Limits of some useful functions

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 1 / 10

Limits of some useful functions

Limits of Polynomials can be found by substitution

If P(x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a0 , then

lim P(x) = P(x0 ) = an x0n + an1 x0n1 + . . . + a0
xx0

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 1 / 10

Limits of some useful functions

Limits of Polynomials can be found by substitution

If P(x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a0 , then

lim P(x) = P(x0 ) = an x0n + an1 x0n1 + . . . + a0
xx0

Limits of Rational Functions can be found by substitution, if the

denominator is not zero

If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, and Q(x0 ) 6= 0, then

P(x) P(x0 )
lim =
xx0 Q(x) Q(x0 )

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 1 / 10

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 2 / 10
The above theorem applies only when the denominator of the rational
functions is not zero at the limit point.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 2 / 10

The above theorem applies only when the denominator of the rational
functions is not zero at the limit point. If the denominator is zero,
canceling common factors in the numerator and the denominator will
sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero
at x0 .

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 2 / 10

The above theorem applies only when the denominator of the rational
functions is not zero at the limit point. If the denominator is zero,
canceling common factors in the numerator and the denominator will
sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero
at x0 .When this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the
simplified fraction.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 2 / 10

The above theorem applies only when the denominator of the rational
functions is not zero at the limit point. If the denominator is zero,
canceling common factors in the numerator and the denominator will
sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero
at x0 .When this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the
simplified fraction.

EXERCISE:
x2 + x 2
Evaluate lim
x1 x2 x

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 2 / 10

The above theorem applies only when the denominator of the rational
functions is not zero at the limit point. If the denominator is zero,
canceling common factors in the numerator and the denominator will
sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero
at x0 .When this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the
simplified fraction.

EXERCISE:
x2 + x 2
Evaluate lim
x1 x2 x

EXERCISE:

2+h 2
Find lim
h0 h

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 2 / 10

The above theorem applies only when the denominator of the rational
functions is not zero at the limit point. If the denominator is zero,
canceling common factors in the numerator and the denominator will
sometimes reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero
at x0 .When this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the
simplified fraction.

EXERCISE:
x2 + x 2
Evaluate lim
x1 x2 x

EXERCISE:

2+h 2
Find lim
h0 h

The above example is the definition of the derivative of x at x0 = 2. We
shall dwell more on this in later classes.
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 2 / 10
The Sandwich Theorem
Suppose that g (x) f (x) h(x), for all x, in some open interval
containing x0 , except possibly at x = x + 0 itself. Suppose also that
lim g (x) = lim h(x) = L.
xx0 xx0

Then, lim f (x) = L.

xx0

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 3 / 10

The Sandwich Theorem
Suppose that g (x) f (x) h(x), for all x, in some open interval
containing x0 , except possibly at x = x + 0 itself. Suppose also that
lim g (x) = lim h(x) = L.
xx0 xx0

Then, lim f (x) = L.

xx0

EXERCISE:
Given that
x2 x2
1 u(x) 1 + for all x 6= 0
4 2
find lim u(x).
x0

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 3 / 10

The Sandwich Theorem
Suppose that g (x) f (x) h(x), for all x, in some open interval
containing x0 , except possibly at x = x + 0 itself. Suppose also that
lim g (x) = lim h(x) = L.
xx0 xx0

Then, lim f (x) = L.

xx0

EXERCISE:
Given that
x2 x2
1 u(x) 1 + for all x 6= 0
4 2
find lim u(x).
x0

EXERCISE:
Show that if lim |f (x)| = 0, then lim f (x) = 0.
xx0 xx0
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 3 / 10
Infinite Limits
We get infinite limits, when f (x) lies far away from any number L, rather
than be close to L, as x approaches x0 . Hence, the formal definition for
Infinite limits are as follow:

lim f (x) = ,
xx0
if for every positive real number B, there exists a corresponding > 0 such
that for all x
0 < |x x0 | < = f (x) > B

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 4 / 10

Infinite Limits
We get infinite limits, when f (x) lies far away from any number L, rather
than be close to L, as x approaches x0 . Hence, the formal definition for
Infinite limits are as follow:

lim f (x) = ,
xx0
if for every positive real number B, there exists a corresponding > 0 such
that for all x
0 < |x x0 | < = f (x) > B
We can similarly, write the definition for the limit going to negative infinity.
lim f (x) = ,
xx0
if for every negative real number B, there exists a corresponding > 0
such that for all x
0 < |x x0 | < = f (x) < B
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 4 / 10
EXAMPLE:
1 1
Find lim+ and lim .
x1 x 1 x1 x 1

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 5 / 10

EXAMPLE:
1 1
Find lim+ and lim .
x1 x 1 x1 x 1

One can come up with the solution for these limts using either a geometric
way or an analytic way of arguement. We shall provide the hints for both
of these approaches.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 5 / 10

EXAMPLE:
1 1
Find lim+ and lim .
x1 x 1 x1 x 1

One can come up with the solution for these limts using either a geometric
way or an analytic way of arguement. We shall provide the hints for both
of these approaches.
Geometric Solution
This function is a shifted version of a well known function and hence, the
limits directly follow if one can visualise the parent function from which
this function can be obtained.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 5 / 10

EXAMPLE:
1 1
Find lim+ and lim .
x1 x 1 x1 x 1

One can come up with the solution for these limts using either a geometric
way or an analytic way of arguement. We shall provide the hints for both
of these approaches.
Geometric Solution
This function is a shifted version of a well known function and hence, the
limits directly follow if one can visualise the parent function from which
this function can be obtained.

Analytic Solution
Look at the behaviour of (x 1), as x approaches 1 from the right or left.
One can then obtain the limits easily by looking at the reciprocal.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 5 / 10

EXAMPLE:
1 1
Find lim+ and lim .
x1 x 1 x1 x 1

One can come up with the solution for these limts using either a geometric
way or an analytic way of arguement. We shall provide the hints for both
of these approaches.
Geometric Solution
This function is a shifted version of a well known function and hence, the
limits directly follow if one can visualise the parent function from which
this function can be obtained.

Analytic Solution
Look at the behaviour of (x 1), as x approaches 1 from the right or left.
One can then obtain the limits easily by looking at the reciprocal.
1 1 x 2 x 3
Find (i) lim 2
(ii) lim 2
(iii) lim 2 (iv ) lim 2 .
x0 x x3 (x + 3) x2 x 4 x2 x 4
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 5 / 10
Continuity

We are now ready to define a continuous function at an interior point

x = c in its domain:
A function f is continuous at an interior point x = c in its domain if

lim f (x) = f (c)

xc

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 6 / 10

Continuity

We are now ready to define a continuous function at an interior point

x = c in its domain:
A function f is continuous at an interior point x = c in its domain if

lim f (x) = f (c)

xc

QUESTION:
A function f is continuous at a left endpoint x = a, of its domain, if
and continuous at a right endpoint x = b, of its domain if

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 6 / 10

Continuity

We are now ready to define a continuous function at an interior point

x = c in its domain:
A function f is continuous at an interior point x = c in its domain if

lim f (x) = f (c)

xc

QUESTION:
A function f is continuous at a left endpoint x = a, of its domain, if
and continuous at a right endpoint x = b, of its domain if

Thus, a function f is continuous at every point on its domain, if

.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 6 / 10

 1
y = sin (1/x)
400
y = 1/x^2 For the functions
0.5 200
de-
0 0
picted to the right,
-0.5 -200
find if the function
-1 -400
is continuous and
-1 -0.5 0
x
0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0
x
0.5 1
name the disconti-
y = U(x) y = x + 1 with a twist nuity. There are
3
1 four types of dis-
2
0.5
continuities: Os-
0 1
cil-
-0.5
0

-1
latory discontinu-
-1
-1 -0.5 0
x
0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0
x
0.5 1 ity, Jump disconti-
nuity, Infinite dis-
continuity and Re-
movable disconti-
nuity.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 7 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Remark
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in
above need to be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Remark
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in
above need to be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Like we had for limits, we can now state the following for functions f and
g , which are continuous at x = c, since continuity is based on the
existence of limits:

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Remark
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in
above need to be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Like we had for limits, we can now state the following for functions f and
g , which are continuous at x = c, since continuity is based on the
existence of limits:
f + g and f g

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Remark
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in
above need to be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Like we had for limits, we can now state the following for functions f and
g , which are continuous at x = c, since continuity is based on the
existence of limits:
f + g and f g
fg

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10

Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Remark
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in
above need to be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Like we had for limits, we can now state the following for functions f and
g , which are continuous at x = c, since continuity is based on the
existence of limits:
f + g and f g
fg
kf , where k is any number
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10
Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Remark
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in
above need to be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Like we had for limits, we can now state the following for functions f and
g , which are continuous at x = c, since continuity is based on the
existence of limits:
f + g and f g
fg
kf , where k is any number
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10
Continuity Test
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
three conditions:
f (c) exists
lim f (x) exists
xc
lim f (x) = f (c)
xc

Remark
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in
above need to be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

Like we had for limits, we can now state the following for functions f and
g , which are continuous at x = c, since continuity is based on the
existence of limits:
f + g and f g
fg
kf , where k is any number
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 8 / 10
Continuity of Composition of functions
QUESTION:
Is the function f (x) = |x|, continuous on all reals, R?

Now, the question arises about the continuity of composition of functions.

Theorem
If f is continuous at g (c), and g is continuous at c, then f g is
continuous at c.

lim f (g (x)) = f (g (c)) = f ( lim g (x))

xc xc

Proof.
Let > 0 be given. Since f is continuous at g (c), there exists 1 > 0 such
that

|f (y ) f (g (c))| < whenever 0 < |y g (c)| < 1

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 9 / 10
Continuity of Composition of functions
Proof.
Since lim g (x) = g (c), there exists a > 0 such that
xc

|g (x) g (c)| < 1 whenever 0 < |x c| <

If we let y = g (x), we then have that

|y g (c)| < 1 whenever 0 < |x c| <

which implies that |f (g (x)) f (g (c))| < whenever 0 < |x c| < .

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 10 / 10

Continuity of Composition of functions
Proof.
Since lim g (x) = g (c), there exists a > 0 such that
xc

|g (x) g (c)| < 1 whenever 0 < |x c| <

If we let y = g (x), we then have that

|y g (c)| < 1 whenever 0 < |x c| <

which implies that |f (g (x)) f (g (c))| < whenever 0 < |x c| < .

Are the following functions continuous everywhere on their respective

domains:
x cos(x 2/3 )
i)f (x) = x ii)f (x) = x 2 2x 5 iii)f (x) = iv )f (x) =
  1 + x4
 x 2 
 
x2 2
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Limits and Continuity September 12, 2015 10 / 10