Some advantages and disadvantages Of Task-Based Learning

The impact of language theory and the type of teaching method is very
significant to the learner of language. It is from the method of teaching, and
everything that is associated with it, that the student is able to grasp concepts
of a language.

Research into learning theories and teaching models has been ongoing for
many years to establish some sort of data that helps towards second
language acquisition. Task-based learning (TBL), it is claimed, is one such
model that can aid a learner to establish second language acquisition.

Willis (1996), who is a supporter of TBL, argues that a number of conditions

need to be implemented for successful language learning to take place. This
paper will highlight and expand upon the issues connected to Willis'
conditions.

Firstly the essay will give a general overview of TBL; secondly will
highlight some advantages and disadvantages of TBL; thirdly define and
characterize the word task; fourthly examine Willis' four conditions; and
finally explain how TBL and Willis' conditions relate to my teaching
experience.

Task based learning (TBL)

Willis' three essential conditions and one desirable condition all stem from a
framework known as task based learning (TBL). TBL is also referred to as;
task based language learning (TBLL), task based instruction (TBI) and task
based language teaching (TBLT). All these terminologies carry the same
connotation that activities and tasks can help the language learner towards
communicating the target language effectively. TBL is not a new concept; it
has evolved from a model known as communicative language teaching
(CLT). The idea that grammar alone is not enough to equip the learner with
the necessary skills CLT was established to make the learner more proficient
in the language that is used in real life situations. Brown (1994: 83) says
"Task based learning is not a new method. Rather, it simply puts tasks at the
center of one's methodological focus. It views the learning process as a set of
communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals they
serve, and the purposes of which extend beyond the practice of language for
its own sake". Hedge (2000: 71) also says that CLT involves the learners in
tasks that are meaningful and have some kind of context that represents and
reflects true authentic language as it is applied and used in the real world
surroundings. This authentic language is different and outside of the
language that is commonly used in the classrooms. This view is also
supported by Brinton (1991) who expresses the opinion that, the use of
authentic materials establishes a connection with the outside world.

Some advantages of TBL

Although there are many apparent advantages, I will just highlight a few.

Students tend to be active and participate with great motivation towards

tasks and activities in a TBL environment. It offers a platform for students to
display their skills through their efforts and develops them further.

Language learners work and co-operate with each other in groups which
builds bonds between them. When working in groups they are able to
display and produce meaningful interaction on a given topic. Also the class
work together and assess the whole outcome of the lesson.

Rather than concentrating on one aspect of a certain language feature, in all

three stages of a TBL lesson students rely on previous language, knowledge
and experience. This process enables the students to explore previous and
new features of language.

Nunan (2004) states that TBL emphasises on learners to communicate

through interaction in the target language, introduces authentic texts into the
classroom, learners focus not only on language but the learning process itself
and TBL makes the learners' own personal experiences important
contributing factors to the classroom.

Some disadvantages of TBL

Again I will only mention a few disadvantages, although there are numerous
critics that disapprove components of the TBL teaching method and
framework. As with any model there will always arise negative elements
within it that do not hold strong with its opponents.

Seedhouse (1999) implies that it could be argued that TBL emphasises too
much on tasks and communicating meaning and this could have an impact
on how to use the language with the correct form. In addition to this it is
important to realise that there is a lot more to communication than
performing tasks.
Skehan (1996) expressed that TBL could have some dangers if it is not
executed correctly and could result in affecting the growth and change of the
language learners' interlanguage. So from this view we can see that some
sort of fossilization may occur within the students and cause barriers for the
learners to progress. TBL is still not convincing, that it is a superior teaching
method; it remains an opinion rather than reality and certainty Richards and
Rodgers (2001).

Swan (2005: 376) says " TBI is frequently promoted as an effective teaching
approach, superior to 'traditional' methods and soundly based in theory and
research. The approach is often justified by the claim that linguistic
regularities are acquired through 'noticing' during communicative activity,
and therefore be addressed primarily by incidental 'focus on form' during
task performance. However, this claim is based on unproved hypotheses, and
there is no compelling empirical evidence for the validity of the model".

In this particular section of the paper I have touched on some key words
such as 'interlanguage', 'fossilization' and 'noticing'. These key terms will be
expanded upon later and what impact they have, how they relate to learners
of language and how they are perceived when associated with TBL.

What is a task?
What is actually meant by the word "task" in TBL and how do we really
understand this key important word? In various materials the word "task"
has been described as role plays, grammar exercises and other activities.
However in relation to TBL the word "task" takes on a different meaning
and understanding from the mainstream definition. Willis (1996: 23) states
that tasks are "activities where the target language is used by the learner for
the communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome". Stern
(1992: 195) defines a task as "realistic language use.....focuses on a learners'
attention on a task, problem, activity, and topic and not on a particular
language point". Foster and Skehan (1996: 300) explain tasks as "activities
that are meaning-focused and outcome-evaluated and have some real world
relationship". Nunan (1989) clarifies that a task is "A piece of work which
involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting
in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning
rather than form". Evidently there are many varieties and opinions of what a
task actually is, but overall, what is apparent is the fact that a task is an
important component towards the establishment of learning a language
especially related to TBL.
Overall there are numerous theories regarding second language acquisition
(SLA) and TBL represents a framework that enables students to be busy
with aids and materials in order to achieve some kind of task or goal. TBL
helps, improves and nurtures the learners' second language by interacting
with tasks and then to use the target language to complete the tasks. This
framework also involves the learners much more productively and makes
them depend on prior world knowledge. As the learners share knowledge
with each other, they will have to rely on their existing knowledge and
language skills to solve the tasks. This process will also exhibit new
language and give language learners a variety of approaches to improve their
overall language skills. Generally, TBL can establish ideal conditions for
effective language learning to take place.

Types of tasks
The types of task that a language learner can take part in are numerous and
differ from each other in terms of what each task requires the learner to do.
Willis (1996) states that there are six types of task that learners can engage
in which promotes successful language learning.

The first task type is listing which involves brainstorming and fact finding.
These activities could help to complete some kind of list or draft a mind
map.

The second task type is ordering and sorting meaning that the learners will
be sequencing, categorizing, ranking and classifying. All these activities
could help to sort and order information according to specified criteria.

The third task type is comparing meaning that learners have to search for
similarities, differences and match information accordingly. The outcome of
such tasks could be items appropriately matched or assembled, or the
identification of similarities and differences.
The fourth task type is problem solving which could involve analysing real
situations, analyzing hypothetical scenarios, reasoning and decision making.
The result from such activities could give solutions to such problems which
could then be evaluated.

The fifth task type is sharing personal experiences meaning that the learners
narrate, explore, describe and explain attitudes, reactions and opinions.
Social and cultural differences are made apparent through this activity also it
builds a bond between the learners due to their insight into the different
cultures and experiences.

The sixth and last task type is creative tasks and includes such activities as
fact finding, brainstorming, comparing, sorting, ordering and problem
solving.

Furthermore what is evident is that TBL makes the learner focus on meaning
rather than form. Students take part in communicative tasks which help them
work on a grammar feature. The learners work on their own expressing
themselves in their writing and speaking skills. Willis (1996: 101) states
"tasks and texts combine to give students a rich exposure to language and
also opportunities to use it themselves".

In order for students to really appreciate and benefit from such tasks, it is
very important that the teacher chooses material that will develop and
challenge the different types of students. Willis (1996: 23) says the teacher
should prepare tasks with "a suitable degree of intellectual and linguistic
challenge and promote learners' language development as efficiently as
possible".

So what is apparent from above is that tasks, related to TBL, are shown to be
significant and control a large part of the lesson. It is at this stage that the
students are able to work in a group or individually in order to practice the
target language using the various activities. Tasks are central for the learners
of language, and it is believed that if the students focus on the task rather
than the language then they may learn more effectively. Additionally all
tasks, in essence, have the same characteristics meaning that they open up
parts of language that need to be utilized.

Willis' three staged task based lesson

Exposure, use and motivation, which are the three essential conditions and
instruction, which is the desirable condition, could, in some ways, help the
language learner in relation to second language acquisition. Willis' four
conditions are manifested and met through a task based lesson consisting of
three stages.

The first stage, the pre-task stage, learners are exposed to the target
language. At this critical stage the topic is introduced and the learners are
made aware of the tasks that they will interact with. The teacher helps the
learners to realize and accustom them to key words and phrases. This stage
helps the learners to understand important aspects and instructions that are
related to the task.

The second stage, the task cycle, learners work in groups and interact with
each other. The teacher is at a distance and overlooks the whole activity that
the class is involved in. Here it is important to note that, for the learners, it is
not important to concentrate and study grammar rules, rather the focus of
attention should be fluency and accuracy and practicing the target language.
Due to this focus of attention, the teacher does not interfere with correcting
language mistakes made by the students. On completion of the task the
students start to plan and prepare their findings. After completing the task
and planning on how to present their work, the students report back to the
class and introduce their findings. Also at this stage students listen and
compare findings. Finally there is an optional post task listening stage that
may take place. This stage involves the students to listen to native speakers
taking part in the same task which allows them to compare their results and
to hear and visualize the correct application of the language.

The third and final stage, the language focus stage, analysis is undertaken of
the students work. Mistakes are corrected and the learners get to practice
language form more extensively and ask questions about the features of
language. At this stage the students are made more aware of the true overall
outcome of how the target language is to be applied and perceived. The
practice of new vocabulary and correcting errors assists the language learner
to comprehend and appreciate the role of the task and how to correctly apply
whatever is extracted from the task.

Exposure
It is obvious to assume that if there is no exposure to valuable and rich input,
then this will not lead to SLA. I agree that exposure can help learners of
language achieve positive results. Students need a rich and varying source of
exposure to aspects and features of the English language in order for the
learners to display favorable output. Learners can only achieve this goal if
they are driven by confidence which arises from exposure that they can
associate with. Krashen (1982) illustrated that language learners need
appropriate exposure, when learning a new language system, to the different
and various types of language that the students will require and encounter in
order for them to fully comprehend and grasp what is materializing in the
learning arena. Language learners need exposure to input which is
comprehensible, meaningful, interesting and relevant Krashen (1985).

Clearly Willis' view, that exposure leads to successful language learning, is

true to some extent. Teachers have to expose the students to correct materials
so that some sort of positive relationship can be established, meaning the
students have to posses some sort of ability to contribute and react
effectively. For example, if students are learning how to give advice, then
accordingly they need to be exposed to types of material that demonstrate
how to advise. This is further elaborated by Swan (2005), who is replying to
Willis (1996: 18), stating "if students do not know the linguistic conventions
for opening and closing conversations, interrupting and challenging, etc,
how are they supposed to learn them without input from the 'dominating'
teacher? One cannot teach by eliciting what is not there". This is a very
important point because it shows to some degree that exposure should be
constant throughout. Input from the teacher is exposure to instruction, which
is vital for the learner to comprehend all aspects of what is being taught. If
learners lack certain qualities and skills then they will not have the ability to
interact with the varying forms of exposure. If the student is able to process
the input from the exposure then it is effective.

The most important factor is that if the exposure is rich, effective and
establishes a relationship between the learner and what is exposed, then this
will initiate a schema in the minds of the students. "Schema is a mental
representation of a typical instance" Cook (1997). This means that language
learners will be able to call on previous knowledge, images, text, thoughts
and world experience to aid their learning and accomplish tasks and
activities to some success.

Use
Willis' second essential condition of use refers to the students possessing the
ability to effectively use the target language and tasks. Obviously to use the
language inside and outside the classroom arena carries many benefits and it
is one of the goals of a lesson. The learners can apply themselves and use the
target language by writing, reading, skimming and scanning texts and
speaking. It is very essential for the language learners to have the
competency and skill to use the language in different ways, and this practice
would illustrate their knowledge of the target language and how it should be
applied. The benefits of such actions would be development of vocabulary,
establishment of speaking skills and provide a more realistic environment
for students to convey themselves. By realistic environment I mean an arena
where native like English is spoken and heard. Harmer (2001: 205) states
that it is important for language learners to be familiarised with native
language because this is what they will eventually confront. Swain (1985)
also pointed to the fact that if learners practiced the target language then this
would lead to speaking like the natives.

Another aspect, in relation to using the language, is the word automatizing

or automaticity. This is an idea based on such work of psychologists such as
Shiffrin and Schneider (1977). They claim the way we process information
can either be controlled or automatic and that learning has a transition from
controlled to automatic processing. Simply it refers to how information is
processed in our memory and the more we access and retrieve this
information automatization is then established. "Once a learner can achieve
regular and consistent responses in conversation to a certain type of input,
then it can be said that the language involved has been automatized" Hedge
(2000: 149). Automaticity of the native like target language can be
manifested by the students if they constantly repeat, learn and produce it.

The constant use of the language would prevent fossilization. "This term is
used to describe a persistent lack of change in interlanguage patterns, even
after extended exposure to or instruction in the target language" Lightbown
and Spada (2006). Interlanguage refers to characteristics of a learners' first
language. If learners do not progress and practice their second language on a
regular basis then fossilization could be apparent in them and hinder
progress in achieving native like fluency.

Using tasks in the classroom, especially pedagogic tasks, to some degree can
be beneficial and enable students to emulate some sort of fluency in the
outside world. Nunan (1989) also states that tasks do carry benefits in
relation to helping the learners' application of the language.

A term that is used with tasks is 'noticing'. Schmidt (1990) proposed the
'noticing hypothesis', suggesting that nothing is learned unless it has been
noticed. However this does not mean that this results in acquisition, rather it
is the starting point.

The basic concept is, that learners notice and pay attention to specific
features of a language. The language feature has to be noticeable in order for
the learners to notice. For this reason certain criteria have to be met in order
for the student to have the ability to notice. According to Hedge (2000) the
criteria are; it occurs frequently, it relates to the learner's common sense
about basic functions of language, and its functions are those to which a
learner would be likely to pay attention. Again this refers to choosing,
planning and implementing appropriate tasks so that a relationship can build
between the task and student.

Overall, to some extent, I do agree with Thornbury (1997) stating "More

over, by the manipulation of task design or the choice of text, they can be
harnessed to the needs of an essentially grammar-driven programme.
Alternatively, they can form a sub-set of task types within a meaning-driven
task based syllabus". If tasks are designed and applied well, then they can be
just one of many components needed in helping towards second language
acquisition.

Motivation
"Motivation is generally considered to be one of the primary causes of
success and failure in second language learning" Richards and Schmidt
(2002).

Motivation is very important for students to adopt in relation to second

language acquisition. Maintaining a suitable level of motivation during class
time supports the whole process of language learning and makes it more
productive. Motivation and a positive attitude have been linked with second
language acquisition Lightbown and Spada (1999).

Crookes and Schmidt (1991) state motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic.

The former is motivation that is inside oneself, while the latter refers to
worldly motivating aspects. Another view of the types of motivation is that
of Gardner and Lambert (1972) who coined the terms integrative and
instrumental. Integrative motivation is to learn a language so one can
integrate into a society. Instrumental motivation is to learn a language to
accomplish some sort of aspiration.

A survey, carried out on twenty Japanese students by Hedge (2000), lists the
following reasons why students are motivated to learn English; to be able to
communicate, have the ability to read, better chance of employment, to find
out about the people, to participate with people and parent pressure. What is
apparent from this survey is that these reasons fall under integrative and
instrumental types of motivation.
As teachers we have to think all the time how we can keep motivation alive
in the students. Linking motivation to TBL, then the most obvious case
would be to take great care and preparation in creating rich exposure which
would improve motivation. Teachers do have some control in this matter of
motivation because if we are able to offer rich and exciting tasks then this
could generate great interest from the students. This view is also supported
by Ellis (1993). Lessons that implement a constant change of activities, tasks
and materials can install motivation within students Crookes and Schmidt
(1991). Boredom, lack of interest and not paying attention are some of the
characteristics that stem from students who take part in lessons that are
unvaried. Sometimes teachers may just take the easy option of preparing a
lesson that is easy for them and not take into account the needs of the
students. These kinds of behaviours and actions will only add to the problem
of trying to bring about motivation in students. Having tasks that students
are able to accomplish and complete gives them confidence. For this reason
the teacher has to take into account the different levels of each student, their
interests, their culture and their religion so they are able to accomplish tasks
with some success. Brehm and Self (1989) state that motivation is achieved
within students if the tasks are of moderate difficulty.

The role of the teacher to initiate motivation is important and this is because
"motivation is the feeling nurtured primarily by the teacher in the learning
situation" Ellis (1994).

The subject of motivation is vast and helps towards second language

acquisition. The desire for students to learn and have some self satisfaction
can only be achieved if they are motivated within a TBL classroom that has
rich exposure, such as T.V, books, DVD's, computers, etc and they are able
to use that exposure comfortably to their advantage.

Instruction
Instruction is "any systematic attempt to enable or facilitate language
learning by manipulating the mechanics of learning and/or the conditions
under which these occur" Housen and Pierrard (2005: 2). To have the ability
to instruct in a manner which can trigger positive stimulus and generate
interpretation is vital for language learners. For this and many other reasons,
it is a great challenge for researchers to find out which instructional method
is better. Should teachers use this method or that? No single study has
proven which method is the best for students to succeed in language
learning. What I do agree with is that "instruction plays a major role in both
foreign and second language learning. While it may not be necessary to
achieve competence in the second language it undoubtedly helps. Nor
should instructed language learning be seen as a poor alternative to
naturalistic learning for there is plenty evidence to show that it is as, if not
more, effective. The crucial question is therefore, not whether instruction
works but rather what kind of instruction works best" Ellis (2005: 725).

Willis (1996) argues that instruction is a desirable condition for successful

learning. Should it be a desirable condition or should it be classed as
essential? Some may say, due to the TBL model, that instruction is not
essential because "tasks remove teacher domination" Willis (1996: 18); and
therefore the need for lengthy instruction is not needed. Others may argue
that instruction is, to some extent, crucial and must play a significant role in
the classroom. Teacher instruction, implicit or explicit does exist in a
classroom and it is important to find the right balance for effective second
language acquisition to take place. Obviously if the need arises to focus on
form and grammar then explicit instructions are needed. Implicit instructions
may be needed to just give a general overview of the task that the students
will engage in.

Ellis (2008) highlights, successful instruction needs to ensure that learners;

develop formulaic expressions and a rule based competence, focus on form
and meaning, have opportunities for output, and are taken into account of
their individual differences in learning.

Instruction in TBI concentrates on meaning rather than form. Too much

concentration on form at the start of a TBL lesson would take away the
students' own interaction, language and method of extracting information
from the task. For this reason form is practiced at the language focus stage.
This process ensures that the students use their own communication skills in
solving the task and improve fluency and form nearer the end of a TBL
lesson.

Just how much instruction is needed for successful language acquisition is

very significant. It may be the case that students are over instructed and
could cause a lack of enthusiasm on their part. On the other hand applying
insufficient instruction could have an impact on the students' understanding.
Catering for the needs of the students and exposing them to instructed input
is a platform for them to succeed. Batstone (1996) said "as teachers we want
to help learners make the most of this language known as input, so that it
enters their working systems and feeds into the learning process".

Another interesting point of view is that of krashen (1985). His input

hypothesis suggests that learners need "comprehensible input".
Comprehensible input refers to "that bit of language that is heard or read and
that is slightly ahead of a learner's current state of grammatical knowledge"
Gass and Selinker (2001). Input from a teacher could also be translated as
the instruction for preparing and helping the students towards the
comprehensible input. Krashen believed that language learners improve
when they receive input that is slightly ahead of their present thinking so
they are able to go one step beyond of their existing innate knowledge. This
one step beyond their current state is expressed (i+1). He also believes that
this process is necessary for learners to progress.

Input is a key word because not only does it refer to knowledge, it also
points to instruction from the teacher. Teacher input is instruction to
students' reading, listening, speaking and writing, and has an impact on the
whole learning process. Therefore "the teacher's main role is to ensure that
students receive comprehensible input" Gass and Selinker (2001).

Overall there are a lot of factors to consider when instruction is applied in a

classroom arena. The needs of the children, the classroom environment and
the actual teaching method and model, all play an enormous role in terms of
how best to use instruction so that the maximum benefit is achieved.

My teaching arena
I teach key stage three and four English literacy in Birmingham U.K. My
students are aged between twelve and fifteen. The main focus of attention is
to teach English according to the national schools curriculum. This type of
teaching, and the content that is taught, varies greatly from teaching English
as a second language. A majority of the students are progressing on a
constant basis and apply themselves very well to most aspects of the
language. There are times when grammatical accuracy is not the problem, it
is the complication of how can these students be more skillful in using the
language.

I do agree strongly that tasks are a vital tool to any school or teaching
organisation. They help towards the learners' goal of language acquisition.
The students in my class benefit from tasks all the time. Comprehension,
role-plays, reading, writing, listening, viewing documentaries, using the
internet and computer software, exploring scenarios and situations and using
authentic materials are some tasks that my students interact with on a daily
basis. Students' involvement with the tasks gives them the ability to
withdraw parts of language that are needed to comprehend the overall
objective of the lesson.

There may be times that my lessons have some similarity with TBL. For
example, I may get students to research a persuasive piece of text, and ask
them to find terms, phrases and rhetorical devices that make it persuasive.
When the task is completed, if needed, elaboration on persuasive techniques
and language can be expanded upon. Another example could be watching a
documentary for the purpose writing a review. After finishing the review, it
can be read and further help and support may be given for improvements to
be made.

I would agree that exposure, use and motivation are essential conditions for
successful language learning. Exposure to rich authentic materials that
display the current thinking, attitudes, lifestyles, interactions, behaviour and
every day life of language and its people is necessary so that language
learners can start to build a relationship. Having the ability to use and
complete tasks is essential for the learners, so that they are challenged and
become more advanced with the language. Keeping the students motivated
every lesson is a challenge. As teachers it is crucial to keep motivation alive
within students all the time. As Harmer (2001: 8) states "whatever kind of
motivation students have, it is clear that highly motivated students do better
than ones without any motivation at all".

However I consider instruction to be essential, contrary to Willis' (1996)

view that instruction should be a desirable condition. Instruction is needed to
guide, explain, improve and correct students throughout their learning life.
This is not to say that instruction should be constant, rather the issue of
instruction is importance rather than desirable. Of course the amount and use
of instruction depends on the teaching method, style or model, such as form-
focused instruction and TBI, and will be used accordingly. Additionally "the
instruction needs to be compatible with the processes involved in second
language acquisition" Ellis (2005: 721). However, and whenever, it is used it
is important for the students to have a link with instruction so that they have
knowledge and direction towards the objective of the lesson.
Conclusion
Willis' conditions are crucial for successful language learning to take place,
not only in TBL, but in all learning arenas. In any classroom, exposure, use,
motivation and instruction are vital ingredients and play a major part
towards second language acquisition. Through TBL, students are able to
extract the target language from tasks and concentrate on meaning, so that
this method prepares them for interaction with the outside world. The tasks
have to arouse motivation in students and this can only be achieved if tasks
and learners have a connection. Exposure to a wide variety of authentic
sources and activities are valuable for stimulating their minds. Students must
be able to use the tasks to their advantage to achieve some sort of self
satisfaction.

The condition of instruction is important and, depending on various

elements, the way it is applied varies. In my teaching arena the practice of
instruction, whether explicit or implicit, is always in demand because of the
needs of the students. Of course the day to day use of instruction differs
according to the type of lesson I am teaching. However I would say giving
instructions, to my students, is essential and not desirable.