Peter E.
Sutherland
Fig. 1. Generator step-up transformer.
I
ndustrial power-distribution-system substa-
tion transformers and generator step-up
transformers in power stations (Fig. 1 shown
above) often use resistance-grounded wye
secondary windings for medium-voltage power
distribution. The purpose of this is to limit damage
due to ground-fault currents, while providing suf-
ficient fault current for the operation of
ground-fault relaying. The relaying used to protect
against ground faults in the system may not pro-
vide sufficient protection of the transformer wind-
ing against internal faults because the backup
ground overcurrent relay in the transformer neu-
tral-to- ground connection must be set to coordi-
nate with downstream relays. In order to protect
the winding itself, special relays are utilized [1].
1077-2618/01/$10.002001 IEEE
GE
Ground differential protection can be provided
by digital overcurrent relays in conjunction with
auxiliary ratio matching transformers. Ground dif-
ferential protection can also be provided in
multifunction digital relays. Transformer protec-
tion relays (Fig. 2) may include this feature with one
of the schemes used with component relays. If a
feeder-protection relay is used on the secondary, in
some cases, this may have a ground-directional fea-
Peter E. Sutherland is with Power Systems Energy Con-
sulting, GE Power Systems of Schenectady, New York.
Sutherland is a Senior Member of IEEE. This article ap-
peared in its original form at the 2000 Industrial &
Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference.
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001 71
 ture that can be utilized for ground-differential pro- Ground-Differential Protection with a
tection. This article is an adaptation and expansion Time-Overcurrent Relay
of a similar presentation made on the general subject The simplest method of ground-differential relay-
of transformer ground-differential protection [1]. ing is to connect a time-overcurrent relay between
the residual point of the phase current transformers
Single-Function Microprocessor Relays (CTs) and a neutral-ground CT (Fig. 3). Because
The schemes discussed here have been imple- the CT ratios are usually not equal, an auxiliary
mented with component-type relays, where one re- matching CT is required. When using an electro-
lay performs each function. mechanical relay, this application requires a neu-
tral-ground CT with a high saturation voltage.
The sensitivity required depends upon the por-
tion of the winding to be protected. Assuming that
the voltage is induced uniformly across the wind-
ings, a relay set at 5% of the maximum ground-
fault current will protect 95% of the winding. This
would require a sensitivity of 20 A for a 400-A
grounding resistor. The design issue is to select a
relay-CT combination that will be sufficiently sen-
sitive to cover the winding, yet be insensitive to ex-
ternal faults. An external line-ground fault will not
exceed the full 400 A allowed by the resistor and
may cause increased saturation of the CT on the re-
sistor. In the case of a line-line fault, CT saturation
may cause a residual current to flow, which could
cause false operations. In addition, the dc compo-
nent of transformer inrush currents may cause satu-
ration of phase and/or neutral CTs, also resulting in
false operations (see Fig. 4).
(a) CT saturation, which is always present to some
degree, is usually said to occur when the voltage
across the CT magnetizing branch exceeds the
knee point of the saturation curve (see Fig. 5).
The knee point is defined as the point on the satu-
ration curve where a line drawn tangent to the
curve is at a 45 angle to the abscissa [2]. In a gen-
eral sense, the knee point is where an increase in CT
primary current no longer produces an increase in
(b) secondary current proportional to the turns ratio.
Since there always is some inaccuracy in a CT due
Fig. 2. (a) Relay in draw-out case. (b) Relay with to various causes, including saturation of the core,
modular construction. the knee point is really where the accuracy begins
to degrade severely. The size of the burden imped-
1200/5 ance and the shape of the saturation curve will de-
termine when saturation occurs. The ANSI class
1200/5 rating [3] of the CT specifies the voltage at which a
10% error in current is reached, and thus, provides
a good estimate of the saturation voltage without
100/5 inspecting a saturation curve.
Res.
400 A The effects of increasing CT saturation due to
fault currents and burden may be exacerbated by
the effects of remanent flux in the CT core and by
1200/5 the presence of dc offset in the fault current-wave-
3750 kVA 50 50 50 form. An examination of the effects of these factors
51 51 51 is beyond the scope of this article. A more detailed
4160 V
discussion may be found in the IEEE Application
87 G 1/12 Guide for Current Transformers [2].
OP
The burden on the line-side CTs is the relay
burden times the square of the auxiliary CT ratio.
Fig. 3. Time overcurrent relay connected as a Table I shows the calculation of the required mini-
differential ground relay. mum CT voltages where the leakage current is less

72 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001

than the relay tap setting. CT saturation calcula-
6000
tion methods are given in [4] and [5]. With stan-
dard relays, a pickup setting of 0.5 or 1.0 A would 4000
be used.

Current (A)
2000
A separately powered solid-state relay [Table 0
I(a)] used in this application may have a typical
burden of <0.1 , regardless of setting. Thus, 2000 0 20 40 0 80 100 120 140

there would be no potential problems of false oper- 4000

ation on external faults due to CT saturation. 6000
The use of a self-powered solid-state relay is il- Time (ms)
lustrated in Table I(b). The relay burdens are
given for a 0.5-A relay for the 100/5 and 200/5
Phase A Phase B Phase C Sum
CTs. The relay burden for a 0.1-A relay is given
for the 400/5 CT. The much higher burdens for
the self-powered solid-state relay result in possi- Fig. 4. The effect of transformer inrush current on residual current under
ble CT saturation in this application. Typical conditions of CT saturation can be seen in this oscillographic trace, taken from
knee-point voltages are 17 V for a 100/5 CT, 30 V a generator protection relay. The curve labeled sum is the point by point sum
for the 200/5 CT, and 60 V for 400/5 CTs. In this of the three-phase current inputs to the relay.
example, only the 200/5 CT has a calculated bur-
den voltage of less than the CT knee point, and is, ally be ignored. For example, if there is 20 A flow-
therefore, worth further examination. ing into an internal ground fault, the secondary
load current in that phase is not decreased by 20
The last line of each table shows the effect of the
A. In fact, it is increased by 1 A. This can be seen
auxiliary CT and relay impedance on the phase
from Fig. 8, where the secondary winding is con-
CTs. A typical knee point for a 1200/5 CT is about
sidered as an autotransformer. Let I1 be the cur-
200 V.
rent in the faulted section (20 A), If = Ig, the fault
A separately powered solid-state relay is recom-
current, and I2 the current in the rest of the wind-
mended in this application.
ing due to the fault.
Then:
Multifunction Microprocessor Relays
Ground-Differential Protection with a I2 =I1 -I f (3)
Percentage-Differential Relay
New transformer protection schemes are usually by Kirchkoffs law. And because of the turns ratio,
built using multifunction microprocessor relays. If can be compared to the full-voltage resistor cur-
Some relays of this type incorporate a ground-dif- rent IR:
ferential function. This may be implemented as a
percentage-differential relay with inputs from each I2 (4)
If = IR
of the phase CTs and the ground CT. The relay con- I1
nections are shown in Fig. 6. The block diagram of I RI 1
the protective function is shown in Fig. 7. = IR
I R +I 1
For a 3750-kVA, 4160-V transformer, the relay
400 200
settings are as follows. The current to be detected =
for 95% coverage of the winding with a 400-A re- 400 +200
sistor is: = 19 A.

100% %coverage (1)

I= I fault
100% Vs 45
= 20 A.

The full-load phase current is 520 A. The

ground-differential current, Igd, is the difference
between the ground current, Ig, and the residual
current, 3I0:

I gd = 3I 0 - I g . (2)
The residual current 3I0 can be found by look-
ing at the increase in per-unit primary current, Ip,
due to the fault. If the relay is to protect 95% of
the winding, this is a small effect, which can usu-
Ie
Fig. 5. The knee-point of a CT saturation curve is
the point where a tangent to the curve forms a 45
angle with the horizontal axis.

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001 73

 Table IA. Performance of 87g with Various Relay-CT Combinations (Lead Burden 0.03 W)
Separately Powered Solid-State Relay
CT Ratio and Relay Tap (A) Relay Burden CT secretary. Relay + CT + CT secretary. CT Knee Point Min. CT (V)
Class () Res. () Lead Burden Current at 400 (V)
() A

100/5 C10 1.0 0.1 0.03 0.16 20 17 3.2

200/5 C20 0.5 0.1 0.06 0.19 10 30 1.9
400/5 C50 0.25 0.1 0.12 0.25 5 60 1.25
1200/5 C200 + 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 0.34 0.32 0.32 65.2 16.6 4.4 1.67 200 109 287.4
12: 1, 6:1 or 3:1 0.32
Aux

Table IB. Self-Powered Solid-State Relay

CT Ratio and Relay Tap (A) Relay Burden CT secretary. Relay +CT + Relay Current CT Knee Point Min. CT Volt
Class () Res. () Lead Burden at 400 A (V) (V)
()
100/5 C10 1.0 0.77 + j0.69 0.03 1.08 20 17 21.6
200/5 C20 0.5 1.28 + j1.15 0.06 1.79 10 30 17.9
400/5 C50 0.25 14.4 + j14.6 0.12 20.6 5 60 103
1200/5 C200 + 1.0 0.77 + j0.69 0.34 0.32 190 1.67 200 317
12: 1 Aux
1200/5 C200 + 6: 0.5 1.28 + j1.15 0.34 0.32 72 1.67 200 120
1Aux
1200/5 C200 + 3: 0.25 14.4 + j14.6 0.34 0.32 187 1.67 200 312
1Aux

Thus, by (3), I2 = 20 A 19 A = 1 A. And, since I2 The slope is set so that the relay will trip for the
is the increased phase current 3I0, the differential minimum differential current at the maximum
current is: line current (full-load current + 3I0):
I gd = 1 19 = 18 A. (5) I gd (6)
Slope = 100%
The relay will be set to pickup at this value. I line
18
= 100% = 3.5%.
521
1200/5 If the 1-A correction had been neglected, the result
would have been essentially the same.
1200/5
The effect of CT error can be evaluated for this
relay. Assuming that saturation effects would oc-
cur only on the resistor-side CT and that the relay
200/5 burden is 0.2 VA, resistive, CT leakage currents
Res. taken from a typical CT saturation curve are shown
in Table II. For the example above, the calculated
Ib I a
slope setting would only be affected by a fraction of
a percentage:
Ig 1200/5
I gd + I leakage (7)
3750 kVA
4160 V Ic Slope = 100%
3I0
I line
18 +0.09
= 100% = 3.5%.
Transformer Protection 521
Relay

If, on the other hand, the phase CTs saturate dur-

Fig. 6. Multifunction microprocessor transformer ing a line-line-ground fault, the setting may need
protection relay. to be still higher, depending upon the leakage cur-

74 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001

 Ia Calculate I max
Maximum Phase Slope = Igd /Imax
Current
Ib Slope > Setpoint

Ic Calculate Timer
and 0 - 0.5 s Output
3I 0
I gd
Calculate
l gd > Setpoint
I3I0 - IgI

Ig Measure
Ig

Fig. 7. Multifunction relay ground-differential block diagram [6].

rent. There have been reported cases of CT errors in I (10)

the linear region of the saturation curve during ex- F = 1 1 100%
IR
ternal phase faults, causing false tripping of
ground-differential relays. Looking at the last line 88
= 1 100% = 78%.
in Table II, in this example, if the phase CTs see 400
20,000 A while the neutral CT sees 400 A, there
will be an additional leakage current of 0.02 A, This is a considerable reduction from the goal
which will have a different phase angle than the of 95% winding protection. The best solution to
neutral CT current. In this example, the calculated
setting is not affected. However, this possibility
needs to be checked in the application of the relay,
and a higher setting may be required in some cases.
If a phase CT were to saturate during an external
phase-phase ground fault, the ground-differential
current would be much higher. In the worst case,
the unsaturated CT would provide its full output,
while the saturated CT would have no output. The
current from the unsaturated CT would split be- I2
tween the residual circuit and the saturated CT in a
current divider effect:

If R CT + Lead (8)
3I 0 = If
CTR R CT + Lead + R Relay
20,000 0.368
= = 70 A.
240 0.44

Then, by (8), assuming the phase difference be-

tween the two currents is 0: I1

I gd + I leakage (9)
Slope = 100% RES
I line
18+70 88
= 100% = 100% = 17%.
521 521

The relay sensitivity would be severely de-

creased by such a setting. In Fig. 8 and (4) and (5),
for an internal ground fault, if If is 88 A, I1 becomes
113 A, and I2 becomes 25 A. The fraction, F, of the Fig. 8. Transformer secondary winding ground fault
winding protected is: currents.

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001 75

 Table II. Performance of 87tg with Various Relay-CT Combinations (CT and Lead Burden as
per Table I) Transformer Protection Relay
CT Ratio CT Current 0.2 VA Relay Burden () Relay + CT + Lead Burden () Min. CT (V) CT Leakage Current
at 400 A (A)
100/5 20 0.0005 0.06 1.2 0.11
200/5 10 0.002 0.09 0.9 0.09
400/5 5 0.008 0.16 0.8 0.08
1200/5 1.67 0.072 0.44 0.7 0.00
1200/5* 83.3 0.072 0.44 37 0.02
*At a fault current of 20,000 A.

1200/5
this dilemma is to design the system to prevent
the line CTs from full saturation during external
phase faults.
1200/5 In order to prevent false tripping due to normal
CT errors, the minimum slope setting in this exam-
ple would be about 4%, but a setting which would
not cause false tripping even under conditions of
200/5
Res.
maximum CT saturation would be about 17%.
These numbers should not be taken as general
400 A
guidelines for appropriate settings. Every particu-
lar case should be evaluated in detail. The 4% slope
setting of the relay will result in the sensitivity de-
51 G
1200/5 creasing slightly as the loading on the transformer
increases. Because the slope is calculated based
(67N) 50 50 50 upon the maximum phase current rather than the
87 G 51 51 51 current into the differential circuit, the percentage
POL
values appear to be lower than with the traditional
(67N)
differential relay, although the effect is similar.
1/6
87 G (Auxiliary Ration The final setting is for time delay. This will be
OP Matching CT) set to allow for instantaneous relays downstream to
clear high current faults. This is a precautionary
Fig. 9. Electromechanical product type relay connected as a differential measure because if the differential functions and
ground relay. their restraint circuits operate correctly, the relay
should not operate for faults outside of the differen-
tial zone.

Ground-Differential Protection with

C C Phase-Angle Restraint
RMS Secondary Volts

100 B B This approach is a digital implementation of the

A product-type ground-differential relay [7] (Fig. 9).
A
10 The standard product-type relay design is ex-
tended to include cases where the operating and
1 polarizing currents are out of phase due to CT satu-
ration. When the differential current indicates that
the fault is external, the operating current is re-
0.1
duced by a factor proportional to a function of the
ground current, the zero-sequence current, and the
.001 .01 0.1 1 10 30 50 70 phase angle between them. This will allow the re-
RMS Secondary Amperes Degrees lay to trip for internal faults with CT saturation,
Exciting Current Phase and yet still reject external faults.
Angle The phase-angle saturation curves of typical
CTs (Fig. 10) show that the secondary voltage of a
Fig. 10. Typical CT secondary excitation characteristics [11]. Curve CT leads the input current by an angle of 70-80
A100/5 ratio, 0.06 winding resistance. Curve B600/5 ratio, 0.33 in an unsaturated condition. This angle decreases
winding resistance. Curve C1200/5 ratio, 0.67 winding resistance. to approximately 30 at the knee point and then re-

76 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001

turns to 80 as the level of saturation increases.
When operating into a primarily resistive burden,
the secondary current will be in phase with the sec-
ondary voltage. Typical phase-angle relationships
for a saturated CT are shown in Fig. 11. Referring
to Fig. 9, the residual current from the phase CTs is
the reference, and the sum of the residual and neu-
tral currents is the operating current. Considering
an internal fault, a phase difference of less than 90
between the neutral and residual currents (Fig. 12)
due to neutral CT saturation will not be able to re-
verse the direction sensed by the relay. On the
other hand, if one or two of the phase CTs saturates,
the direction sensed by the relay could change. If
the output of one CT is severely reduced (Fig. 13),
the residual current would be the sum of the other
two phase currents, which could result in a funda-
mental frequency phase angle of approximately
180 between the residual and neutral CT cur-
rents. Thus, if saturation is approached on one or
more phases, the relay could be fooled into think-
ing that an external fault had occurred.
The effect of digital relay filtering capabilities on
The operating current is provided by the neutral
CT, which is also connected to a relay input. Thus,
a multifunction relay may have one or two sets of
ground CT inputs.
The relay coils should be connected with the po-
larization such that the relay will trip for a ground
fault within the differential zone.
The application of the directional ground relay
is discussed in [9]. A digital directional relay will
have a similar burden to the transformer protection
relay, as illustrated in Table II. As a directionally
polarized overcurrent relay, the types of errors that
can occur are as follows:
Saturation of phase transformer results in
reduction in polarizing current. The relay
will default to the forward direction on loss
of polarization, resulting in continued nor-
mal operation.

Voltage
Current

the current from a saturated CT is discussed in [8].

Two phase-to-ground faults, where there is
both a neutral-ground current and a high fault cur-
rent passing through the phase CTs, which might
cause saturation, are very infrequent.
With a low-burden digital relay, this saturation
problem is not likely to happen in a resis- Time
tance-grounded system, as can be seen for the B C D E
1200/5 CT in Table II. In a solidly grounded sys-
tem, as shown in Table III, where the available Fig. 11. Phase-angle relationships for ground relay
fault current is much higher, this could only hap- with CT saturation. Curve Asystem voltage.
pen if the CT and lead burden were excessively Curve Bfault current. Curve Crelay current.
high. The added burden can only exist if an auxil- Curve D60-Hz component of relay current.
iary ratio-matching transformer is present. It is, (Magnitudes not to scale.)
therefore, recommended that numerical relays uti-
lize digital ratio matching algorithms, rather than
external auxiliary transformers. In some cases,
however, the range of settings of a digital relay may
not accept the difference in CT ratios, and auxiliary
CTs will be required.

Ground Differential Protection with a

Current

Solid-State Directional Overcurrent Relay

Function
Another multifunction microprocessor relay that
may be seen on a transformer is the feeder-protec-
tion relay. Many such relays contain a ground-di-
rectional function, which may be configured in a
similar manner to the product-type relay discussed
above. The types of polarization and the available Time
CT input connections for the relay should be exam-
ined. The residual current can be determined ex- A B C
ternally by having separate ground input terminals
for the residual connection, or it can be determined Fig. 12. Phase-angle relationships for internal fault with neutral
internally, without separate input connections CT saturated. Curve Aresidual current. Curve Bneutral CT
(connection of Fig. 4). The residual current, how- current. Curve C60-Hz component of neutral CT current.
ever determined, will be the polarizing current. (Magnitudes not to scale.)

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001 77

 Effect of Power Transformer Size
The size of the resistance-grounded power trans-
former will affect the size of the phase CTs. The
generally accepted guideline [10] is that
ground-differential protection is applied on
transformers of 10 MVA or larger. Table IV
Current

shows a typical evaluation of CT sizes used with

Time
A B D E
Fig. 13. Phase-angle relationships for internal fault on phase A
with one phase CT saturated. Curve Aphase A current. Curve
Bphase B current. Curve Cphase C current. Curve
Dsaturated phase A current. Curve Eresidual current.
(Magnitudes not to scale.)
Saturation of neutral CTs results in reduction
in operating current. This may prevent relay
operation. The possibility of this happening
is very small, as can be seen from the calcula-
tions in Table II for the 100/5, 200/5, and
400/5 neutral CTs.
Voltage polarization may also be used. The
relay would then be a directional relay looking
into the transformer, rather than a true differen-
tial relay.
Dual polarization uses both current and volt-
age polarization. Because current polarization
would also be available, there is no reason to use
dual polarization.
various transformers and relays. The combina-
tion is marked OK if the calculated CT voltage
for a 400-A (10 kA for Table III) ground fault is
less than the CT knee point. The transformer
protection relay of Table II is applicable in all
cases. When using an overcurrent relay and aux-
iliary transformer (Table I) the separately pow-
ered relay is applicable in more cases. If the
transformer is solidly grounded (Table III), an
C auxiliary transformer may saturate due to the
high ground-fault current. The use of auxiliary
current transformers is not recommended when
the power transformer is solidly grounded.
Conclusions
Ground-differential relaying schemes with solid-
state digital relays require evaluation in terms of
sensitivity, effect of CT saturation, cost, and com-
plexity. It should not be assumed that simply be-
cause a low-burden digital relay is used, that
saturation problems may not occur. There have
been instances where this assumption has been
made, and low-accuracy CTs were used, resulting
in false operations due to CT saturation. It is
strongly urged that each individual application be
carefully analyzed during the design stage in order
to ensure proper operation.
In some cases, an externally powered time-
overcurrent relay may be used. If CT saturation is
too great for a simple overcurrent relay, a trans-
former protection relay that does not require an
auxiliary transformer may be used. With a spe-

Table III. Performance of 87 tg with High Fault Currents Transformer Protection Relay
Case CT Ratio Avail. Fault Current (kA) CT Current 0.2 VA Relay Relay + CT + Lead Burden (W) Min. CT (V)
(A) Burden (W)

Without Aux CT 1200/5 10 42 <0.001 0.37 16

1200/5 20 83 <0.001 0.37 31

1200/5 50 208 <0.001 0.37 78

Max. Burden without Sat. 1200/5 10 42 <0.001 4.8 200

1200/5 20 83 <0.001 2.4 200

1200/5 50 208 <0.001 0.96 200

W/ Aux CT 1200/5 + 10 41.7

12:1, 0.016 53.1 2213
6:1 0.004 13.1 546
or 3:1 0.001 3.5 146
Aux

78 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001

 Table IV. Example of Application Table for Various CT-Relay Combinations
Trans. Secretary. Secretary. CT Typ. CT CT Volts Table CT Volts Table CT Volts Table CT Volts Table CT Volts Table
MVA kV (A) Size Knee IA with 6:1 IB with 6:1 Aux II III without 6:1 III with 6:1 Aux
:5 (V) Aux Aux

3.75 4.16 520 800 120 41 OK 180 1.1 OK 23 OK 820

3.75 4.16 520 1200 190 28 OK 120 OK 0.7 OK 15 OK 546

3.75 13.8 157 250 38 133 577 3.5 OK 74 2623

3.75 13.8 157 300 45 110 481 2.9 OK 62 2186

5 4.16 694 1200 190 28 OK 120 OK 0.7 OK 15 OK 546

5 4.16 694 1600 250 21 OK 90 OK 0.6 OK 12 OK 410

5 13.8 209 300 45 110 481 2.9 OK 62 2186

5 13.8 209 400 60 83 361 2.2 OK 46 OK 1639

10 4.16 1388 2000 200 17 OK 72 OK 0.4 OK 9 OK 328

10 4.16 1388 3000 300 11 OK 48 OK 0.3 OK 6 OK 219 OK

10 13.8 418 600 90 55 OK 240 1.5 OK 31 OK 1093

10 13.8 418 800 120 41 OK 180 1.1 OK 23 OK 820

15 4.16 2082 4000 250 8 OK 36 OK 0.2 OK 5 OK 164 OK

15 4.16 2082 4000 250 8 OK 36 OK 0.2 OK 5 OK 164 OK

15 13.8 628 1000 160 33 OK 144 OK 0.9 OK 19 OK 656

15 13.8 628 1200 190 28 OK 120 OK 0.7 OK 15 OK 546

20 13.8 837 1200 190 28 OK 120 OK 0.7 OK 15 OK 546

20 13.8 837 1600 250 21 OK 90 OK 0.6 OK 12 OK 410

cially designed transformer ground-differential re-
lay, CT saturation does not affect relay operation.
When evaluating different types of ground-differ-
ential protection for a range of transformers, the
factors relating to CT saturation may be calculated
and listed in a table that can be used for comparison
purposes (Table IV).
The use of digital solid-state relays can result in
the benefits of ground-differential protection in
packaged multifunction relays. Either trans-
former- or feeder-type relays can be utilized, if they
contain the necessary functions.
References
[1] P.E. Sutherland, Application of transformer ground differ-
ential relays, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 36, no. 1,
16-21, Jan./Feb. 2000.
[2] IEEE Guide for the Application of Current Transformers Used for
Protective Relaying Purposes, IEEE Std. C37.110, 1996.
[3] Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers,
ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.13, 1993.
[4] D.J. West, Current transformer application guidelines, in
Conf. Rec. Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Technical
Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, 1977, pp. 110-126.
[5] R.E. Cosse and W. Nichols, II, The practice of ground dif-
ferential relaying, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 30, no. 6,
pp. 1472-1479, Nov./Dec. 1994.
[6] Transformer Management Relay, SR745, GE Multlin, Inc.,
Markham, Ont., Canada.
[7] T. Sezi, A new approach to transformer ground differential
protection, presented at the 1999 Industrial and Commer-
cial Power Systems Annual Conference, Sparks, NV, 1999.
[8] B. Kasztenny, A. Kulidjian, B. Campbell, and M. Pozzuoli,
Operate and restraint signals of a transformer differential
relay, presented at the 54th Annual Georgia Tech Protec-
tive Relaying Conference, Atlanta, GA, 2000.
[9] N.T. Stringer and G. Dalke, Ground differential protec-
tion: revisited, IEEE Ind. Applicat. Mag., vol. 6, no. 2,
pp.53-58, Mar./Apr. 2000.
[10] IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems (IEEE Buff Book),
IEEE Std. 242, 1986.
[11] L.J. Powell, Jr., Current transformer burden and satura-
tion, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. IA-15, no. 3, pp.
294-303, May/June 1979.

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine March/April 2001 79