Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088

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Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Active power lters for harmonic cancellation in conventional and advanced

aircraft electric power systems
A. Eid a , M. Abdel-Salam b, , H. El-Kishky c , T. El-Mohandes a
a
South Valley University, Egypt
b
Electrical Engineering Department, Assiut University, Al-Gamaa street, Assiut 71518, Egypt
c
University of Texas at Tyler, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Conventional and advanced civil aircraft electric power systems are simulated and controlled to be within
Received 20 September 2007 standards regarding the voltage magnitude and frequency everywhere in the system at different loading
Received in revised form 7 February 2008 scenarios. Harmonics in conventional and advanced aircraft power systems are calculated and reduced
Accepted 21 May 2008
using a well-designed active power lter. The control circuit of the lter is based on the perfect harmonic
Available online 7 July 2008
cancellation method. The designed lter results in bringing the harmonics in both aircraft systems down
to be within the standard limits of IEEE-519 and MIL-STD-704E.
Keywords: 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Conventional and advanced aircrafts
Active power lter
THD

1. Introduction
High-current harmonics can cause severe voltage distortion,
unbalance in the aircraft electric power system and can lead to
interference with the aircraft communication system as well as
sensitive control and navigation equipment. Compensation of the
higher current harmonics generated in the aircraft electric power
system, by different nonlinear loads and power electronic convert-
ers, is of great interest. Aircraft electrical power system (EPS) often
consists of two or more engine-driven-generators to supply the AC
loads throughout the aircraft. All aircraft systems needs AC and DC
power altogether. The DC power comes from rectication of the AC
power using transformer rectier units (TRUs). These units are nor-
mally 12-pulse conguration [1]. Due to cyclic operation of these
units, they are considered as harmonic sources in the aircraft EPS.
These units can increase the voltage distortion and the harmonic
contents into the AC side of the aircraft EPS.
1.1. Conventional aircraft EPS
A simplied conventional aircraft electric system was consid-
ered in [2] consisting of one motor (representing the engine)
driven generator for generating a three-phase source with constant
frequency and constant voltage and radial systems consisting of
three-phase distribution lines and AC and DC loads (Fig. 1). The
equivalent electrical loads were represented by three-phase loads
(A, B and C) and single-phase load (D) as lumped resistive and
inductive components (Fig. 1). The DC loads (E and F) were repre-
sented by resistive load. The DC voltage was obtained by connecting
two TRUs in series to obtain 12-pulse rectications to minimize the
harmonic contents in the output DC voltage as well as in the input
AC current [3].
The frequency was regulated by regulating the DC motor speed
by using proportional-integral (PI) controller. Sensing the motor
shaft speed and comparing it to the reference speed results in a
speed error which is processed to control the full-bridge chopper
which affects the input DC voltage of the DC motor. The magnitude
of the phase voltage of the generator, was controlled by compar-
ing it to the reference voltage (115 VAC) using another PI controller
which controls the eld current of the synchronous generator. The
generator output voltage magnitude and frequency complied with
the standards of MIL-STD-704F [4] and IEEE Std. 519 [5], which spec-
ify the voltage and frequency allowable limits during transient and
steady-state conditions. Meeting the standard limits for 28 VDC,
115 VAC voltages and frequency were explored in detail in [2]. This
simplied system does not include the external power (used for
charging batteries at airport) and battery charge/discharge system.
1.2. Advanced aircraft EPS

Corresponding author. Tel.: +20 88 2334688; fax: +20 88 2332553. The EPS consists of two independent channels, according to
E-mail address: mazen2000as@yahoo.com (M. Abdel-Salam). the number of starter/generators in the aircraft. An auxiliary/

0378-7796/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2008.05.005
 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088
Fig. 1. Simulated structure for conventional aircraft electric power system.
emergency power unit contains an additional auxiliary starter/
generator. Either three-phase synchronous machines or switched-
reluctance machines may be used as starter/generators in a
more-electric aircraft [68]. The power control units are used to
transform the wild frequency AC power produced by the syn-
chronous generators into 270 V DC power. The following reasons
motivated the choice of the 270 V DC distribution bus [9]: It is a
good voltage source for inverters that power motor loads of the air-
craft, it is easy to provide uninterruptible power on the bus by using
a battery back-up and regenerative power from electrical actuators
that can be easily returned to the bus.
The advanced aircraft EPS is more sophisticated than the con-
ventional one. To simulate the advanced aircraft electrical system,
the battery and the external power system are neglected as the case
for the conventional system. The advanced aircraft system used for
simulation is shown in Fig. 2. The motor-generator set is the same
as the conventional case to provide the 115 VAC at 400 Hz generator
bus under the same AC and DC loads. In advanced aircraft EPS, the
270 VDC voltage is usually obtained by using 12-pulse converter to
reduce the characteristic harmonics, the same as in conventional
EPS. In this case, two 6-pulse thyristor bridges are connected in
series to obtain the 12-pulse rectication, similar to the conven-
tional aircraft EPS. A PI controller is used to drive the 12-pulse
converter to regulate the DC voltage at 270 V.
The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is 3.7 V and the ripple factor is
0.28% at the 270 VDC bus, which are lower than the standard val-
ues of 6 V and 1.5% [4], respectively. The DC loads are connected
to the 270 VDC bus through DC/DC forward chopper to provide
the required 28 VDC feeding the DC loads. For supplying the same
AC loads as in conventional case, two 6-pulse PWM inverters are
connected in parallel to provide a smoothed 12-pulse voltage wave-
form. For this system, the aircraft standard limits for the 270 VDC
bus voltage, 115 VAC voltage, the AC system frequency and 28 VDC
ripple voltage are met. The 28 VDC bus has peak-to-peak ripple
amplitude of 0.79 V and a ripple factor of 0.46% compared to the
standards of 1.5 V and 3.5% [4], respectively. Meeting the standard
limits for 270, 28, and 115 VAC voltages and generator frequency
were explored in detail in Ref. [2].
The equivalent EPS for Boeing 767 aircraft either conventional or
advanced was estimated from that of the C130E aircraft [2,3]. The
loading kVA of the B767 aircraft is 2.25 times that of C130E aircraft.
Fig. 2. Simulated structure for advanced aircraft electric power system.
81
Table 1
Loading scenarios
Case No. AC loads DC loads
1 Load E
2 Loads E, F
3 Load A Load E
4 Loads A, B Load E
5 Load C Load F
6 Loads C, D Load F
7 All Loads E, F
The appropriate phase currents, phase resistance and inductance
were then calculated based on the kVA rating and the xed PF
for each phase. The different loads rating and parameters for the
simulated B767 aircraft were listed in Ref. [2].
1.3. Harmonics level mitigation in aircraft EPS
The compensation of harmonic and reactive currents becomes
increasingly important owing to the wide use of power electronic
equipments in aircraft EPS. Traditionally, passive LC tuned shunt
lters have been used [1015] to eliminate line current harmonics
due to nonlinear loads and to increase the power factor. How-
ever, in practical applications these passive lters showed many
drawbacks [16], such as aging and tuning problems, series and par-
allel resonances, bulk passive components and xed compensation
characteristics.
The active power lter (APF) is considered a feasible solution to
the problems created by nonlinear loads. The APF is used to elim-
inate the undesired harmonics and improve power factor (PF) by
injecting equal but opposite compensation currents. Therefore, an
APF looks like a controlled current source, connected in parallel
with the nonlinear load to generate the required compensation cur-
rents. Thus, the supply (mains) only needs to feed the fundamental
currents. The APF can also keep the power system balanced even
with unbalanced and nonlinear loads as the case in the aircraft
power system. In this case, the APF supplies harmonic, reactive,
fundamental negative sequence and zero sequence current com-
ponents.
1.4. Paper objectives
In this paper, the performance of the conventional and advanced
aircraft power systems are investigated under conditions of
constant-voltage, constant-frequency source and lumped DC and
AC loads. An efcient controlled APF is shunt connected to mitigate
harmonics, improving PF and removing imbalance in conventional
and advanced aircraft EPSs.
2. Simulation of conventional aircraft EPS
2.1. Harmonics levels
Using of a 12-pulse converter to obtain the DC voltage generates
dominant harmonics of the order 11th, 13th, 23rd and 25th. A load-
ing scenario (Table 1) is adopted from various combinations of the
AC and DC loads to study the harmonic contents in each case. The
total harmonic distortion of current and voltage, THDi and THDv
for some cases exceeded the standard harmonic levels which is 5%
[4,17]. Due to load unbalance, neutral generator current ows. This
is in addition to drawbacks resulting from loads of low power factor
for some cases in Table 1. An APF is designed to: (i) compensate the
reactive power components, (ii) make the PF near to unity and (iii)
balance the generator phases currents.
82 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088

Fig. 5. Principle of hysteresis band current controller.

Table 2
APF parameters
Fig. 3. Three-phase active power lter conguration. Generator line voltage 200 Vrms
Generator frequency 400 Hz
Filter inductance, Lf 0.11 mH
The APF in general consists of a power circuit, smoothing Filter inductor resistance 0.01 
Filter capacitance 50 F
inductors Lf , smoothing high-frequency lter capacitors, Chf , a DC Filter DC capacitor, Cdc 1.5 mF
capacitor, Cdc (Fig. 3) and a control circuit (Fig. 4). The power cir- DC reference voltage, Vdcr 400 V
cuit for a three phase six-pulse inverter is shown in Fig. 3. The DC
capacitor located in the DC bus of the voltage-source inverter serves
as an energy storage element. For a lossless APF at steady state,
the real power supplied from the generator side equals to the real
power of the load. The lter capacitance is used to mitigate the
high-frequency ripple components and thus reducing the switch-
ing stress on the APF switches. More details on the EPS models can
be found in Appendices AC and Ref. [2].

2.2. Control method

Although the instantaneous reactive power theory (pq the-

ory) is widely used in APF control circuitry to calculate the desired
compensation current [1822], the pq theory is very sensitive
to distortion and imbalance that may occur in the voltage at
Fig. 6. APF effects on THDi at PCC.

the point of common coupling (PCC) [23]. The unity power fac-
tor control method [24,25] does not work well in presence of
zero sequence voltage components [23]. The id iq control method
[26,27] is also very sensitive to distortion and imbalance as the
pq control strategy. In order to seek compliance with harmonics
standards, imbalance elimination and reactive power compensa-
tion, the perfect harmonic cancellation (PHC) [23,24] is the only
control strategy which is capable of correct action under any con-
ditions. This is achieved through two-stage procedure. In the rst

Fig. 4. APF control circuit conguration using PHC method. Fig. 7. APF effects on THDv at PCC.
 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088 83

Fig. 8. Case No. 2: load current (iLa ), source voltage (Vsa ), source current (isa ) and lter current (ifa ) for phase a.

stage, the reference lter currents (ifar , ifbr and ifcr ) are obtained. In
the second stage, a PWM hysteresis band current control is used
to generate the required gat signals (s1 s6 ) for the switches of the
inverter.
2.2.1. The rst control stage
The PHC control method is adopted here to generate the required
compensation currents for the shunt active power lter. The gen-
erator current will therefore be in phase with the fundamental
positive sequence voltage component at PCC [24]. The complete
control circuit is shown in Fig. 4 and the detailed equations are
listed in Appendix A. The capacitor voltage, Vdc , is kept constant
through controlling the switching power loss in the inverter circuit
using PI controller which regulates the DC capacitor voltage. The
total active power fed by the source (generator) is the sum of the
inverter switching loss, psw , and the active power needed by the
load, pL .
To extract the average (mean) power, a low pass lter (LPF) is
needed. The positive sequence of the voltage at PCC is obtained
from a phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit. The average load power is
divided by the summation of the squared of the voltage positive
sequence components to get parameter K. Once, the parameter K is
obtained, the source reference currents are calculated by multiply-
ing it by the positive sequence components of the voltages, thus, the
reference source current is in phase with the voltage. Subtracting
the load current from the reference source current, the reference
APF (compensation) current, ifr , is obtained, which is input to the
hysteresis PWM current controller.

Fig. 9. Case No. 4: load current (iLa ), source voltage (Vsa ), source current (isa ) and lter current (ifa ) for phase a.
84 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088

Fig. 10. Case No. 7: three phase load currents, source currents and lter currents.

Fig. 13. C-bank effect on THDi at AC load terminals.

Fig. 11. APF effect on THDi at generator terminals.

If ifa < (ifar hb) upper switch is off and lower switch is on for leg
a (switching function of phase a, SA = 1).
2.2.2. The second control stage
If ifa > (ifar + hb) upper switch is on and lower switch is off for leg
The hysteresis band PWM current control [28] is a method of
a (SA = 0).
controlling the inverter so that its output current follows the ref-
erence current waveform. This method controls the switches in an
The switching function SB and SC for phase b and phase c are
inverter asynchronously to ramp the actual current up and down
determined similarly, using the corresponding reference and actual
to follow the reference current when the actual current exceed the
currents and hysteresis band hb.
upper or lower hysteresis limit, the associated switching pattern of
the switch will force the current to get back to the hysteresis band
2.3. Mitigation of harmonic levels
limit. Therefore, the current ramp can be altered by the width of the
hysteresis band (hb) and the switching pattern of the APF devices
The APF with parameters listed in Table 2 is connected in shunt
is formulated as follows [29,30], see Fig. 5:
at PCC as shown in Fig. 3 and controlled using PHC method to
mitigate harmonics, remove imbalance and improve the PF of the

Fig. 12. APF effect on THDv at generator terminals. Fig. 14. C-bank effect on THDv at AC load terminals.
 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088 85

Fig. 15. Case No. 4: load current (iLa ), source voltage (Vsa ), source current (isa ), lter current (ifa ), AC load current (IaL ) and AC load voltage (VaL ) for phase a.

generator for the loading scenarios of Table 1. The THDi values for
all cases at PCC (see Fig. 3) are calculated and shown in Fig. 6. The
THDv values at the same conditions are shown in Fig. 7. It is clear
that the THD values for both current and voltage at PCC with APF
meet the IEEE standards for all loading cases. It is worth to mention
that the maximum THDi and THDv are 2.3% and 2.6% while they
are 3.51% and 3.72%, respectively, in case of using passive harmonic
lter [2].
With the APF, Fig. 8 shows the simulation of the loading case
No. 2 of Table 1, where the DC loads are only applied. From the
gure, the source voltage Vsa and source current isa for phase a are
sinusoidal, nearly in phase and with THD less than standard limits
[4,5,17]. The lter current (ifa ) is the harmonic component of the
load current (iLa ) which results from a 12-pulse rectication bridge.
With the APF, Fig. 9 shows the simulation of the loading case
No. 4, where DC and AC loads are included. Thus the load cur-
rent (iLa ) contains reactive and harmonic components which will
be inversely injected by the APF. Although the load current iLa is
a sinusoidally distorted waveform, the source voltage and current
are smooth sinusoidal waveforms.
Fig. 10 shows the effectiveness of the designed APF in harmonic
mitigation and improving the PF and removing the imbalance of
the generator currents for the loading case No. 7. The gure shows
the three-phase load currents (iLa , iLb and iLc ) and the three-phase
source currents (isa , isb and isc ) which are harmonic free, bal-
anced and in-phase with their respective voltages. The injected
(compensated) APF currents (ifa , ifb and ifc ) are also shown in
Fig. 10.

Fig. 16. Case No. 6: load current (iLa ), source voltage (Vsa ), source current (isa ), lter current (ifa ), AC load current (IaL ) and AC load voltage (VaL ) for phase a.
86 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088

Fig. 17. Case No. 7: three phase load currents, source currents and lter currents.

3. Simulation of advanced aircraft electric power system
3.1. Harmonic levels and mitigation
The presence of both AC/DC and DC/AC converters in the
advanced aircraft electrical power system as shown in Fig. 2
produces harmonics at AC load bus and at the generator ter-
minals as well. To reduce harmonics at the AC load terminal
bus, a capacitor bank (C-bank) is shunt with the load. This C-
bank (1.5 mF per phase) at AC load terminal works well for
the voltage and current harmonics at the AC load side. It is
found that harmonics at the generator terminals still exceeding
the standards [17] because of the DC/DC and AC/DC conver-
sions. An APF is shunt connected at the generator terminals as
shown in Fig. 2, with the same parameters listed in Table 2 to
mitigate harmonics and improve the PF at the generator termi-
nals.
The THDi values at different loading scenarios with and with-
out APF at the generator terminals are shown in Fig. 11 and the
corresponding THDv values are shown in Fig. 12. At AC load ter-
minals the THDi and THDv with and without C-bank are shown
in Figs. 13 and 14, respectively. From Figs. 11 and 12 with the APF
the THD for both current (THDi) and voltage (THDv) are within the
standard limits. From Fig. 13, the THDi is within the standard limits
with and without C-bank; however the C-bank reduces the THDi
values. For the voltage at the AC load, the THDv is reduced in case
of adding a C-bank to nearly a xed value (xed compensation)
(Fig. 14).

Fig. 18. Case No. 8: load current (iLa ), source voltage (Vsa ), source current (isa ), lter current (ifa ), AC load current (IaL ) and AC load voltage (VaL ) for phase a.
 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088 87

It is worthy to mention that the maximum THDi and THDv in The reference source current is given as
Figs. 1114 are 2.8% and 2.32% against 3.68% and 3.47%, respectively,    
isar u+
in case of using passive harmonic lter [2]. This ensures that the APF a1
isbr =K u+
is more efcient than the passive harmonic lter for conventional b1
iscr u+
and advanced aircraft EPS cases. c1
Figs. 1518 show the waveforms for loading cases Nos. 4, 6, 7 The reference current of the APF is given as
and 8. Case No. 8 is added in advanced aircraft EPS to represent the
case of applying the AC loads only. IaL and VaL represent the AC load ifr = iL isr
current and voltage for phase a. The gures show the effectiveness
of the designed APF in advanced aircraft EPS. It should be noted
Appendix B. DC motor and synchronous generator
that the PF at the generator terminals in near to unity.
mathematical models

4. Conclusions Dynamic equations of DC motor model [31]:

Due to nonlinear loads in aircraft, harmonic levels exceed the dia

vt = Ea + ia Ra + La
standard limits which is not suitable for many electronic and sen- dt
sitive circuits in aircraft, thus an efcient APF is aimed at bringing
the harmonics to safe values.
The perfect harmonic cancellation method is suitable to control dif
vf = if Rf + Lf
the APF in aircraft to mitigate the harmonics of the electric sys- dt
tem.
The APF with its control circuit mitigates the harmonics in con-
ventional and advanced aircraft electric power systems to much Ea = km
lower than the IEEE-519 and MIL-STD-704E standards.
Although in advanced aircraft electric power system there is a
DC link separating the AC generation and the AC loads, only one Tem = kia
APF is sufcient at the generator terminals with a small capacitor
bank at the AC load terminals.
In general, the THD values for both current and voltage in dm
J = Tem TL
advanced aircraft electric power system in presence of APF are dt
lower than those for conventional aircraft system.
Active power lters are more efcient and exible than passive where vt , vf , ia and if are the armature and eld winding voltage
harmonic lters in aircraft power systems. and current, respectively. Ea is the back emf, m is the mechanical
speed in rad/s, Tm is the internal developed torque, and TL is the
load torque. The back emf and the internal torque (in steady state)
Appendix A. Perfect harmonic cancellation (PHC) control can be expressed as
method
Ea = Laf if m
If the set of voltages at PCC are ua , ub and uc and the loading
currents are iLa , iLb and iLc , the instantaneous active power of the
load is given by [19,20]: Tem = Laf if ia

pL = ua iLa + ub iLb + uc iLc

where Laf is the mutual inductance between the armature and the
eld windings. It can be calculated based on the rated operating
This power has mean and oscillating values, i.e.
conditions as
pL = p L + p L
(Vt Ia Ra )
Laf =
If m
The reference source current is given by [23]:

isr = Ku+ Synchronous generator model [31]:

1
Stator equations:
di di di
where u+1
is the PCC voltage space vector with a single fundamental vd = Rs id q (Lls + Lmd ) d + Lmd fd + Lmd kd
positive sequence component. dt dt dt
diq di
The power delivered by the source will be: vq = Rs iq + d (Lls + Lmq ) + Lmq fd
dt dt
where
ps = uisr = Ku+2
1 d = (Lls + Lmd )id + Lmd (ifd + ikd )
q = (Lls + Lmq )iq + Lmq ikq
The constant K is determined from the condition that the gen-
Field equation:
erator power equals the dc component of the instantaneous active di di di
power demanded by the load as vfd = Rfd ifd Lmd d + (Llfd + Lmd ) fd + Lmd kd
dt dt dt
Damper winding equations:
p L di di di
K= 0 = Rkd ikd Lmd d + Lmd fd + (Llkd + Lmd ) kd +
u+2
a1
+ u+2
b1
+ u+2
c1 dt dt dt
diq dikq
0 = Rkq ikq Lmq + (Llkq + Lmq )
where p L is extracted from pL using a low-pass lter. dt dt
88 A. Eid et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 8088

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