Wireless Power Transfer

1. Abstract

Wireless energy transfer based on coupled magnetic resonances is a new

technology which energy can be transferred via coupled magnetic
resonances in the non-radiative near field. A simple energy transfer system
structure is analyzed in this project. Based on the power and distance
specifications of the energy transfer in question, the experimental setup is
designed and with available resources, realized. The back electromotive
force (back-EMF) in the receiving coil and the efficiency of the transfer
related with different transfer distance and with driving frequency is
observed with the realized apparatus. These results, along with the
theoretical predictions for the same, can be used to prove that the scheme
used is appropriate for energy transfer over midrange distances. Some basic
modifications which could be done to improve the schemes performance,
but could not implemented due to lack of time and resources, are also
suggested.
 2. Introduction

In the early days of electromagnetism, before the electrical wire grid was
deployed, serious interest and effort was devoted (most notably by Nikola
Tesla) towards the development of schemes to transport energy over long
distances without any carrier medium (i.e. wirelessly). These efforts appear
to have met with little success. Radiative modes of omni-directional
antennas (which work very well for information transfer) are not suitable for
such energy transfer, because a vast majority of energy is wasted into free
space.

Directed radiation modes, using lasers or highly-directional antennas, can be

efficiently used for energy transfer, even for long distances (transfer distance
LTRANS >> LDEV, where LDEV is the characteristic size of the device), but
require existence of an uninterruptible line-of-sight and a complicated
tracking system in the case of mobile objects. The use of such schemes in
layman applications is very complex and thus limited.

However, unlike the time of Tesla, now we are faced with an entirely different
challenge. Since the existing electrical-wire grid carries energy almost
everywhere, transmission of power over long distances for power wheeling,
is not at all in the question. Even a medium-range (L TRANS few LDEV)
wireless energy transfer would be quite useful for many applications. Rapid
development of autonomous electronics of recent years (e.g. laptops, cell-
phones, house-hold robots, that all typically rely on chemical energy storage)
which has led to invention of various gadgets, justifies revisiting
investigation of this issue.

Wireless energy transfer involves the second major difficulty as the radiation
of the energy into space. This is due to two primary problems: one, which is
the efficiency. For radiation of energy, a significant amount of energy could
get radiated into free space and thus wasted. This would drastically decrease
the efficiency. The second is the concern on the safety of the scheme, and its
effects with respect to life and health. Because of the above reasons,
normally non-radiative schemes are preferred.

There are several currently used schemes, which rely on non-radiative modes
(magnetic induction), but they are restricted to very close-range (L TRANS <<
LDEV). In contrast to all the above schemes, an experiment conducted at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology investigated the feasibility of using
oscillatory resonant electromagnetic modes, with localized evanescent field
patterns, for efficient wireless non-radiative mid-range energy transfer. The
proposed method is based on the well known principle of resonant coupling
(the fact that two same-frequency resonant objects tend to couple, while
interacting weakly with other off-resonant environmental objects) and, in
particular, resonant evanescent coupling (where the
coupling mechanism is mediated through the overlap of the non- radiative
near fields of the two objects). This well known physics leads trivially to the
result that energy can be efficiently coupled between objects in the
extremely near field (e.g. in optical waveguide or cavity couplers and in
resonant inductive electric transformers). Detailed theoretical analysis
shows that even an efficient mid-range wireless energy exchange can
actually be achieved, while suffering only modest transfer and dissipation
of energy into other off-resonant objects, provided the exchange system is
carefully designed to operate in a regime of strong coupling compared to
all intrinsic loss rates. The physics of strong coupling is also known but in
very different areas, such as those of light-matter interactions. In this
favorable operating regime, the following question can be addressed
quantitatively: up to which distances can such a scheme be efficient and
how sensitive is it to external perturbations? The omni-directional but
stationary nature of the near field makes this mechanism suitable for
mobile wireless receivers. It could therefore have a variety of possible
applications including for example, placing a source (connected to the
wired electricity network) on the ceiling of a factory room, while devices
(robots, vehicles, computers, or similar) are roaming freely within the
room. Other possible applications include electric engine buses, RFIDs, and
perhaps even nano-robots.
1.1 Block Diagram

1.2 Block Descriptions

The different blocks shown in the block diagram were
implemented separately and then integrated together. Below
are descriptions of each block and specifications for each.

1.4.1 DC Source

The DC source takes in the input from the wall voltage which is
a 60 Hz sinusoid. Using diodes, the voltage is rectified and
passed through a PI filter. The original design specified a 1 %
voltage ripple, but this ripple requirement was excessive and
difficult to meet at such a low frequency. The final design chosen
had a voltage ripple of less than 5 % and was more than
suitable.

1.4.2 Full Bridge Inverter

The full bridge inverter is a circuit that uses four switches, a DC

source, and a load. The four switches are setup in an H-bridge
with the middle being the load. In this case the load is the top
coil. Two of the switches are connected from the high side DC
source to opposite sides of the coil. The remaining two switches
are connected from the low side of the DC source to opposite
sides of the coil. High side switches have opposite duty cycles
and the low side switches are connected such that the DC
source is applied across the load. The result is a square wave
being applied across the coil. The switches are MOSFETs that
have the capability to carry the max current and can block the
full DC voltage.
1.4.3 Gate Drivers

Gate drivers are used to turn on and off the switches. The gate
drivers take in a timing signal and output a voltage high enough
and with enough current to drive MOSFETs on and off at the
same frequency of the timing signal.

1.4.6 Current Sensing

The current sensing circuit is used to tell the PIC how much
current is being pulled from the DC source. It uses a precision .
15 resistor on the output of the DC source and that voltage is
feed into an op-amp circuit that produces a voltage proportional
to the current. This voltage is designed to be within the range of
inputs for the PIC.

1.4.7 Coils and Air Gap

The coils are each made out of 100 turns of 20 AWG magnet
wire. They are separated by about 2 m and have a diameter of
about 1 m. The power transfer between them is done through
resonant magnetic coupling.

1.4.8 Transformer

A transformer is used to scale down the voltage to around 18 V.

This is done before the signal is converted to DC because high
frequency transformers are small and relatively efficient.
1.4.9 Rectifier and Filter

A similar circuit is used to convert the AC signal from the

transformer to a DC signal. Different diodes are used due to the
high frequency nature of the signal. Smaller capacitors are used
in the filter because the frequency is much higher than the 60
Hz signal filtered the top filter. The capacitors are also ceramic
because electrolytic capacitors have a much lower self resonant
frequency, after which they begin to behave like inductors.

1.4.10 Buck Converter

A buck converter is used to convert the 18 V for the computer

down to 5 V for charging the cell phone. It was ordered to save
us the trouble of making our own and its ability to keep the
voltage regulated with a large input voltage range.

POWER SUPPLY
BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes arranged in the form

of a bridge as shown in figure.

OPERATION

During the positive half cycle of the input supply, the upper end A
of the transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to its
lower point B. This makes Point1 of bridge Positive with respect to
point 2. The diode D1 & D2 become forward biased & D3 & D4
become reverse biased. As a result a current starts flowing from
point1, through D1 the load & D2 to the negative end. During
negative half cycle, the point2 becomes positive with respect to
point1. Diodes D1 & D2 now become reverse biased. Thus a
current flow from point 2 to point1.

TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a major class of coils having two or more windings

usually wrapped around a common core made from laminated iron
sheets. It has two cols named primary and secondary. If the
current flowing through primary is fluctuating, then a current will
be inducted into the secondary winding. A steady current will not
be transferred from one coil to other coil.
Transformers are of two types:

1.Step up transformer

2.Step down transformer

In the power supply we use step down transformer. We apply 220V

AC on the primary of step down transformer. This transformer step
down this voltages to 6V AC. We Give 6V AC to rectifier circuit,
which convert it to 5V DC.

DIODE

The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used

to control the flow of the current in any one direction. The diode
widely works in forward bias.

Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is

in forward bias. The Zener diode is used in reverse bias function
i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of the diode`s
terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The
silver/black line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other
terminal is the positive terminal (cathode).

APPLICATION
Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc

RESISTORS

The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing

force similar in many respects to mechanical friction .this opposing
force is called resistance of the material .in some electric circuit
resistance is deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor
used fall in three categories , only two of which are color coded
which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the third category is
the wire wound type ,where value are generally printed on the
vitreous paint finish of the component. Resistors are in ohms and
are represented in Greek letter omega, looks as an upturned
horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them
work properly and it is obliviously important to find out something
about the different types of resistors available. Resistance is
measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega ohm. 1 ohm is
quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in kohm
and Mohm.

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1

ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

FUNCTION

Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor

is placed in series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the
current passing through the LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS
FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film

.These two types are explained under

1. CARBON FILM RESISTORS

During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small

ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in an automatic
machine until the resistance between there two ends of the rods is
as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps
are added, the resistors is covered with an insulating coating and
finally painted with colored bands to indicate the resistor value

Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms also

known as 22K at 5% tolerance: Band 1 = Red, 1st digit Band 2 =
Red, 2nd digit Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in
this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way,
but can be made more accurately to within 2% or 1% of their
nominal vale there are some difference in performance between
these resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple
circuit.

WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and

because of this, they can be manufactured to precise values. Also,
high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire material.
Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits.
Coils are used in high frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a
ceramic case, strengthened with special cement. They have very
high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These
resistors can become extremely hot when used for high power
application, and this must be taken into account when designing
the circuit.

TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a

defective resistor the ohm-meter shows infinite high reading.

CAPACITORS

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in

completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store
electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work , then you
know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical
reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons
at the other terminal.

BASIC

Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor,

the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a
dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else
that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from
touching each other. You can easily make a capacitor from two
pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a
particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it
will work.

In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

 Figure No. 1.17: Symbol of Capacitor

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, heres what happens:

The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal

of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.

The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal

of the battery loses electrons to the battery.
TESTING

To test the capacitors, either analog meters or specia

l digital meters with the specified function are used. The non-
electrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the digital meter.

Multi meter Continuity Positive probe : One end Negative

mode : probe :
Second end
Display : `0`(beep sound occur) `OL` Result : Faulty OK

LED

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light
emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when
it is energized. In any forward biased P-N junction there is, with in
the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination
of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy
possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another
state. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical
source is called electroluminescence.
LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being
carried out are displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when
the current is being flown through it in forward bias condition. The
LEDs are available in the round shell and also in the flat shells. The
positive leg is longer than negative leg.

3.1 DC Source

The DC source comprises of a rectifier circuit using 1N1188 diodes

and a PI filter.
 Figure 1: Wall Voltage to DC Rectifier and Filter (DC Source)

The 1N1188 diodes were chosen because they can carry more
than 1 A and can block up to 400 VDC. They were also readily
available in the parts shop. The voltage ripple from this circuit is
hard to calculate on paper due to the fact that it is a third order
filter. The inductor was chosen at a standard part value and
verified in PSPICE that it can regulate the current properly.

A PSPICE simulation was run with Dbreak diodes in place of the

1N1188, because there is no PSPICE model available for the
1N1188. The diodes should not noticeably affect the output
voltage.

The output signal is connected by switches operating at the speed

that the full-bridge inverter is expected to operate at. The
purpose of the switches is not to test the full-bridge inverter
circuit, but make sure that the output voltage is properly
regulated.

This circuit diagram in Figure 2 is what was used to simulate. The

switches were used to make the circuit more like the real circuit
that would be running in the demo.

As Figure 3 shows, after about 40 ms the voltage is very steady. It

has a ripple of less than 1 V. When the circuit in Figure 1 was built,
the regulation was not as steady as shown in the simulation of
Figure 3 so the capacitance values were changed to 1000 F.
 Figure 2: Simulation Circuit for Rectifier and Filter

Figure 3: Simulation Results

3.2 Full-Bridge Inverter/Gate Drivers

This inverter takes in the voltage from the DC source and through
using the PIC and gate drivers, outputs signal in the form of a
square wave with a frequency that is controlled by the PIC and is
adjusted based on induced current in the coil. The gate drivers
are ICs that take in the signal from the VCO and output the right
amount of voltage to turn on and off the power MOSFETs in the
full-bridge inverter.

3.5 Coils

An inductor made with about 100 turns and a diameter of around

1 m. It will also have a current limiting resistor in series to make
sure nothing burns up. An inductor like the top coil that will
receive the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the top coil and
have a current and voltage induced to power the devices. The
inductance of either coil was around 27 mH. This was lower than
calculated but still relatively high. Preliminary tests were done on
the coils to find their resonant frequency. Multiple frequencies
were found, including 3.4 MHz, 6 MHz, and one around 9 MHz.
The most resonant of these being the 6 MHz signal, but the 3.4
MHz was chosen for the target frequency, due to the fact that it is
easier to find parts for and will work nearly as well.

These frequencies were far from the expected frequency. This

could be due to a multitude of factors including skin effect of the
20 AWG wire, imperfections in the windings, incorrect
permeability numbers, incorrect estimates of capacitance, and
fringing among others. The high frequency made the designs a
bit more restricted.

3.6 Transformer
The transformer was not made because we were never able to get
a voltage on the bottom coil so it was hard to figure out a turn
ratio and what the saturation current would be.

3.7 Half Wave Rectifier

A diode that will take the signal induced in the bottom coil and cut
off the negative side of the AC, helping to create a DC signal.

Filter: A series 1mH inductor and a capacitor to ground that will

filter the signal output by the rectifier making it a smoother
signal.

Figure 11: Circuit Diagram for Transformer, Rectifier, and

Filter

3.8 DC/DC Buck Converter

A Buck-Converter will step the 18 V for the laptops down to 5 V

for a phone. Initial tests found that the regulation by this buck
converter is outstanding, changing 1 mV or less through the
recommended input voltage range.

The coupling of the two systems used in transmission, can be done in any
manner, until the resonant modes of the oscillation in both the systems
match. However, if the coupling occurs with every object, no efficient
transfer would occur. Thus, reactive magnetic fields are being used in the
scheme considered. The field surrounding a transmitting system can be
categorized as follows:

The far field

The far-field region is the region in space around the oscillator, where the
angular field distribution is essentially independent of distance from the
source. In the far field, the shape of the angular energy distribution is
independent of distance from the transmitting oscillator. If the source has a
maximum overall dimension D that is large compared to the wavelength ,
the far-field region is commonly taken to exist at distances from the source,
greater than Fresnel parameter S = D2/(4), S > 1.

The near field

The near-field, which is inside about one wavelength distance from the
transmitter, is a region in which there are strong inductive and capacitive
effects from the currents and charges in the transmitter, which do not
behave like far-field radiation. These effects decrease in power far more
quickly with distance, than does the far-field radiation power. Also,
absorption of radiated power in this region does have effects which feedback
to the transmitter, increasing the load on the transmitter that feeds the
transmitter by decreasing the system impedance that the transmitter sees.
Thus, the transmitter can sense that power has been absorbed from the
near-field zone, and if this power is not absorbed, the transmitter does not
draw as much power. The transition zone between these regions is the
distance from one to two wavelengths from the source, in which both near
and far field effects are important, and in which near field behavior dies out
and ceases to become important, leaving far-field effects as the dominant
interaction. The near field is further divided into two sub parts, as below:
 3.2.1. The radiative near field

This field is seen where the effects of the feedback cannot be clearly seen
due to significant lag in phase between the feedback and generated fluxes.
This field does not contribute to any extra power input from the source as its
effect is not detected at the transmitter at all.

3.2.2. The reactive near field

In a close range to the source, (the terminology just implies that the range is
small compared to the far field transmission distances used in radio
communications) the relationship between the strengths of the E and H fields
is often too complex to predict. Both field component (E or H) may dominate
at one point, and the opposite relationship dominate at a point only a short
distance away. This makes finding the true power density in this region
problematic. This is because to calculate power, not only E and H both have
to be measured, but the phase relationship between E and H must also be
known. In this reactive region, not only is an electromagnetic wave being
radiated outward into far-space, but there is a "reactive" component to the
electromagnetic field, meaning that the nature of the field around the
transmitter is sensitive to, and reacts to, EM absorption in this region (this is
not true of absorption far from the transmitter, which has no effect on the
transmitter or the near-field). Very close to the transmitter, in the reactive
region, energy of certain amount, if not absorbed by a receiver is held back
and is stored very near the transmitter surface. This energy is carried back
and forth from the transmitter to the reactive near-field by electromagnetic
radiation of the type that slowly changes electrostatic and magneto-static
effects. For example, current flowing in the transmitter creates a purely
magnetic component in the near-field, which then collapses as the
transmitter current begins to reverse, causing transfer of the field's magnetic
energy back to electrons in the transmitter as the changing magnetic field
causes a self-inductive effect on the transmitter that generated it. This
returns energy to the transmitter in a regenerative way, so that it is not lost.
A similar process happens as electric charge builds up in one section of the
transmitter under the pressure of the signal voltage, and causes a local
electric field around that section of transmitter, due to the transmitter's self-
capacitance. When the signal reverses so that charge is allowed to flow away
from this region again, the built-up electric field assists in pushing electrons
back in the new direction of their flow, as with the discharge of any uni-polar
capacitor. This again transfers energy back to the transmitter current.

Because of this energy storage and return effect, if either of the inductive or
electrostatic effects in the reactive near-field does transfer energy to
electrons in a different (nearby) conductor, this energy is lost to the primary
source, and thus an extra drain is seen on the

transmitter circuit, resulting from the reactive near-field energy which is not
returned. This constitutes the coupling that is required in the Coupled Mode
Theory (CMT) equations.

3.3. Summary
Solving Maxwell's equations for the electric and magnetic fields for a
localized oscillating source, such as an antenna, surrounded by a
homogeneous material (typically vacuum or air), yields fields that, far away,
decay in proportion to 1/r where r is the distance from the source. These are
the radiating fields, and the region where r is large enough for these fields to
dominate is the far field. More generally, the fields of a source in a
homogeneous isotropic medium can be written as a multi-pole expansion.
The terms in this expansion are spherical harmonics (which give the angular
dependence) multiplied by spherical Bessel functions (which give the radial
dependence). For large r, the spherical Bessel functions decay as 1/r, giving
the radiated field above. As one gets closer and closer to the source (smaller
r), approaching the near field, other powers of r become significant. The next
term that becomes significant is proportional to 1/r 2 and is sometimes called
the induction term. It can be thought of as the primarily magnetic energy
stored in the field, and returned to the transmitter in every half-cycle,
through self-induction. For even smaller r, terms proportional to 1/r 3 become
significant; this is sometimes called the electrostatic field term and can be
thought of as stemming from the electrical charge in the transmitter
element.

Very close to the source, the multipole expansion is less useful (too many
terms are required for an accurate description of the fields). Rather, in the
near field, it is sometimes useful to express the contributions as a sum of
radiating fields combined with evanescent fields, where the latter are
exponentially decaying with r.

3.4. Alternate explanation for the method of

coupling
The fields around a transmitter can be thought of as due to two main
reasons. They are given below.

The transmitter itself, when visualized as a waveguide, gives rise to several

modes of oscillations within it. Some modes, due to indices of the material of
the transmitter and the surrounding medium, portray themselves as leaky,
and thus the radiative fields originate in the space around the transmitter.
Also due to TIR at the surface of the so called waveguide, the incident wave
is totally manifested as the reflected wave inside the material. This gives rise
to a non travelling wave solution in free space, which decays in the direction
perpendicular to wavefronts of the solution, which are called evanescent
waves.

Mathematically,

3.1

represents the real power of the wave. As all the power of the incident wave
is seen at the reflected wave, assuming lossless reflection, the wave at the
transmitter surface has either

3.2

or

As, the medium outside need not be lossless, the first case is impossible. So,
by second case, the wave ceases to be a travelling wave. However, the
conclusion from the fact that the absorbed energy is zero is from the fact
that, if there was a coupling through these evanescent waves, and power
was consumed by them, the source would just feed in the extra power to
maintain the power in the transmitter waveguide unchanged. So, a coupling
with these waves can produce an energy transfer as needed.

Also, as these waves do not die out with time, they can be stable and thus
maintain the energy transfer method with any attenuation with time. These
waves, for a coil as the transmitter, are predominantly magnetic and thus do
not harm people and life. So, they can be used without any difficulties.
Moreover, normal substances, which may block the line of sight between
transmitter and receiver, are diamagnetic and thus do not change the field,
thus producing no effect on the power transferred.
The plots using the simulation are shown below:

Frequency Characteristics

Fig. 1

Distance Characteristics

5. Design and description of the

experimental setup
With respect to the specifications of power and distance of the power
transfer, the system is designed as shown below. The equations used, which
are also shown side by side, are all derived from the basic equations of 3.

Specifications:

Supply voltage = 10 V amplitude.

Maximum power transfer distance = 20 cm

Maximum power that may be transferred 10 W

Maximum current through the input or output side = 2 A

The schematic of the experimental setup is shown in the figure below

Fig 3

A is a thin copper coil of radius 4.64 cm that is part of the driving circuit,
which outputs a sine wave with frequency 100-1000 kHz. S and D are
respectively the source and device coils referred to in the text. B is a loop of
wire attached to the load (light bulb). The first coupling from the source is
inductive, as the distance is very small and the frequencies do not match
very well. The same can be said on the load end as well, where the load and
the receiver coil do not have matching resonant frequencies. The middle
coupling is made strongly resonant by careful construction of the two coils,
which are completely similar. However, a weak direct coupling also occurs
from the source to load coil due to similarity in their construction.

5.1. Design of the coils

As the evanescent field propagation is upto 1 to 1.5 times the device size, for
20 cm, let the diameter of the coils be 10 cm.

So, R = 5 cm

Resonant frequency of the coil is dependent on both the inductance and the
capacitance, which would yield the resonant frequency near a midrange of
the supply capacity i.e. 500 kHz, if we choose a cross-sectional diameter of
1.626 mm (from the standard wire gauge to support maximum 2A with
copper having tolerance 4A /mm2), we would have to take on

C = 0.98463 nF

So, for a given resonant frequency as 500 kHz,

L = 0.10504 mH

Then the value of N is

N 14 turns

The experimental values of inductance agree with the theoretical prediction.

So the resonant frequency would come in the required range. Now, for the
source and load coils, if we design both with the same dimensions for the
ease of construction,

as the maximum driving current of the supply is 100 mA, the no load current
should be 1 percent of this, making the inductance of the coil as

L = 0.31 mH, designing at 50 kHz

Then for a small diameter, which yields higher inductance, the value of N can
be calculated as

N > 32

A large value of N is chosen to make to safe for low frequencies as well.

Thus, N 50

5.2 Design of the supply

The supply provided was capable of handling 100 mA at a high frequency,
and should give a true sine wave at this frequency. The primary idea would
be to construct a power oscillator. But, as this involves a lot of high
frequency components (as is the case with any power amplifier for the high
frequency), we use a power Opamp, OPA 548.
The basic non-inverting amplifier circuit using the OPA 548 is shown below

Without the capacitances, the opamp can still function properly without, any
damage and fluctuation in the output. So, the above circuit is used without
the capacitors shown. The supply signal to the power opamp is given by a
function generator with peak amplitude as 15 V. The regulated dc supply is
used for biasing the opamp. Gain is set at 10 by putting R 1 = 1 k and R2 =
10 k. Supply in put is adjusted for a faithful output without clipping at
saturation levels.

5.3 Design of the load

Though a more suitable load could be chosen, a simple resistance in series
with small LEDs could serve the same purpose without any hindrances. The
values of W calculated for optimum efficiency is 5-10.

So, for the above inductance of the load coil, the resistance is 10-30 k.

Waveforms for measurement of efficiency are all observed through a cathode

ray oscilloscope.
 6. Experimental observations and
results:
6.1. Frequency characteristics
The setup is supplied with various frequencies at a fixed distance, and the frequency
response of the scheme is checked. As expected theoretically, the resonance can be
observed. The readings are shown below

Supply voltage = 7.625 V Supply resistance = 100

Distance = 10
Load resistance =10 k cm
Time lag between the current and voltage = 434
ns Time period of the input voltage = 1.738 s
So, pf = 1.807
10-3

Frequency Input Load Input Load Efficiency

Voltage(mV power( power(W
(kHz) ) Voltage(mV) W) ) (%)
500 303 186 41.7 3.459 8.29
520 316 237.25 43.55 5.628 12.92
540 327 269.75 45.07 7.276 16.14
560 334 266.25 46.03 7.088 15.39
580 347 241 47.82 5.8081 12.14
600 358 208.25 49.34 4.336 8.788
620 366 183 50.44 3.349 6.639
640 380 161.75 52.37 2.616 5.00
660 389 144.5 53.61 2.088 3.89
680 400 132.75 55.13 1.762 3.196
700 411 123.75 56.64 1.531 2.703
Table
1
 Wireless energy transfer

6.2. Distance characteristics

Frequency = 552 kHz
Supply voltage = 7.19 V
Supply resistance = 100
Time lag between the current and voltage waveforms of the input = 434 ns
Time period of the supply voltage = 1.811 s

Power factor angle = 89.8

Distance Supply Load Supply Load Efficiency

power(
(cm) Voltage(mV) Voltage(mV) W) power(W) (%)
3 331 586 83.07 34.34 41.34
4 325 535 81.57 28.62 35.09
5 327 439 82.07 19.27 23.48
6 329 379 82.57 14.36 17.39
7 327 337 83.07 11.36 13.68
8 327 308 83.07 9.49 11.42
9 325 286 81.57 8.18 10.03
12 327 275 82.07 7.56 9.21
15 333 273 83.58 7.45 8.91
Table
2

Fig. 6
6.3 Observational remarks
Characteristics of the scheme shows that the efficiency is maximum at
a specific frequency, proving that this is not the ordinary inductive
coupling, through which the energy transfer is taking place.

The efficiency of the scheme decreases as the cube of the distance

due to the variation of the mutual inductance of the two coils in
consideration.

The difference in theoretical and experimental observations is

apparent, and can be explained in the following ways

o Tuning is intrinsic and the exact matching of resonant

frequencies has not been achieved. This is due to the fact that
tuning would require variable inductances or capacitances to fine
tune the resonance of the two coils.

o The system realized, though easy in analyzing, consists of two

inductive coupled systems (one at the source and the
transmitting coil, the other at the load and receiving coil). This
causes considerable leakage and leads to low power factors. The
input power measurement, which has been primarily done
through measurement of voltages, currents and time lag
between them, gets adversely affected by the low pf, as even a
small error in the measurement of the time lag, causes a
considerable change in the pf, and thus the input power. (Output
power is measured just by the square of the output voltage).

The low power involved in the experiment is mainly due to lack of an

appropriate power supply. This could be solved by use of high
frequency power oscillators.
7. Conclusions
Mid range energy transfer is observed to be possible by evanescent
magnetic field coupling, and the efficiency is significant enough for low
power (upto a few watts) applications.
The range of transfer, as determined by the characteristic size of the
devices, could be maintained unchanged even when decreasing the
size of the receiver, by making the product of the sizes of both devices
constant. Hence, although the two coils are currently of identical
dimensions, it is possible to make the device coil small enough to fit
into portable devices without decreasing the efficiency.
Though in our considered apparatus, tuning has been inherent and
required no external tuning, we can still conclude that the matching of
the resonant modes of both the coils plays the most important role in
the energy transfer. A slight detuning would cause the system to
deliver near zero power.
External objects have a noticeable effect only when they are within a
few centimeters from either one of the coils. Some materials (such as
aluminum foil, Styrofoam, and humans) mostly just shift the resonant
frequency, which can in principle be easily corrected with a feedback
circuit; other materials (cardboard, wood, and polyvinyl chloride) lower
Q when placed closer than a few centimeters from the coil, thereby
lowering the efficiency of the transfer.
Using appropriate drive circuitry for the supply side could facilitate the
derivation of the high frequency supply needed for the transfer, and a
high frequency rectifier on the load end, would enable the scheme to
power dc loads and devices. Such a scheme is shown below.

Fig. 7
References
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