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CHILD DEVELOPMENT:
FACTORS INFLUENCING CHILD
Genetic factors: Chromosome,
DEVELOPMENT
gene & hormones
Environmental factors: Before birth
Dr. Mary Wong Siew Lian
and after birth
Jabatan PIPK
IPG KBL Nature versus Nurture
Individual differences
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Twenty-two pairs are called autosomes Genetic code
while the 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes Chromosomes are made up of a chemical
substance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
One set of 23 chromosomes is inherited from
DNA is a long double-stranded molecule that
the biological mother (through the egg or
looks like a twisted ladder
ovum), and the other set is inherited from
the biological father (through the sperm) Each rung of the ladder consists of a pair of
chemical substances called bases - adenine,
The 23rd pair in the above diagram, XY, thymine, guanine, cytosine
reveals that the set of chromosomes here is
that of a male Although the bases always pair up in the same
way across the ladder rungs A and T, C and
In a female, this pair would be_______ ?
G they can occur in any order along its sides
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Gametes the sex cells (sperm & ovum) Gametes are formed through a cell division
New individuals are created when two special process called meiosis, which reduces the
cells called gametes combine during number of chromosomes normally present in
fertilization to produce a zygote, which has body cells into 23 chromosomes so that
46 chromosomes when the sperm and ovum meet and form
a zygote, it will have 46 chromosomes
How are gametes different from the other
body cells in terms of genetic content?
This preserves the number of chromosomes
Why does the zygote have 46 chromosomes normally found in the human species
only and not 92 chromosomes?
Fertilisation
Occurs when a male gamete (sperm)
fuses with the female gamete (egg) to
form a zygote
Also referred to as conception
www.juniorscience.ie
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Determination of sex
The ova that form in females all carry an X Chromosomal abnormalities (Autosomes)
chromosome each; the sperms that form in Down syndrome (mongolism)
males carry either an X or a Y chromosome (John Langdon-Down, 1828-1896)
The sex of the new individual is determined Most common chromosomal disorder,
by whether the sperm that meets the ovum occurring in 1 of 1000 live births
carries an X or a Y chromosome
There are three possible ways this can occur:
Multiple Offspring Failure of the 21st pair of chromosomes
Identical or monozygotic twins when the to separate during meiosis, so the new
zygote formed separates into two cells and individual inherits 3 of these chromosomes
each develops into an embryo rather than the normal 2 (trisomy 21)
Fraternal, non-identical or dizygotic twins An extra 21st chromosome is attached to
when more than one ovum is fertilized part of another chromosome (translocation)
An error occurs during the early stages of Characteristics: mental retardation, memory
mitosis, causing some but not all body cells and speech problems, limited vocabulary, and
to have the defective chromosomal makeup slow motor development; Infants are usually
(mosaic type) born with eye cataracts, hearing loss, and
heart and intestinal defects
These could occur because the ova of the
mother is weak (advanced age of the mother) Treatment: Infant and preschool intervention
or extra genetic material originating from the programs help the child to develop favorably
father although emotional, social, and motor skills
improve more than intellectual performance
Down syndrome individuals usually have
distinct physical features a short, stocky Other abnormalities of the autosomes are
build, a flattened face, a protruding tongue, usually so severe that miscarriage occurs /
and almond-shaped eyes baby rarely survives beyond early childhood
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EFFECT OF HORMONES
Physical development is controlled by
hormones produced by the pituitary gland
located near the base of the brain near the
hypothalamus, which controls secretion of
hormones by the pituitary gland
Trimester/ Trimester/
Period/ Weeks/
Major Events
Weeks/ Major Events Length/
Weight
Length/
Weight 2 The fetus continues to enlarge rapidly
1 The one-celled zygote multiplies and forms a blastocyst 13-24 wks In the middle of this period, fetal movements can be felt by the
Zygote The blastocyst burrows into the uterine lining 30 cm mother
1-2 wks Structures for feeding and protection - amnion, chorion, yolk 820 g Vernix (cheese-like substance) and lunago (downy hair) keep the
sac, placenta, and umbilical cord begin to form fetuss skin from chapping in the amniotic fluid
Most of the brains neurons are present by 24 weeks
Eyes are sensitive to light, and the fetus reacts to sound
1 A primitive brain and spinal cord appears; Heart, muscles, ribs,
Embryo backbone, and digestive tract begin to develop 3 The fetus has a chance of survival if born during this time.
3-8 wks Many external body structures (face, arms, legs, toes, fingers) 25-38 wks Size increases
0.6-2.5 cm and internal organs form. The sense of touch begin to develop, 50 cm Lungs mature
4g and the embryo can move 3400 g Rapid brain development causes sensory and behavioral
capacities to expand
In the middle of this period, a layer of fat is added under the skin
1 Rapid increase in size begins Antibodies are transmitted from mother to fetus to protect
Fetus Nervous system, organs, and muscles become organized and against disease
9-12 wks connected, and new behavioral capacities (kicking, thumb Most fetuses rotate into an upside-down position in preparation
7.6 cm sucking, mouth opening, and rehearsal of breathing) appear for birth
28 g External genitals are well-formed, and the fetuss sex is evident
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Illegal drugs such as cocaine, heroin and
Prenatal environmental influences
methadone can also affect/inhibit fetal
Teratogens refer to environmental agents
development and the health of the individual
that cause damage during the prenatal
years later motor, perceptual, attention,
period:
memory, and language development can be
affected
Some prescription and non-prescription
drugs bought over the counter can have
Tobacco contains nicotine, which constricts
adverse effects on the developing fetus
blood vessels, lessens blood flow to the
during pregnancy or later in the life of the
uterus and causes the placenta to grow
individual (aspirin, accutane, caffeine in
abnormally resulting in slow fetal
coffee, tea, cocoa, cola, and antidepressants)
development and low birth weight
Maternal factors:
Among infectious maternal diseases, rubella (German
Alcohol consumption by pregnant mothers
measles) causes wide-ranging abnormalities
can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, which
involves slow physical growth, facial Babies who acquire the human immune deficiency
virus (HIV) from their pregnant mother during the
abnormalities, and impairment in mental
fetal stage rapidly develop acquired immune
functioning deficiency syndrome (AIDS), leading to brain damage
and early death
Exposure to radiation, and environmental Prenatal malnutrition can lead to low birth weight,
pollutants such as mercury, can lead to central nervous system damage, and suppressed
physical and mental impairments immune system
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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: If negative factors are not severe, children
AFTER BIRTH
and adolescents who lag in body size show
Heredity catch-up growth when their environment
Physical growth depends on a complex improves
interplay between heredity and environment
Repeated exposure to a new food increases These two diseases are caused by
acceptance if it is done without pressure malnutrition that can impair body growth
and cause lasting damage to the brain, heart,
During puberty, food intake rises dramatically, liver, and other organs
but adolescents eating habits are the poorest
family mealtimes would increase healthy Emotional well-being
eating Obesity is a growing problem in both
industrialized and developing nations
Diseases
Many children in developing countries suffer Obese children are often socially isolated by
from marasmus (thin, sickly condition of the their normal-weight peers
body due to malnutrition) and kwashiorkor
(large belly, thin body, skin rashes, irritable, They display more emotional, social, and
due to lack of protein) school difficulties and behavior problems
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Environment Description
Microsystem Consists of activities and interactions in the childs
immediate surroundings - interactions with parents,
siblings, neighbors, teachers; all relationships are
bidirectional; when reciprocal interactions occur often over
time, they have an enduring impact on development
Mesosystem Includes connections between microsystems home,
school, neighborhood and child-care center a childs
academic progress depends not just on activities in the
classroom, it is promoted by parent involvement in school
life
Exosystem Consists of social settings that do not contain children but
nevertheless affect childs experiences welfare services,
parents workplace settings, religious institutions, friends
and extended families these determine the sort of social
support and environment the child grows up in
Environment Description
Macrosystem The outermost level of the model; consists of cultural Implications of Bronfenbrenners Theory
values, laws, customs and resources. The priority the
macrosystem gives to childrens needs affects the In the microsystem of school, the teacher
support they receive at inner levels of the environment. does not teach only; the teacher should also
Example: in countries where there are generous guide students and give them advice when
workplace benefits for employed parents and set high they are at school
standards for childcare, children are more likely to have Teachers should know the level of
favorable experiences in their immediate settings
development of their students
Chronosystem Refers to chronology or time. The environment is not They should select t-l activities that are
static but dynamic ever changing. Important life events suited to the interests, knowledge and
such as birth of a sibling, beginning of school, move to a experiences of their students
new neighborhood, parental divorce can affect These learning experiences will then be able
development; alternatively, the life events can arise from to contribute students development
within the child, since as children get older, they select,
modify, and create many of their own settings and
experiences
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Exosystem environment: the teacher should Concerning the macrosystem, the teacher
be aware that students experiences (at should realize that societal norms and
home, in the community) can affect their practices can influence child development
development and their behavior
The teacher should try to meet students If there is a child in class who is from a
needs e.g. those who come from poor different background, the teacher should
families who are not getting any help know what to do to make him/her accepted
from social welfare services by others
Teachers should understand that due to
their different backgrounds and upbringing, In some societies, parents are more
some students may need to be motivated to supportive of educating boys than girls
learn through different learning activities hence girls from such home may not be
getting much support from their parents
and much encouragement from the teacher
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Theorists agree that both nature and
Do children acquire language because they
nurture have some role in the development
are genetically predisposed to do so or
of a child but how much emphasis is placed
because parents intensively teach them
on each remains a controversy
from an early age?
What does research say about this? However, for parents of these children,
their investments in their children came
Studies have been carried out on identical after the children showed early high-level
twins - separated soon after birth and achievement (nature or nurture?)
brought up in different environments; they
Recent research suggests that gifted
do differ in terms of cognitive, social,
children who have extraordinary abilities in
physical abilities and emotional makeup mathematics, music, the visual arts, may
have unusual brain organization
Studies of prodigies and geniuses in many
fields document that deep and prolonged This shows that gifted children, child
practice is necessary to achieve at the prodigies are not made from scratch but are
born with unusual brains that enable rapid
highest levels (this is nature or nurture?)
learning in a particular domain
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What causes differences in intelligence Environmental influences include:
among children?
health of a childs mother during pregnancy
the amount of pollutants in the childs home
Psychologists believe that differences in
the quality of teaching a child receives
intelligence are the result of heredity and
environment, probably in about equal
Intelligence is a current state of affairs,
proportions for children
affected by past experiences and open to
future changes
Today, psychologists believe that genes do
not fix behavior; rather, they establish a
range of possible experiences that the
environment can provide
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