UNIT 5 NOTES

TOPIC 7: Run for Your Life

2. Describe the structure of a muscle fibre and explain the structural and physiological
differences between fast and slow twitch muscle fibres.

Muscle is made up of myofibrils

lying parallel to each other.
Each myofibril is made up of
sarcomeres. Actin and myosin are
proteins that make up a large part of
the sarcomeres.
The cytoplasm of myofibrils is called
the sarcoplasm.
There are a lot of mitochondria to
provide energy. The sarcoplasmic
reticulum is a network of
membranes that stores and releases

Slow-twitch Muscle fibres Fast-twitch Muscle fibres

Contain lots of mitochondria where lots of
ATP is produced
Is used for slower, sustained periods of
exercise
Carries out aerobic respiration
Lots of myoglobin to store oxygen
Fatigue resistant
Contains few mitochondria as not much
energy is used
Is used for short bursts of exercise
Carries out anaerobic respiration
Little myoglobin as less oxygen is used
Fatigue quickly

3. Explain the contraction of skeletal muscle in terms of the sliding filament theory,
including the role of actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin, calcium ions (Ca 2+), ATP and
ATPase.
Sliding filament theory Theory developed by Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson in the
1950s to explain the patterns seen when muscle contracts
Actin One of the contractile proteins that make up the structure of the muscle cells.
It is made up of two chains of actin monomers joined together like beads on a
necklace. Actins shape produces myosin binding sites where myosins globular heads
can fit.
Myosin Contractile protein that interacts with actin to bring about the contraction
of a muscle. It is made up of two long polypeptide chains twisted together, each
ending in a large globular head which has ADP and inorganic phosphate molecules
bound to it. The head can act as an ATPase enzyme
Troponin A protein associated with tropomyosin in the muscle structure. It is
attached regularly along the chain of tropomyosin.
Tropomyosin Long chain protein which wraps around actin chains in the structure
of a muscle and, in a relaxed muscle, it covers up the myosin binding sites on actin
filaments.
Calcium ions Released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum as a result of a stimulus.
Ca2+ binds to troponin molecules causing it to change shape. It is also required in the
activation
4. Recall of which
the way in ATPase in the myosin
muscles, globular
tendons, head.and ligaments interact to enable
the skeleton
movement, including antagonistic muscle pairs, extensors and flexors.
Muscle - Largely made up of protein. They can
shorten to do work
Tendons Made up of white fibrous tissue and has
bundles of collagen fibres. The tissue is strong but
relatively inelastic. It attaches muscle to bone
Skeleton It is made up of bone. It is strong and
hard. Made up of bone cells embedded in a matrix of
collagen and calcium salts. It is strong under
compression but not dense. This is to reduce the
weight moved about
Ligament Holds bones together in the correct
alignment. Elastic to allow the bones of the joint to
move
Cartilage Hard, flexible and elastic. It is a good
shock absorber.
5. Describe
Muscles work inthe overall reaction
antagonistic pairs.ofThis
aerobic respiration
means that as splitting of the respiratory substrate
(e.g. glucose) to release carbon dioxide as a waste product and reuniting of hydrogen with
atmospheric oxygen with the release of a large amount of energy.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 +6H2O + ATP

Rate of respiration can be +
Glucose determined
Oxygen by Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
measuring the uptake of oxygen or output of
carbon dioxide by organisms
A basic respirometer has a sealed chamber
containing living organisms such as mice or
germinating seeds
The volume of carbon dioxide given off is
equivalent to the volume of oxygen taken in.
Therefore a chemical such as potassium
hydroxide
6. Describe howis to
used absorb carbon
investigate dioxide practically.
rate of respiration
produced during respiration
The loss of carbon dioxide is measured by
observing the moment of fluid in a capillary
tube. The amount of oxygen used is
calculated from this.
The effect on the rate of respiration can be
 8. Describe the roles of glycolysis in aerobic and anaerobic respiration, including the
phosphorylation of hexoses, the production of ATP, reduced coenzyme and pyruvate acid
(details of intermediate stages and compounds are not required).

Occurs in the cytoplasm

4ATPs & 2NADHs are made, 2 ATPs are
used.
ATP is sued to phosphorylate glucose to a
6 carbon sugar with a phosphate group.
The phosphorylated sugar splits into two
molecules of GALP
GALP is converted to pyruvate.
2 hydrogens from GALP are taken up by
NAD to form reduced NAD.
Reduced NAD goes into the electron
transport system and provides energy to
phosphorylate ADP to ATP
In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate goes
into the Krebs cycle via the link reaction.
In anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is

Link reaction:
1 Pyruvate releases carbon dioxide as a waste
product and a hydrogen atom (which is picked up
by NAD to form reduced NAD) which produces an
Acetyl group
2 This reacts with Coenzyme A to form Acetyl
coenzyme A
3 The acetyl group is taken to be used in the Krebs
9. Describe theand
cycle role1 of the Krebs
x NADH cyclewhich
produced in theiscomplete
used in oxidation of glucose and formation of
carbon dioxide (CO2),
oxidative ATP, reduced NAD and reduced FAD (names of other compounds are not
phosphorylation
required) and that respiration is a many-stepped process with each step controlled and
Krebs cycle:
catalysed by a specific intracellular enzyme.
1 The acetyl group from the acetyl coenzyme A is
combined with oxaloacetate to form a 6-carbon
compound
2 Carbon dioxide is removed from this as a waste
 4 3 x hydrogen molecules are reduced and picked up by 2 x NAD and 1 x FAD to form 2 x
reduced NAD and 1 x reduced FAD
5 This leaves a 4-carbon oxaloacetate which binds with a new acetyl group from acetyl
coenzyme A and the cycle starts again
6 In total, the 3 x NADH and 1 x FADH take the hydrogen atoms to be used in the electron
transport chain

10. Describe the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation associated with the electron
transport chain in mitochondria, including the role of chemiosmosis and ATPase.

Electron Transport Chain

Occurs in the cristae of mitochondria
Electrons are passed down energy levels releasing energy to power the
phosphorylation of ADP
Oxygen is the terminal acceptor, forming H2O
Without oxygen, the electron transport chain cannot occur as all the electron
acceptors are saturated with electrons
It is called oxidative phosphorylation as it is a process dependent on oxygen to
phosphorylate ADP
Chemiosmosis
NADH and FADH2 contain stored chemical energy
Energy is used to pump H+ ions into the mitochondrial membrane, against a
concentration gradient
The inner membrane is impermeable to protons creating a concentration,
 Cardiac muscle is myogenic, meaning
that the impulse which causes the
muscles to contract comes from the heart
itself rather than sent from the brain.
Electrical activity of the heart:
1 The Sino atrial node sends an
electrical impulse to the muscles in
thethe
11. Explain atrial
fatewalls, causing
of lactate afterthem to of anaerobic respiration in animals.
a period
constrict and push blood into the
Oxidative
ventriclesphosphorylation stops as oxygen is not available to accept electrons;
(a band of non-conducting
electron
collagencarriers
tissues are saturated
prevent meaning NAD and FAD cannot be regenerated.
the impulse
Krebs cycle stops
from travelling as coenzyme
straight to the A is not regenerated and pyruvate builds up in
cell.
ventricles)
2 Cells
Afterconvert
a short pyruvate
delay, thetoimpulse
lactic acid
thenwhich generates less ATP than in aerobic
conditions.
travels to the atrioventricular node
When oxygen
and then is available,
to the Bundle of lactic acid is converted back to pyruvate in the liver
His before
it travels
12. Understand into
that the Purkinje
cardiac muscle fibres to
is myogenic and describe the normal electrical activity of
the apex of the heart
the heart, including the roles of the Sino atrial node (SAN), the atrioventricular node (AVN) and
3 Theofwalls
the bundle of the
His, and howventricles
the use ofthen
electrocardiograms (ECGs) can aid the diagnosis of
contract from the apex upwards
cardiovascular disease (CVD) and other heart andconditions.
push blood into the arteries.

Electrocardiograms:

This is a machine which records the electrical activity of the heart

It shows the waves of depolarisation during atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole
If something disrupts the hearts normal conduction pathways, changes will occur in the
pattern recorded during the ECG which can be used for diagnosis of cardiovascular
disease
For example, it can pick up whether the heart is: Tachycardia The heart beats too fast
to make up for it not being able to pump enough blood with each cycle; Problem with
AVN The QRS wave on the ECG recording will be missing or will be abnormal as the
electrical impulse wont be travelling to the AVN as it needs to be; Fibrillation There is
no rhythm between the atria and ventricles and so the person would have an irregular
 13. Explain how variations in ventilation and cardiac output enable rapid delivery of oxygen to
tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide from them, including how the heart rate and
ventilation rate are controlled and the roles of the cardiovascular control centre and the
ventilation centre.
Ventilation rate = the rate at which someone breathes (often measured as the volume of air
breathed per minute/ the minute ventilation)
Tidal volume = volume of air breathed in or out of the lungs in one breath
Ventilation rate = tidal volume x breaths per minute
Ventilation centre:
1 Chemoreceptors in the medulla (brain) and arteries detect change in pH and
concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
2 Impulses are sent from the ventilation centre to the muscles involved with breathing
3 A small increase of carbon dioxide in the blood causes a large increase in ventilation
4 Reactions from stretch receptors in tendons and muscles involved in movement and from
the motor cortex are detected which increases ventilation
Cardiovascular
5 We also have
control
voluntary
centre: control over breathing
1. Adrenaline is secreted from the Adrenal gland before and during exercise.
2. This stimulates the SAN to increase its rate of contraction.
3. Action potentials are sent along motor neurones from the cardiovascular control centre to
the SAN.
4. The neuron releases a neurotransmitter called noradrenaline just as it reaches the SAN,
causing the SAN to increase its rate of concentration.

14. Describe how to investigate the effects of exercise on tidal volume and breathing rate using
data from spirometer traces.
 1 Set up a spirometer with an enclosed chamber containing air, lying over water
2 As a person breathes in and out through the mouthpiece, the movement of the lid should be
recorded by a pen on chart attached to a revolving drum
3 By counting the number of ups and downs on the trace recorded we can calculate breathing rate
in breaths per minute
4 We can calculate ventilation rate by measuring mean average volume of air breathed in with
each breath (tidal volume) and multiplying this by the number of breaths taken in per minute
15. Explain the principle of negative feedback in maintaining systems within narrow limits.

If receptors detect an increase in the normal state of the body system, it triggers events that cause
a decrease in reaction.
If receptors detect a decrease in the normal state of the body system, it triggers events that cause
an increase in reaction.
1 Receptors detect a change in the normal state of a body system
2 This sends an electrical impulse to the relevant part of the brain e.g. hypothalamus if there is
a change in body temperature
3 The brain sends an electrical impulse to the relevant effector muscle which reacts
4 The change is counteracted
5 Returns to normal state of body system
16. Discuss the concept of homeostasis and its importance in maintaining the body in a state of
dynamic equilibrium during exercise, including the role of the hypothalamus and the
mechanisms of thermoregulation.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. This includes core

body temperature. the body must maintain temperature - it does this by: Thermoreceptors
in the hypothalamus detect a rise in temperature of blood, the hypothalamus also receives
signals from receptors in the skin. When this rise is detected, the hypothalamus sends
nerve impulses to various effectors which respond by:

Arterioles dilate so that a greater volume of blood can flow to the surface of the skin and
heat is lost by radiation through the skin
Sweat glands receive more blood which increases sweat production- the sweat travels to
the surface of the skin and evaporates, taking heat with it
Erector muscles attached to hair relax, meaning they lie flat against the skin and so trap
When a decrease in temperature is detected:
less air- this allow heat to radiate from the skin more easily
Arterioles constrict which greatly reduces
the volume of blood travelling close to the
skin, and diverts the blood underneath the
Modern imaging techniques such as MRI and CT scans are able to diagnoses injuries
insulating fat- this reduces the amount of
accurately and quickly.
heat lost through radiation
Sweat glands secrete little or no sweat
Keyhole surgery
Erector
Amuscles contract
fibre optic tube withcausing hairscamera
a small to and light attached is used to look inside the
stand up, this traps a layer of air in the
joint
hairs which
Smallreduces
incisionsthe heat
are lostaround
made through the joint to fit in small surgical instruments
the skin by radiation
Certain muscles contractfactors,
1 Transcription
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 Against:
They can lead to early death or health problems of an athlete for example due to
heart attack later on in life or liver damage.
They have a competitive advantage over those who do not use performance-
enhancing drugs making competition unfair.
For:

There is no ban on nutritional substance such as vitamins so where do we draw

the line on what is allowed and not allowed.
It is impossible for all drugs to be detected it is too difficult for regulators to
keep
20. Outline upethical
two with making new
positions tests to
relating quickly enough
whether to of
the use regulate the use of
performance-enhancing
performance
substances enhancing
by athletes drugs.
is acceptable.
Ethical absolutists- believe it is either never acceptable or always acceptable to use
performance enhancing drugs.
Ethical relativists - take into account different people and circumstances and believe it
is wrong to use performance enhancing rugs but in some cases it may be acceptable.
Anabolic steroids these bind to receptors on a molecule which takes it directly to the
nucleus of a cell. They act as transcription factors and bind to the promoter region of a
gene which allows RNA polymerase to start transcription- as a result more protein
synthesis takes place in cells.
Peptide hormones- bind with receptors on the cell surface membrane which starts a
process that results in the activation of a transcription factor within the nucleus.