usually connected to a metal plate deep in
the earth near the house. It is a safety measure and does not affect
t

the electric supply.

No

Human body is a good conductor of electricity. An electric shock

is caused when the current flows through the body to the ground.
This can cause electrical injury. Electrical injury may cause serious
burns, cuts, or internal bleeding. A severe electrical injury may kill a
person. Even when an appliance is turned off, but left plugged in
with the switch on, it can provide an injury.
337
 Know this: If a person gets electric shock immediately switch
off the main switch and provide him with any insulators. Do not
touch him with barehands.

Electricity Safety Measures

It is important to unplug an electrical appliance when not in
use and also before cleaning or working on it.

d
Electrical cords must be in good condition.

he
Check that plugs fit properly into sockets.
Electrical wall outlets should not be overloaded with too many
plugs.

is
re S
Check whether there is any sparkling near the sockets due
B
to loose contact.
bl
Electric appliances should be kept away from the water
be T
pu
sources.
K

Electrical appliances with loose plugs and sockets are to be

replaced immediately.

Extension cords should not be in continuous use.

Store the cords loosely coiled in a dry place.
Unwind the cord before using.
Connect plugs completely.
Never carry an appliance by its cord.
to

Use electrical tools or appliances only when hands are dry

and when standing on dry ground.
Stay away from overhead or buried power lines, substations
t

and transformers.
No

Think! Why should we not touch electrical appliances with wet

hands?

Know this: Cord means an insulated metallic wire

338
 Think! How can birds sit on power lines and not get an
electric shock?

Activity 24.19
Make a list of methods of conserving electrical energy. Give
publicity to this in your school and locality.

d
EXERCISES

he
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement/question. Choose the right answer

is
re S
1. Electricity is a form of ____________.
a. Force b. Energy c. Tension d. Shock
B
bl
2. Potential difference is also called _________________.
be T
pu
a. Volts b. Voltage c. Coulomb d. Ampere
K

3. Resistance of a wire is r ohm. The wire taken is double its

length, then its intial resistance in ohm will be

r r
a. b. 4 r c. 2 r d.
2 4
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words
1. Electrica is a Latin word which means ____________.
2. The smallest and lightest particle of an atom is the ___________.
to

3. The SI unit of electromotive force is ____________.

III. Match the following

t

A B
No

1. Charge a. Ohms
2. Potential difference b. Newtons
3. Electric current c. Volts
4. Resistance d. Coulumbs
e. Amperes

339
 IV. Answer the following
1. Write the differences between static electricity and electric
current.
2. Define electric potential.
3. What is electric resistance?
4. Explain the term EMF.

d
5. State Ohms law?

he
6. What are the various electric hazards?
7. List out the various electric safety measures.

is
re S
8. Explain the factors that affect electric resistance.
B
bl
9. Four resistors 5, 6, 4 and 8 are connected in (a) series
and in (b) parallel. Find the equivalent resistance in each
be T
pu
case.
K

10. For the circuit given below, calculate the equivalent resistance

between the points P and Q.

t to
No

340
 Chapter 25

EVOLUTION OF LIFE
After studying this chapter you
list various evidences supporting evolution
explain comparative anatomy as an evidence
give examples of vestigial organs in human beings

d
explain embryological evidences
define fossils

he
learn the different types of fossils and their formation
explain dating of fossils

is
re S
appreciate the importance of Archaeopteryx
B
bl
explain Peripatus and Dipnoi, the living fossils
explain importance of prototheria
be T
pu
appreciate the fossil evidences
K

narrate Geological Time Scale

Nothing in Biology makes sense except in the light of

evolution - Dobzhansky
You have learnt that evolution is a slow, gradual and a continuous
process. It is also a process where a simple structured organism is
transformed into a complex structured organism over a long period of
time. How can we say that evolution has occurred? How did a simple
to

unicellular organism evolve into the most complex human being?

While developing a theory to explain how species can change over
time is a key to the study of evolution, such a theory must be
t

supported by evidences from the scientific study of the natural world.

No

One of the difficulties faced by the early theories was a lack of such
evidence. Even Darwins theory, which is the most widely accepted
today, had to wait several decades until scientific advances and fossil
evidence convinced the scientific community of its legitimacy.

341
 Evidences supporting evolution
Comparative anatomy compares the anatomy of different animal
structures and tries to establish the possible relations between them.
Comparative anatomy can serve as the first line of reasoning in
determining the relatedness of species.
Activity 25.1
Bring a pigeon (or any bird) and a butterfly (or any winged insect)
and observe their features. List the common features of both.

d
Organs, which have a common anatomical plan and similar

he
embroyonic origin, but perform different functions, are regarded as
homologous organs. Animals possessing homologous organs indicate
their common origin or ancestry and degree of closeness.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 25.1 Homologous Organs

The flipper of a whale, the forelimb of a horse, the wing of a bird,

to

the patagium of a bat and the hand of a human are all homologous
structures. Basically they have a common five-fingered arrangement
or pentadactyl arrangement. But these organs, in course of time,
t

have undergone changes to suit their needs. Thus the flippers help
No

in swimming, the wings of birds and patagium of the bat help in

flying, the forelimb of horse is adapted for swift running, etc.
Two groups of animals may develop organs which perform similar
functions. But basically these organs are structurally different. Such
organs which are structurally different but perform similar functions
are said to be analogous organs. The wings of butterflies and birds

342
 are analogous structures. Similarly,
the limbs of a cockroach and the limbs
of a dog are said to be analogous as
they do the same function
locomotion. But structurally they are
different. The limbs of a dog are Legs of
Legs of dog have
supported by bones while those of cockroach
without support the support of
of bones bones
cockroach have no bony support.
Analogous Organs
Modern organisms are adapted

d
Fig. 25. 2
to a wide variety of habitats and

he
lifestyles. The forelimbs of birds and mammals, for example, are
variously used for flying, swimming, running over several types of
terrain, and grasping objects such as branches and tools. Despite

is
this enormous diversity of function, the internal anatomy of all bird
re S
and mammal fore limbs is remarkably similar.
B
bl
Vestigial organs : A vestigial organ is a remnant part of an organism
that historically was useful but evolutionarily is no longer needed.
be T
pu
The organ was well developed and functional in the ancestors.
K

Examples of vestigial organs in humans usually include the

vermiform appendix, Nictitating membrane of eye, wisdom tooth, tail

and ear muscles.

Some vestigial organs in humans
t to
No

Fig. 25. 3

343
 Embryological evidence
Embryology is a science of biology that deals with the study of
the development of an animal from the zygote stage. A study of the
developmental stages of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals reveal a remarkable similarity. When the embryos of these
animal groups are placed side by side it is very difficult to determine
which animal group it belongs to. They all possess a tail, pharyngeal
gills, etc., indicating that their ancestors possessed these structures

d
and thus they are close relatives. But when they grow up into adults,
each animal becomes distinct from the others.

he
Observe the embryos of the following animals and notice their
similarities.

is
re S
Fish Amphibian reptile bird Mammal
B
bl
be T
pu
K

early embryo early embryo early embryo early embryo early embryo
t to
No

late embryo late embryo late embryo late embryo late embryo

Fig. 25. 4 Embryological evidences

344
 Fossil Evidence :

A group of students visited an archaeological museum. The

following was the conversation between the students and the guide.

Neelu: How are fossils formed?

Guide : Fossils are formed when a piece of bone or other material is

d
buried by sediment. Over long periods of time, chemicals from the

he
surrounding rock leach into the object until the hard part of the
animal like bones feathers, shells, teeth, etc are preserved as fossils

is
re S
Saleem: Aside from fossils, what other information can be contained
B
bl
in rock strata?
be T
pu
Guide: The chemical make-up of rocks can tell us what environmental
K

conditions may have been like. They can tell us what kinds of gases
may have been in the atmosphere, how much moisture was in an

area, or if any cataclysmic events occurred, such as volcanic eruptions

or meteor strikes.

Robert: Why are there so many gaps in the fossil record?

to

Guide: Fossilization is a rare event. An object must remain in the

right kind of conditions undisturbed for a long time for a fossil to
form. Once formed many fossils are lost to the crushing action of
t

geological movements or to erosion of rock faces.

No

Know This : The word fossil comes from the Latin word fossilis,
which means dug up. Most fossils are excavated.

345
 Types of fossils
There are three basic types of fossils actual remains, petrified
fossils and moulds and casts.
(i) Actual remains
Hard parts like bones are preserved. Sometimes,
soft and delicate animals such as mosquitoes,
flies, ants, spiders, their eggs and their larvae,
etc. have been trapped and preserved in amber.

d
(ii) Petrified fossils

he
When an animal is buried in the soil the hard
parts remain while the soft parts rot and
disappear. Such hard parts include the bones,

is
re S
shells, teeth, feathers, etc. When these are
surrounded by minerals such as magnesium,
B
bl silicon, etc., the body parts of the animal
undergo mineralization. During this process,
be T
pu
the body of that animal is replaced by a mineral
K

molecule for a molecule. After thousands of

years, the entire animal hardens and is literally
transformed into stone.

Fig. 25.5
Petrifaction means turning into a stone.
Types of fossils
(iii) Moulds and casts : The third type of fossil formation is moulds
and casts. When an animal is buried between layers of mud or sand,
its body is crushed. The animal leaves its impression on the sediment.
Gradually decomposition occurs and the whole animal is consumed.
to

But the impression of the animal remains on the sediment. Thousands

of years later, the sediment layer transforms into rock. The rock now
carries the impression of the animal. This is how a mould is formed.
t

If the mould is filled up with sediment which in due course hardens

No

into the shape of the original organism, it is a cast.

Know This : Amber is the fossilized resin from ancient plants. Resins
are produced by plants as a defense mechanism against diseases,
insect infestations, injuries, to heal broken branches, barks damaged
by insect action, etc. When exposed, the resin hardens in wet
sediments. The resin loses water but does not shrink. It is preserved
for millions of years without any distortions.

346
 Fossilization needs some conditions to
be fulfilled. First of all, fossilization requires
quick and sudden burial of animals. This
prevents bone-destroying bacteria,
scavenging birds, mammals, insects, etc.
from reaching and consuming the remains
of animals. Secondly, microbes need oxygen
for survival. If oxygen level is low in any
environment decomposition stops.

d
Generally the oxygen level is low in lake

he
bottoms, tar pits, etc. Such sites are ideally
suited for fossil formation.

is
Activity 25.2
re S
How to prepare a fossil model
B
bl 1. Take a cardboard box about 4" X 4"
be T

and about 2" tall.

pu
K

2. Fill it with modeling clay to a height of

about 1 inch and flatten it.

3. Select a suitable object such as a shell

or similar hard substance.
4. Place it on the clay bed and press it.
Fig. 25.6 The impression of the object is imprinted
Formation of fossils on the clay.
to

5. This impression now acts as the mould.

6. Mix some plaster of Paris powder with water in the ratio of one
part of water to 2 parts of plaster of paris and stir well.
t
No

7. Allow the mixture to settle for about 5 minutes.

8. Pour the plaster of Paris mixture into the mould formed in the clay.
Leave it to settle and dry for about 1 hour.
9. Remove the cast carefully from the container. Allow it to dry. Now
you have a cast fossil of your choice.

347
 Russian boys scientific temperament!
An 11 year old boy from Russias north stumbled upon a massive
well preserved woolly mammoth, what scientists describe as the best
such discovery since 1901.
He sensed an unpleasant odour
and saw something sticking out
of the ground- it was the
mammoths heels. He immediately

d
reported this to his parents who,

he
in turn, brought this to the notice
of the scientists.
It was the best preserved adult

is
re S
mammoth, discovered in more
B
bl than 100 years. This specimen
was a male, fully covered by
be T

hair, the bones and fatty layers

pu
were intact in the original state. So far this is the best specimen they
K

have seen since the past 100 years! This is said to be the second
specimen with all body parts almost intact.

The scientists spent seven days digging out the monster with the
help of pick axe and steam.
- Moscow News, Russia - 4th October 2012

Dating of fossils
to

Scientists have found out methods to determine the age of a fossil.

The age of a fossil can be determined by two methods. The first one is
relative dating and the second is absolute dating.
t
No

Know This: Paleontology is the branch of biology that deals with

study of fossils.

In the first type, the actual age of a fossil is not determined. It can
tell us a general time period on the basis of the geologic beds above
and below the layer of the earth where the fossil is found. The older
rocks are deeper in location and the younger rocks are placed above.

348
 Hence the lowermost layer of the earth harbours the oldest fossil and
the uppermost layer harbours the youngest fossil. There has been a
succession of various fauna during the evolutionary process. We can
say that this fossil is relatively older than that and that fossil is
relatively much younger or more recent, that is all.

In absolute dating method, the exact time of the fossil can be

determined very accurately. Uranium is a dense, radioactive metallic
element; it naturally occurs in most rocks, soil, and in the ocean.

d
Uranium undergoes radioactive decay. This is used to determine the
geological age of rocks. An isotope of an element loses particles from

he
its nucleus to create a daughter isotope. This decay goes on at a
specific rate. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the amount of

is
time it takes for one-half of the radioactive isotopes to decay. By
re S
comparing the ratio of parental isotopes to daughter isotopes,
B
bl
scientists are able to determine the age of the fossil and the rock.
Uranium-235 is an isotope which is often used in determining the
be T

absolute time of the fossil. It has a half-life of 4.51 billion years.

pu
Hence Uranium-235 can be employed to determine the actual date
K

of fossils.

Gujarat - Indias jurassic park!

Once upon a time giant
dinosaurs were freely roaming in
the fields of India. Their fossils
have been unearthed in Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and especially
to

Gujarat. In Balasinore town near

Ahmedabad a Dinosaur Park
has been established. The
t

skeletons of two herbivorous Barapasaurus

No

dinosaurs have been constructed

and are displayed for public viewing - one at the Indian Statistical
Institute at Kolkata and the other at the Birla science centre,
Hyderabad. These exhibits arouse the curiosity of the children by
not only explaining many biological concepts but also educate us
about Indias rich heritage of the soil, making us proud.

349
 In 1975 a Paleontologist, Shankar Chatterji, discovered a dinosaur
fossil called Barapasaurus. Barapasaurus means large legged
reptile. This was about 60 feet long and 20 feet tall and weighed
about 25,000 kg! Dinosaur fossils are available in plenty in Gujarat,
provoking palentologists to name Gujarat as the JURASSIC PARK OF
INDIA.

Archaeopteryx: According to the

d
theory of evolution birds arose from
reptiles by modifications of some

he
structures. In fact, reptiles and birds
share many characters in common.

is
Hence birds are referred by scientists
re S
as glorified reptiles.
B
bl
The oldest fossil has been
Fig. 25.7 Archeopteryx
be T

obtained in 1861 near Solenhofen,

pu
Germany, known as Archaeopteryx (Archaeo=primitive, pteryx= wings).
K

It was as big as a crow. It possessed characters of both reptiles and

birds. It possessed characters of lizards such as jaws with sharp teeth

and a long bony tail and characters of birds such as wings and feathers.
It was definitely a transitional fossil connecting reptiles and birds. It
has been, however, considered as a bird. Archeopteryx is a very strong
fossil evidence in favour of organic evolution.
Living fossils: You have heard of living animals; you have also
heard of fossils. Do you know about the living fossil? A living fossil is
to

an informal term for an organism that more closely resembles a fossil

than anything living and has no close living relatives. It is a species
t

which should have become extinct long back but somehow has over
No

lived its age.

Peripatus is a genus of velvet worms
belonging to the group Onychophora. It is
distributed in regions such as Australia,
New Zealand, Africa, Asia, etc. Peripatus
possesses both annelid and arthropod Fig. 25.8

350
 characters. The worm-like body, presence of nephridia for excretion,
non-chitinous cuticle covering the body are some annelid characters.
Presence of claws in legs, tracheal respiration are arthropod
characters. It is considered as a connecting link between annelids
and arthropods. It is considered as a living fossil because it has
remained unchanged for nearly 570 million years.
Lung fishes belong to the
group Dipnoi. They are fresh

d
water fishes. There are three

he
surviving genera of lung fishes
Neoceratodus, Propterus
and Lepidosiren. They

is
respire by gills. In addition,
re S
they possess a pair of lungs
B
bl
arising from the ventral side
of the oesophagus.These lung
be T
pu
fishes can survive when their
Fig. 25.9 Lung Fish
K

pools dry up and they burrow

into the mud. During this time, they breathe air through their lungs.

The Dipnoi forms a connecting link between fishes and

amphibians.
t to
No

Fig 25.9 (a) Platypus Fig 25.9 (b) Echidna

The Prototheria is a subclass of mammals. (prtos means first,

and ther means beast.) Most of the animals in this group are extinct.
Platypus and Echidna are the living fossils of this class.

351
 Platypus is a native of eastern Australia. It lives near freshwater
rivers or lakes, and creates burrows for shelter and protection. It has
a snout that resembles a ducks bill. The female lays between 2 - 4
eggs and incubates them for two weeks. When a young platypus is
born, it feeds on the milk from the mother.

Echidna is commonly called spiny ant-eater. It is a native of

d
Australia. It looks like a porcupine. The body is covered by two types

he
of hair normal, short coarse hair which keeps it warm and long
sharp spines which are modified hair. It is generally nocturnal. The

is
re S
snout is long and pointed with an extremely long sticky tongue well
suited to trap ants and termites. It echidna develops a pouch during
B
bl
the breeding season. The female digs a burrow in the earth and lays
be T

one soft leathery egg. It hatches in about 10 days. The young is blind
pu
K

and hairless. These animals constitute the connecting link between

the reptiles and the mammals.

Geological time scale : As you have a time table in your class for
the academic year there is a geological time scale which shows the
period of evolution of various kinds of organisms.

Through extensive study of fossils, scientists, geologists and

to

paleontologists have been able to construct a story of life in the form

of a geological time scale. It lists the major geological periods of time
t

and the types of life forms that existed then. These major periods of
No

time are called eras. The eras have been subdivided into periods and
periods have been subdivided into epochs. The following table
summarises the major geological conditions and the biological features
of different eras.

352
 Table 25.1: GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Time from
beginning of
No. Era period to Plant Life Animal Life
present

Monocotyledons, Placental
1 Coenozoic era
0.011 million grass-lands, mammals, man-like
(age of
years flowering apes, elephants,

d
mammals)
plants, forests horses,

he
camels, man
Gymnosperms, Dinosaurs,
2 Mesozoic era 135-230 dicots, first toothed birds,

is
(golden age of million years oak and pterosaurs, egg
re S
reptiles) maple forests, laying mammals,
B
bl first monocots amphibians
Mammal like
be T

280-1600
pu
Lycopods, reptiles, modern
3 Paleozoic era million years
horsetails, insects, amphibians,
K

(age of ancient
gymnosperms, sea lilies, lung
life)
marine algae fish, sharks, marine

arachnids.
1600 million Marine protozoa,
Primitive
4 Proterozoic years molluscs,
aquatic plants,
era worms, marine
algae, fungi
invertebrates
to

EXERCISES

I. Four alternatives are given to each incomplete statement/

t

question. Choose the right answer

No

1. Organs which are structurally different but perform similar

functions
a. Homologous organs b. Vestigial organs
c. Analogous organs d. None of them

353
 2. The remains of the hard parts of organisms found buried in
the earths crust
a. Fossils b. Vestigial organs
c. Homologous organs d. Analogous organs

3. A living fossil among the following is:

a. Woolly mammoth b. Dinosaur
c. Archaeopteryx d. Peripatus

d
4. A transitional fossil connecting reptiles and birds is:

he
a. Lizard b. Dodo
c. Archaeopteryx d. Lung fish

is
re S
5. An egg laying mammal among the following is:
B
bl
a. Platypus
c. Kangaroo
b. Hen
d. Peripatus
be T
pu
6. The era in which man originated:
K

a. Proterozoic era b. Paleozoic era

c. Mesozoic era d. Coenozoic era

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable answers

1. Organs with common origin but performing different functions

are called ___________.
to

2. The absolute time of the fossil can be accurately determined

by ____________.
t

3. The process by which fossils turn into a stone is ___________.

No

4. A fully mummified woolly mammoth was found in ____________.

5. A species of well-established organisms which disappeared

are known as ______________.
6. Era known as the golden age of reptiles is ______________ .

354
 III. Match the following
A B
1. Archaeopteryx a. connecting link between fishes
and amphibians
2. Peripatus b. connecting link between reptiles
and mammals

d
3. Lung fish c. connecting link between
reptiles and birds

he
4. Platypus d. connecting link between annelids
and arthropods

is
re S
e. connecting link between apes
and man
B
bl f. connecting link between
be T

arthropods and fishes

pu
K

IV. Answer the following questions

1. Write the difference between homologous and analogous

organs with two examples for each.

2. What are vestigial organs? Name any two vestigial organs in
man.
3. What are fossils? How are they formed?
4. Mention the three basic types of fossils.
to

5. Describe the structure of archaeopteryx.

6. Give two examples for living fossils.
t

7. Name the animal that is the connecting link between annelids

No

and arthropods.
8. Name the four eras and list a few plant and animal species
that existed in that era.

355
 Chapter 26

RADIOACTIVITY
After studying this chapter you
define radioactivity.
name the types of radioactivity.
understand alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decays.

d
define half life.

he
list the uses of radioisotopes.

Many exciting events occur in nature. One of the most exciting

is
events in the history of physics was the discovery of radioactivity
re S
or radioactive decay.
B
bl
Story of the discovery of radioactivity
be T
pu
The discovery of radioactivity was accidentally
K

made by Henry Becquerel in 1896. One day he

left some uranium salt on a photographic plate.

The plate was wrapped in black paper and was

lying in a dark room. When he developed the
photographic plate, he found, to his surprise, that
the plate had got affected and was darkened. He
repeated the experiment with other salts of Henry Becquerel
uranium. He got same results. Since no light could
enter the dark room, he concluded that uranium and its salts emit
to

invisible radiations on their own which affect the photographic plate.

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiation from

t

certain substances or elements by it self is called natural

No

radioactivity. The substances which emit radiations are called

radioactive substances. These radiations are called Becquerel rays,
and have been nomenclatured to give respect to his hard work.

The process of emission of radiations in also known as

radioactive delay.

356
 Later Marie Curie and her husband
Pierre Curie showed that there are other
radioactive elements like polonium and
Radium.

Today we know many other heavy

elements with atomic number (Z) greater Pierre Curie and
than 82 are naturally radioactive. Radium, Marie Curie
polonium, thorium, actinium, uranium etc.

d
are radioactive elements.

is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 26.1 (a) Pitch blende ore Fig. 26.1 (b) Thorium
Special features of radioactivity

Radioactivity is not affected by physical and chemical changes.

Radioactivity does not depend on temperature.
Emission of radiations from radioactive element is
spontaneous.
Transmutations of elements may occur during radioactivity.
to

Radioactive substances emit radiations from the nucleus.

Types of radiations emitted by radioactive substances

t
No

In 1898 Rutherford and others showed that three types of

radiations are emitted from radioactive substances. They were named
alpha () particle or alpha rays, beta () particle or beta rays and
gamma () rays. A ray is a stream of or particles or photons ()

, , and are Greek letters

357
 Rutherfords experiment to study
radioactive radiations
Figure shows the experimental
arrangement to study the radiations
emitted from a radioactive sample. A
small quantity of radioactive sample
is placed in a cavity made in a lead
block. This provides a collimated beam
Cathode Anode of rays emitted by the sample. A

d
photographic plate is placed above the
lead block. The entire set up is

he
enclosed in an evacuated chamber.
Electric field is applied to separate
the components of the radiations

is
emitted. The radiations bending towards the cathode are called -
re S
rays. The radiations bending towards the anode are called rays
B
bl
and the undeflected radiations are called - rays.
be T

Note : A single sample cannot emit and rays simultaneously.

pu
The phenomenon described in the experiment is due to many
K

radioactive elements present in the sample.

The process of emission of an - particle from the nucleus of a

radioactive element is called alpha decay. - particles are positively

charged particles. An alpha particle is equivalent helium nucleus
having two protons and two neutrons. When an - particle is emitted
by a nucleus, the mass number (A) of the nucleus decreases by 4
units and the atomic number (Z) decreases by 2 units.
The transmutation of a nucleus zXA into a nucleus YA-4 by
to

z-2
alpha decay can be represented by the equation

XA YA-4 + He4 (24)

t

z z-2 2

For Example, Radium with mass number (A) 226 and atomic
No

number (Z) 88 decays with the emission of an - particle to form

Radon with mass number (A) 222 and atomic number (Z) 86. The
radio active decay is given by
88
Ra226 86
Rn222 + 2He4
Since this is the formation of new atom, this traformation is
called transmutation.
358
 The process of emission of - particle from the nucleus is called
beta decay. - particles are just electrons. Beta particles are
negatively charged particles. In the process of beta decay mass number
remains unaltered but its atomic number is increased by one. Its
mass and charge are equal to that of an electron.
For Example, The transmutation of a nucleus zXA into a nucleus
z+1
A
Y by a beta decay can be represented by the equation
z
XA z+1
YA + -1e0

d
Example: When a radium nucleus 88Ra228 emits a Beta particle,
the resulting element is Actinium 89Ac228. The decay process is

he
given by
88
Ra228 89
Ac228 + -1e0 (-10)

is
re S
Know this :
B
1. 6C14
bl
7
N14 + -1e0
2. Electron does not exist in the nucleus before emission. It is created
be T

by the conversion of a neutron into a proton and an electron.

pu
Thus Z increases by One.
K

3. During radioactive decay, either an particle or a particle is

emitted and not both simultaneously.

Gamma rays are high frequency electromagnetic radiations.

They are photons. They do not carry any charge and have negligible
mass. During gamma emission the mass number and atomic number
of the nucleus remains unchanged.
For Example, Gamma decay of a nucleus is represented by
to

z
XA z
XA +

Know this: Radiations can be detected using particle detector, such

t

as Geiger Muller counters and Wilson Cloud Chambers.

No

Half life
Radioactivity is a random process. Radioactive substances decay
at different rates. The time taken by the substance to decay to one-
half of its initial particle is known as half life. It is denoted by T.

359
 The half lives of radioactive substances vary over a wide range
from fraction of a second to few thousand years.

Example: Half life of Carbon-14 is 5700 years. So an organism such as

a tree contained 1 gram of carbon-14 while it was living, then after 5700
years it would contain half that amount, or 0.5 grams of carbon-14.

Half life of few elements are given in table 1

Table 1: Half Life of Elements

d
Elements Half life

he
Thorium- 232 1010 years
Uranium-238 4.51 109 years

is
re S
Radium - 236 1620 years
B
bl
Strontium-88 28 years
be T

Cobalt-60 5.3 years

pu
Phosphorous - 32 14.3 days
K

Bismuth-210 5 days

Radon-232 3.825 days

Polonium - 213 4.2 10-9 seconds

Problem: How many grams of Bismuth 210 will be left out when
400 g of Bismuth undergoes decay for 20 days .
(Given its Half life 5 days )
to

After I Half life i.e. 5 days (400) = 200g is left out

II Half life i.e. 10 days (200) = 100g is left out
t

III Half life i.e. 15 days (100) = 50g is left out

No

IV Half life i.e. 20 days (50) = 25g is left out

Alternate method :
Given time t = 20
Period T = 5
t 20
n= = =4
T 5
360
 Radio-isotopes
Naturally occurring radioactive substances have high atomic
numbers. It is possible to make lighter elements to become Radioactive
artificially. The radioactive substances produced in this manner are
known as artificial radioactive substances. Radioactive atoms with
same atomic number but with different atomic mass are radio
isotopes.
Curie Joliot and her husband

d
Fredrick Joliot were the first to
discover induced radioactivity in

he
1934. They were awarded 1935
NOBEL PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY They
bombarded the atoms of Boron and

is
Aluminium with , particles. They
re S
observed that the target continued
B
bl
to emit radiations even after the
removal of source. The emitted
be T

radiations are positrons (+1e0)

pu
K

13
Al27 + 2He4 15
P30 + n1
0

P30 Si30 + e0 (+)

15 14 +1

Know This: Artificial radioactive substance can be produced by

bombarding lighter element with accelerated heavy particles such
as particle.
A few important uses of radio-isotopes (usually called radio
nuclides) are:
to

Radio isotopes Uses

Cobalt 60 In the treatment of cancer.
t

Radio Sodium To study the action of medicine.

No

Radio Iridium To check wear and tear of machine parts.

Uranium 235 To produce nuclear energy.
Radio phosphorous To determine the kind of phosphatic
fertilizer required for a given soil
and crop.

361
 Carbon- 14 To estimate age f rocks, fossils and
archeological specimens.
Iodine- 131 For the treatment of thyroid glands.

DANGER: Radioactive radiations that find their

way into the environment may cause harmful
effects of radioactive contamination. They can

d
also cause damage if they are
excessively used during treatment or in other

he
ways applied to living beings, by radiation
poisoning. This is called Radiation hazard

is
re S
Food Irradiation
B
bl Food is irradiated by
exposing it to the gamma rays
be T

of a radioisotope (one that is

pu
widely used is cobalt-60.) The
K

energetic gamma ray passing

through the food destroys

many disease-causing bacteria

as well as those that spoil food,
but is not strong enough to
Food irradiation
change the quality, flavor or
texture of the food. It is important to keep in mind that the food
never comes in contact with the radio isotope and is at feeble risk
to

of becoming radioactive.

Smoke Detectors and Americium-241

t
No

What, most consumers dont know is that many of smoke

detector units contain a small amount of Americium-241. By utilizing
the radioactive properties of this material, smoke from a fire can be
detected at a very early stage. This early warning capability has saved
many lives. In fact, studies have shown that 80% of fire injuries and
80% of fire fatalities occur in homes without smoke detectors.

362
 Archeological dating
Age of the earth is estimated using radio nuclides with much
longer half lives such as K40, Rb87 and U238 present in rock samples.
In this method the number of lead atoms in a rock sample is compared
with the number of U238 atoms, since U238 decays through a series of
elements ultimately into lead. This method gives the age of the earth
to be about 3.8 billion years.

d
he
EXERCISES
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following. Choose
the right answer

is
re S
1. Who discovered Radio activity?
B
bl
a. Rutherford
c. Einstein
b. Neils Bohr
d. Henry Becquerel
be T
pu
2. - particle is nothing but
K

a. He+ ion b. He- atom

c. electron d. H+ ion
3. e0 is nothing but
-

a. - particle b. particle
c. neutrons d. positrons
4. Smoke detectors require essentially
t to
No

363
 a. aluminium -27 b. actinium- 227
c. carbon- 14 d. americium- 241

5. An Isotope with least half life period is

a. thorium-232 b. radium- 236
c. uranium- 238 d. polonium-213

6. During decay there is

d
he
a. change in atomic number of element

b. no change in atomic mass of the element

is
re S
c. both atomic number and atomic mass do not change
B
bl
d. both atomic number and mass number change
be T
pu
7. 200 gms of a sample of Radioisotope has undergone decay pro-
K

cess. The amount of sample left over after III Half life period is

a. 25 g b. 12.5 g

c. 100 g d. 50 g

8. The equation 88
Ra226 86
Rn222 + He4 represent
2

a. -decay b. -decay
to

c. -decay d. none of the above

t
No

II. Fill up the blanks

1. The particle of the nucleus that undergoes change during

beta decay is _____________.

2. The lightest isotope is _____________.

364
 3. When 6C14 isotope undergoes -decay the resulting new
element is __________

4. One of the best Radioisotopes used in the food irradiation

is___________

III. Match the following

d
A B

he
1. Phosphorous a) treatment of thyroid gland.
2. Iodine b) archeological dating.

is
re S
3. Iridium c) to study action of medicine.
B
bl
4. Sodium d) to estimate a phosphatic fertilizer
required.
be T
pu
5. Carbon e) treatment of cancer.
K

f) to check machine parts.

IV. Answer the following briefly

1. What is radioactivity?
2. Write the characteristic differences between the of , and
radiations.
to

3. What is half life period?

4. Explain briefly the process of archeological dating?
t
No

5. What are Radioisotopes?

6. Arrange the following elements in increasing order their Half
life period, Uranium, Polonium, Radon, Strontium

365
 Chapter 27

THE SUN
After studying this chapter you
explain the main features of the sun
explain the reason for enormous energy output of the sun.
draw a diagram showing the structure of the sun

d
explain the reason for calling the sun as the laboratory for

he
studying the other stars.
Guess the possibilities after the sun stops emitting energy.
state the Keplers laws of planetary motion

is
re S
Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are is the
B
bl
most popular poem among school children. If you observe a night
sky, you see a number of stars that can be set to different patterns.
be T
pu
Cloudless and moonless night sky is still more fascinating experience
to watch. You see a number of stars and some planets. The twinkling
K

objects are stars. There is no doubt that you will develop curiosity
about the stars.

It is natural to see that these stars appear only after sun set.
Where will these stars be during day time?
Science has answered many questions to quench the curiosity
arising out of our observations. Sun as you see, as is a brightest
during day time is also just a star. (In the presence of this brightest
star,) the other stars become apparently invisible. If it is possible to
to

block the sunlight during day time it is possible to see many stars
and planets.
t

Activity 27.1
No

During total solar eclipse we can observe the planet Venus and
brightest stars like Sirius. Collect information about the total solar
eclipses that have occurred during the last 15 years. Collect information
about the observations made about the sky during the total solar
eclipses by scientists. If you get an opportunity to see a total solar
eclipse observe it by taking care of your eyes, Do not miss the rare
opportunity.
366
 The sun, as you see ,appears to rise in the east and set in the
west like all other planets moon and stars. The movement of other
stars are difficult to monitor as they are very far away. But a persistent
person can notice their movements also. Geocentric model of the
universe in which earth was considered as the centre of the solar
system is based on this common observation. But you know that the
sun is the centre of the solar system which is now accepted as
Heliocentric model of the solar system.

d
Recall : Imagine that you are standing on the planet venus and

he
observing the sun. The sun appears to rise in the west and set in the
east. Why ? Refer to the chapter on solar system that you have
studied in 8th standard.

is
re S
If the sun is an average star, are there bigger and smaller stars?
B
bl
Yes there are much bigger stars, sun like stars and stars smaller in
size and mass than the sun. Except the sun which is nearest to the
be T

earth, all other stars are comparatively at a large distance from the
pu
earth. Only a small amount of their light energy reaches us which
K

will be visible only during the absence of the sun.

How far is the sun from the earth ? You know that light travels at
a velocity of 3108 ms-1, approximately three lakh kilometres per
second. Light energy emitted by the sun takes about eight minutes
to reach the earth. We can say that sun is eight light minutes away
from the earth.
Activity 27.2
to

Presuming that light takes eight minutes to travel from the sun and
reach the earth, calculate the distance of the sun from the earth and
express the distance in metres and kilometres.
t
No

Ans : eight minutes velocity of light

s= tv
= 8 min 3 108 m/sec
= 8 60 3 108
= 1.44 1011m
= 1.44 108 km

367
 Apart from the sun, the next nearest star to the earth is proxima
centaury. Light takes about 4.2 years to reach the earth from this star.
If you are observing proxima centaury, the light that you are seeing is
after 4.2 years old. Calculate the distance of this star from the earth.
Try to answer the following questions.
i) If the star proxima centaury is eclipsed for 2 hours by an object
at mid point between earth and the star, how many years will
it take to notice the phenomenon?

d
The distance between the sun and the earth is comparatively

he
small. The sun is much hot and a bright object.
Total solar eclipse is the best occasion to study about the many

is
features of the sun, Today we have modern equipment and photo
re S
graphic techniques to study the sun on all the occasions.
B
bl
Precaution : Do not attempt to see the sun with the naked eye. Do
be T

not watch a solar eclipse without sun filters. Do not see the sun
pu
using telescope or binoculars. Your eye has a convex lens. What
K

happens if the intense rays of the sun converge on your retina?

You have already studied about the solar energy and its
importance. (Let us study more about the sun which is responsible
for life on the earth)
The main features of the sun
Photosphere
to

The visible disc of the sun is called the photosphere. When the
surface of the sun is photographically examined using high resolution
telescope, the photosphere appears as a disc made up of grain like
t

structures called granulations. There are thread like structures also

No

called spicules. The surface is not smooth. The surface appears as

swirling mass of dense gases as if some thing is being cooked there
using boiling water in an open vessel.
Hot gasses and energy spurt out of the photosphere and fall back.
A still picture is unable to describe the dynamic activities on
photosphere.
368
 Chromosphere: The solar atmosphere just above the photosphere is
called chromosphere. The chromosphere is a pink coloured layer which
is visible when the photosphere is blocked during a total solar eclipse,
beyond the edge of the photosphere.
Corona : During a total solar eclipse, when both the photosphere
and chromosphere are blocked by the moon, a faint white halo
becomes visible around the sun. This is called corona. Matter in the
solar atmosphere including corona will be in a plasma state.

d
is he
Diomond ring
re S B
bl Corona
be T
pu
K

Chromosphere

Fig. 27.1 Total Solar Eclipse

Our ancients knew about the Eclipse. In Aryabhatiyam-Golapadah

37)-499 CE, it says :
N>mX`{V eer gy` e{eZ _hVr M ^yN>m`m&&
to

Chadayathi shashi suryam shashinam mahatee cha bhuchaayaa II

(Aryabhatiyam-Golapadah 37)-499 CE

The Moon covers the sun and the great shadow of the earth covers
t

the moon.
No

Activity 27.4
Obtain the photographs of sun during different types of solar eclipse
from magazines.
i) Total solar eclipse and diamond ring
ii) Annular solar eclipse
iii ) Partial solar eclipse
369
 Recall : What is plasma ?

Think ! Planets also cause eclipse. For example transition of the

planet venus in the path of the sun and earth. But they are not as
spectacular as eclipse caused by the moon, why?
The sun undrgoes variations in intensity of magnetic field,
temperature and large convection currents. The surface of the sun is
affected by these factors and it is a scene of violent activity. Sun spots,

d
flares and prominences are some of the manifestations of such an activity.

he
Sunspots

is
re S
Telescope
B
bl Sunspots
be T
pu
K

stand

Fig. 27.2 Obtaining the Image of the Sunspots

Activity 27.5
A small telescope is sufficient to perform this activity. Mount the
telescope on a stand as shown in the figure. Point it towards the sun
without directly looking at the sun in any way. Hold a sheet of white
to

paper near the eye piece. Adjust the eye piece by moving it to- and- fro
in the telescope tube until a sharp image of the sun is projected on the
sheet. Observe the sun spots, and locate their positions Repeat the
t

observations every day for a few weeks. You will notice that the size
No

and the positions and the number of sunspots keep varying.

Sunspots are dark irregular patches or spots on the photosphere.
They appear dark, in contrast, as the regions of the sunspots have
relatively lower temperature. If photosphere has an average
temperature of 6000K, sunspots have an average temperature of
4500K. Sunspots are the manifestation of intense magnetic field.

370
 The magnetic field prevents some energy from reaching these regions
from the interior of the sun, resulting in the decrease of temperature
and hence brightness.

d
is he
re S B
bl
Fig. 27.3 The graph of sunspots observed during the past century, you
can see that the spots reach a peak once during 11 years.
be T
pu
Solar flares and prominences: Ocassionally due to variation in the
K

electromagnetic field on the photosphere, energy and matter spurt

out from the photosphere like a fire flare. The sudden but short lived

outburst of energy and matter from the surface of the sun is called
solar flare. The gravity of the sun makes them fall back into the sun.
Some times, the outburst of energy and matter will last long.
Matter in the from of hydrogen gas rise up to several thousand
kilometers and loop back due to the gravity of the sun in a beautiful
curly manner taking several days. It has a minor resemblance to the
to

tides in a rough sea. The most prominent flares can be called solar
prominences.
t

Solar wind : The matter that spurts out from the sun in the from of
No

hydrogen nuclei some times overcome the gravitational force of the

sun and escape into interplanetary space. The charged particles mostly
hydrogen nuclei or protons ejected from the sun are called solar wind.
You know that earth has a magnetic field. The charged particles
of the solarwind are repelled by the magnetic field of the earth
protecting the life on earth from their harmful effects.

371
 Recall : List out the unique factors of the earth which helped life to
originate-evolve and develop. List out the protective layers of the
earth which makes life to sustain and flourish.

t i o n ld
e f l e c tic fie
d e
The charged agn
b ym
particles of solar

d
wind

he
Magnetic field

is
Earth
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig. 27.4 The magnetic field of the earth prevents

the solar wind from hitting the earth

The effect of sunspots, flares, prominences and solar wind: Though

our planet earth is well protected by the harmful radiations emitted
by the sun, some times. In 1957 July, people could not listen to
radio programmes due to disturbance in the ionosphere by the solar
to

activities. Such disturbances in radio communication occurs once in

11 years.
In modern days the availability of satellite communication, use
t

of short wave length in communication, and other improvements have

No

minimised the disturbances in wireless communication.

Another effect of solar wind is Aurora Aurora is a colourful display
in the sky caused by ionisation of gases near the polar regions of the
earth by the charged particles of the solar wind.
The interior of the sun

372
 d
is he
re S
Fig. 27.5 Aurora : Colourful display in the sky near the polar
B
bl
regions like Alaska, Canada, Greenland
be T

The solar spectrum from the light of corona can be studied

pu
properly. During total solar eclipse. Some of the radiations of the sun
K

are absorbed by the outer atmosphere of the sun. The absorbed

radiation appear as dark lines. The dark lines in the absorption

spectrum of solar radiation are called Fraunhofer lines. Fraunhofer

lines help us to know that around 71% of the sun contains hydrogen
gas. Around 28% of the sun contains Aelium. There are traces of
other elements also. Before the discovery of the helium on the earth,
the presence of helium in the sun was discovered. Greeks used to
call sun as helius. Helium gas is named after the sun.
to

In the core of the sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse into helium nuclei
liberating enormous amount of energy. Reactions involving fusion of
t

two or more nuclei are called thermonuclear fusion reactions.

No

The reason for enormous energy output of the sun is

thermonuclear fusion reaction.
The energy liberated in the core is transmitted to convection zone
and radiation zone and to the surface. The inner and outer structure
of the sun are shown in the figures 27.6 and 27.7 respectively.

373
 Solar flares Chromosphere

Core

Carona

d
photosphere
Convection Zone

he
Fig. 27.6

is
re S
Know these details about the sun
The mass of the sun is
B
bl
around 330,000 times the mass
be T

of the earth.The radius of the

pu
sun is about 109 times the
K

radius of the earth. The surface

temperature of the sun is about

6000K. The interior temperature

of the sun is about 20 million K.
At present around 71% of the
sun contains hydrogen gas.The
hydrogen nuclei are being
continuously fused into helium
nuclei. What happens if most of Fig. 27.7 Interior and outer structure
to

the hydrogen in the sun gets converted into Helium? What will happen
to the sun? How many years does it take for the sun to exhaust his
nuclear fuel, Hydrogen? Will that be the stage of the end of the earth
t

and the solar system?

No

Keplers laws of planetary motion

How are the distances between planets and the sun calculated?
How is the mass of a planet or the sun estimated? You may be
wondering about these mathematical calculations. Newtons laws help
us in such calculations.

374
 As you are familiar, all members of the solar system are moving
around the sun and they are moving in their own orbits.To study the
orbits of planets, period of planets and the relationship between orbital
period of a planet and semi major axis of orbit Kepler derived three
laws of planetary motion.

Keplers First Law

The planets move in elliptical orbits, around the sun with the

d
sun at one focus of the ellipse.

he
Know this : Ellipse is a geometrical
figure which is like an elongated

is
circle. It has two focal points. The
re S
major axis of an ellipse is its longest
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diameter, a line that runs through the
centre and both foci. The axis is
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one half of the major axis, and it
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runs from the centre, through a Ellipse

focus, and to the edge of the ellipse.

Activity 27.6
Hold an egg to sunlight and observe its shadow. It is an
approximately ellipse OR, hold a bangle and observe its shadow. If
the bangle is tilted, the shadow is an ellipse.
to

Keplers First Law : The Sun is not at the center of the ellipse, instead
it is one of the foci. The planet then follows the ellipse in its orbit,
which means that the Earth-Sun distance is constantly changing as
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the planet goes around its orbit.

No

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 Keplers Second Law
The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas
in equal intervals of time as the planet travels around the ellipse.
Keplers second law is illustrated in the above figure.The planet
moves faster when it is nearer the sun.Thus,a planet executes elliptical
motion with constantly changing angular speed as it moves about its
orbit.The point of approach of the planet to sun is termed perihelion;
the point of greatest separation is termed aphelion.

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Sun
Perihelion Aphelion

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Fig. 27.8 Equal Areas in Equal Times
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Keplers Third Law
be T
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The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to
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the cube of the semi major axis of the orbit.

T2 a3

T2 / a3 = Constant
(T1 / T2 )2 = (a1 /a2)3
In this equation T represents the eriod of revolution for a planet
and a represents the length of its semimajor axis. The subscripts I
and 2 represent planet 1 and 2 respectively. The periods for the two
planets are assumed to be in same time units and the length of the
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semimajor axis for the two planets are also assumed to be in the
same distance units.
Activity 27.7
t
No

Collect the data of period (T) and distance (a) from the sun for
various planets and verify the keplers Third Law.
These laws are general and are applicable to all the planets in the
solar system. Kepler found these laws, using the observed data of
planetary positions collected by him and the data collected by others
over few centuries before him. Later, Newton derived the universal
law of gravitation.

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 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
He was a German mathematician,
astronomer and astrologer. He is best known
for his laws of planetary motion. These works
also provided one of the foundations for Isaac
Newtons theory of universal gravitation.
During his career, in his earlier days Kepler
was a mathematics teacher. Later he did
fundamental work in the field of optics and

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invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the

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Keplerian Telescope). Kepler described his new astronomy as
Celestial Physics.

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EXERCISES
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I Choose the correct answer from among the four given for
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each of the following statement or questions
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1. Aurora effect can be demonstrated in the science laboratory

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also by
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a) producing spectrum

b) Ionizing certain gases by high voltage

c) using coloured chemicals and their reactions
d) using coloured glasses and light

2. The colour of the chromosphere is

a) red b) white
to

c) yellow d) pink

3. Solar flares are associated with

t
No

a) intense magnetic field b) solar eclipse

c) lunar eclipse d) nuclear fission reaction.

4. Sun is called the laboratory to study other stars because

a) The sun is a brightest star b) The sun is nearer to earth
c) Sun is an average star d) Sun is a medium star.

377
 5. The reason for enormous energy output of the sun is,
a) combustion of hydrogen
b) formation of helium
c) Thermo nuclear fusing reaction
d) electromagnetic field.

6. Harmful effect of the solar wind on earth is protected by.

a) ozone layer b) ionosphere
c) atmosphere d) magnetosphere

d
7. Sunspots on the photosphere are due to.

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a) eclipses caused by planets
b) Comparatively cooler regions
c) granulations

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d) Cloudy weather on the earth.
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II bl
Fill in the blanks with suitable words
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1. The innermost layer of the sun is called the __________________

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2. The zone that provides an efficient means of transporting
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energy near the core of the sun is __________________

3. The solar wind consists of ______________

4. The visible surface of the sun is ____________

5. Corona of the sun is visible during ___________
III Answer the following
1. Distinguish between solar flares and solar prominences.
2. What are sunspots? To which factors are they related ?
to

3. State Keplers 3 laws of planetary motion.

4. Explain the structure of the sun with a diagram.
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5. State the effects of solar activities.

No

6. Draw a neat diagram of total solar eclipse showing the corona

of the sun.
7. State the layer of earths atmosphere which protects us from
the radiations of the sun.
8. Name the nuclear fuel present in the sun.

378