Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
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Sjoerd W. Rienstra
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven
16 November 2015
Contents
1 Introduction 3
2 General Formulation 4
3 The Equations 8
3.1 A Hierarchy of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Boundary Conditions. Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Non-dimensionalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 Source Expansion 32
6.1 Modal Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2 Rotating Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.3 Tyler and Sofrin Rule for Rotor-Stator Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.4 Point Source in a Lined Flow Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.5 Point Source in a Duct Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
VKI -1-
CONTENTS CONTENTS
A Appendix 49
A.1 Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
A.2 An Important Complex Square Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
A.3 Myers Energy Corollary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
VKI -2-
1 INTRODUCTION
1 Introduction
In a duct of constant cross section, with a medium and boundary conditions independent
of the axial position, the wave equation for time-harmonic perturbations may be solved by
means of a series expansion in a particular family of self-similar solutions, called modes.
They are related to the eigensolutions of a two-dimensional operator, that results from
the wave equation, on a cross section of the duct. For the common situation of a uniform
medium without flow, this operator is the well-known Laplace operator 2 . For a non-
uniform medium, and in particular with mean flow, the details become more complicated,
but the concept of duct modes remains by and large the same1 .
Modes are interesting mathematically because they form, in general, a complete basis
by which any solution can be represented. Physically, modes are interesting because
they are solutions in their own right not just mathematical building blocks and by
their simple structure the usually complicated behaviour of the total field is more easily
understood.
The concept of mode can be formulated rather generally. We have modes in ducts of
arbitrary cross section, with any boundary condition and medium, with or without mean
flow, as long as medium and boundary condition are constant in axial direction. The
arbitrary cross section, with uniform medium and hard walls, is considered in section 2.
However, to obtain insight and because it is a technically relevant configuration it is useful
to simplify the mean flow and the geometry of the duct to a cylinder, and obtain modes
of simpler shape. A hierarchy of equations from general to uniform and no mean flow are
derived in section 3.1. We will consider only two of these, but the derivation of the others
are included for useful reference.
The impedance boundary condition, including the physically necessary conditions and
the refraction effects through a boundary layer, are given in section 3.2.
The hard-wall and soft-wall modes, with and without mean flow, in cylindrical ducts
are discussed in the sections 4.1, 4.3, 5.1 and 5.2.
In section 6 some applications are given, including the sound field due to a point source
found by means of Fourier transformation. This example is interesting because it shows
how modes may appear naturally as residues of poles of the Fourier transformed solution,
and not, for that matter, just by assuming solutions of a certain form.
In an other section the application of modes in reflection and transmission problems
is discussed. In particular the important technique of mode-matching, which converts a
complicated acoustic scattering problem in a relatively easy problem of linear algebra.
In the appendix, sections on Bessel functions, an important complex square root, and
Myers acoustic energy equations are included.
1
Duct modes should not be confused with cavity modes. Cavity modes are solutions of the wave
equation in a closed cavity that exist without forcing, and are related to resonance. They exist only for
particular (resonance) frequencies. Duct modes, on the other hand exist for any given frequency.
Take for example a hard-walled box of sides a, b and c. Then solutions exist of the wave equation of
the following form
nx my lz it n2 m2 l2 21
(x, t) = cos cos cos e if = 2 + 2 + 2
a b c c0 a b c
yielding resonance frequencies mnl .
VKI -3-
2 GENERAL FORMULATION
2 General Formulation
The time-harmonic sound field p in a duct of constant cross section with linear boundary
conditions that are independent of the axial coordinate x may be described by an infinite
sum of special solutions, called modes, that retain their shape when travelling down the
duct. With given frequency and the usual complex notation they are of the form
x
p(x, t) = (y, z)f (x vt) = (y, z) ei(t v ) = (y, z) eitikx (1)
y n
A
D
A
x
z
with axial cross sections being copies of A and the normal vectors n the same for all x.
In the usual complex notation (with +itsign convention with real frequency ), the
acoustic field
p(x, t) := p(x) eit , v(x, t) := v(x) eit (3)
satisfies in the duct (x D) the equations
2
2 p + p = 0, i0 v + p = 0. (4)
c20
VKI -4-
2 GENERAL FORMULATION
v n = 0 for x D (5)
but other locally reacting wall types (impedance walls) would make little difference. Self-
similar solutions of the form p(x, y, z) = (x)(y, z) exist for (x) = eikx with particular
values of k and associated functions (determined up to a multiplicative factor). We
thus have (with the exponential divided out)
2
2yz + k 2 = 0, (6)
c20
where 2yz denotes the Laplacian 2 in y and z, but since is a function of y and z only,
it makes no difference to write 2 instead.
This leads to general solutions given by
X
p(x, y, z) = Cn n (y, z) eikn x (7)
n=0
where n are the eigenfunctions of the Laplace operator reduced to A, i.e. solutions of
and 2 is the corresponding eigenvalue. For the present hard wall boundary condition, the
eigenvalues n2 form a real and non-negative countable sequence, which starts with 12 = 0
and 1 = 1. For a more general condition, like an impedance, they will be complex.
The axial wave number k is given by one of the square roots (+ for right and for
left running waves) s
2 2
n c 0
kn = n = (9)
c20 c0
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2 GENERAL FORMULATION
where is a carefully defined complex square root (Appendix A.2) that ensures the correct
signs for any real or complex k. Each term in the series expansion, i.e. n (y, z) eikn x , is
called a duct mode.
Figure 3: Axial patterns of modes with large, small, zero and imaginary kn .
VKI -6-
2 GENERAL FORMULATION
If n = m we have
ZZ ZZ ZZ
2
n2 n2 n2 n2 |n |2 d = 0
n n + d = d (10)
A A A
RR 2
It follows, that any n 6= 0 can only be an eigenvalue if d 6= 0. If 0 = 0, it is
A n
solution 0 = 1 and A 02 d = |A| =
RR
indeed an eigenvalue with RR 6 0. Up to a factor it is
2
the only solution because A |0 | d = 0 only if |0 | 0.
Altogether we have thus
(
=0 if n 6= m
ZZ
2
n d (11)
A 6= 0 if n = m
Some care is required when, due to a symmetric geometry, each n is linked to more than
one n . Note that for other boundary conditions, like impedances, and are in general
complex valued. Although these integral relations remain the same, we cannot RR call the
modes orthogonal to themselves, because for complex the inner product is A n m d.
Nevertheless, this orthogonality for hard walls is very useful to obtain the amplitudes
of the modal expansion. See section 6.
In the next section we derive the major equations that result for sound in a parallel
mean flow, i.e. a flow, constant in x direction. The no-flow and uniform flow cases will
subsequently be considered in further detail.
As a final remark, we note that the above solution only needs a minor adaptation to
include a uniform mean flow inside the duct.
VKI -7-
3 THE EQUATIONS
3 The Equations
3.1 A Hierarchy of Equations
We start (Goldstein, 1976; Rienstra and Hirschberg, 2015; Oppeneer et al., 2016) from the
fundamental law of thermodynamics for a reversible processes, in temperature T , entropy
s, internal energy e, pressure p and density ,
T ds = de + pd(1 ) (12)
Cv p
e = Cv T = (14)
R
it follows that
1Cv Cv Cv Cp p
T ds = de + pd( ) = dp + + 1 pd(1 ) = dp 2 d
R R R R
or
Cv Cp
ds = dp d
p
If we define the sound speed c by c2 being the coefficient of isentropic variations of p with
, we obtain
2 p Cp p p
c = = = (15)
s Cv
and so
Cv
dp c2 d
ds =
p
The isentropic Euler equations, with velocity v, position x and time t, are
d dv ds
+ v = 0, + p = 0, =0 (16)
dt dt dt
while the isentropic relation of (16) reduces to
dp d
= c2 (17)
dt dt
When we write
v = v0 + v0, p = p0 + p0 , = 0 + 0 , (18)
and linearize for small perturbations, we obtain for the mean flow
VKI -8-
3.1 A Hierarchy of Equations 3 THE EQUATIONS
0 0
D0 0 + 0 v 0 + v 0 + w0 =0 (22a)
y z
0 0 u0 0 u0
0 D0 v + 0 v +w ex + p0 = 0 (22b)
y z
0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0
D0 p c 0 D 0 c 0 v +w =0 (22c)
y z
Since 0 is independent of x, equation (22c) can be written as
c20 (v 0 0 ) = D0 p0 c20 D0 0
and so with the momentum equation (and using the fact that 0 is independent of x)
or
c20 2 p0 = (c20 p0 ) D02 p0 + c20 D02 0
VKI -9-
3 THE EQUATIONS 3.1 A Hierarchy of Equations
D03 p0 D0 (c20 p0 ) + 2c20 (p0 u0 ) = 0. (24)
x
This is the most general wave equation in the pressure for linear acoustic (i.e. isentropic)
perturbations of a parallel inviscid mean flow with uniform (constant) mean pressure p0 .
The corresponding velocity is to be found from (for example) equation (22b).
Starting from this general equation, we can further simplify to harmonic perturbations
and more in particular modes in x direction. If the perturbations are harmonic in time,
like eit , then we have the slight simplification D0 = i + u0 x . A more important
simplification is obtained if (in addition to the mean flow) the boundary conditions are
independent of x, in such a way that we can Fourier transform to x, or (which is more or
less the same) assume the existence of solutions (modes) of the form
c2
2 0
+ 2 k 2 c20 p = 0,
p with = ku0 ,
2
p u0
0
u+ k p = 0
(26)
p
0
vi =0
y
p
0 w i =0
z
Equation (26a) is the most general equation to describe modes. It is a partial differential
equation in y and z (the -operator only relates to y and z), where together with p also
finding the possible values of k are now part of the problem. Equations (26b, 26c, 26d)
express the perturbation velocity in terms of p. We can further simplify as follows.
If the mean flow is uniform, with u0 = U constant, then = is constant and2
c20
p + 2 k 2 c20 p = 0
0 u k p = 0
p (27)
0 v i =0
y
p
0 w
i =0
z
With uniform mean flow and a uniform medium c0 constant, we have a form of the
2
It may be noted that the seemingly trivial solution p 0 is not without meaning. It corresponds
with convective incompressible pressureless disturbance with = 0 of the form v exp i U x
VKI - 10 -
3.1 A Hierarchy of Equations 3 THE EQUATIONS
Helmholtz equation in p
2
2 2
p + k p = 0
c20
0 u k p = 0
(28)
p
0 v i =0
y
p
0 w i =0
z
Without mean flow, with u0 = 0, we have
c20
p + 2 k 2 c20 p = 0
0 u k p = 0
p (29)
0 vi =0
y
p
0 w
i =0
z
If the medium is uniform, with c0 constant, we have a form of the Helmholtz equation
2
2 p + k 2 p = 0
c20
0 u k p = 0
(30)
p
0 vi =0
y
p
0 w
i =0
z
where the prime denotes a derivative to y. The equation simplifies to a form of the
VKI - 11 -
3 THE EQUATIONS 3.1 A Hierarchy of Equations
If the medium is circularly symmetric with u0 = u0 (r) and c0 = c0 (r) in polar coordinates
(x, r, ) while v = uex + ver + we and = ex x + er r + e 1r
, and we can assume
solutions of the form
where the prime denote a derivative to r. If c0 and u0 are constant this reduces to a form
of Bessels equation (Appendix A.1)
1 2 m2
p00 + p0 + k 2
p = 0
r c20 r2
0 u k p = 0 (36)
0 v i p0 = 0
m
0 w p = 0
r
1 2 m2
p00 + p0 + 2 k 2 2 p =0
r c0 r
0 u k p =0 (37)
0 v i p0 =0
m
0 w p =0
r
VKI - 12 -
3.2 Boundary Conditions. Impedance. 3 THE EQUATIONS
The boundary condition for an impedance wall is formulated in terms of the time Fourier
transformed acoustic pressure and normal velocity. The Fourier transform is defined by
Z Z
1 0 it 0
p(x, ) = p (x, t) e dt, p (x, t) = p(x, ) eit d. (39)
2
Necessary conditions for Z follow then from basic physical arguments (Rienstra, 2006).
(ii ) Passivity (the wall only absorbs energy), Re(Z) > 0 for all ;
(iii ) Causality ( p and v cannot predict each others future), which usually amounts,
with e convention and Z sufficiently well behaved4 at infinity, to Z() being free
it
of zeros and poles in the lower complex half plane Im() < 0.
3
The tangential component does not have to be zero since the flow model is inviscid.
4
This condition depends on the assumed notion of Fourier transforms. Integrability of Z in the classic
sense is sufficient, but usually too strict. If we allow the inverse Fourier transform z(t) to be a generalised
function, with algebraic behaviour of Z() for , we can include, for example, Z() = R a constant,
with z(t) = 2R(t) which is perfectly causal.
VKI - 13 -
3 THE EQUATIONS 3.2 Boundary Conditions. Impedance.
u0
Figure 4: The thin boundary layer limit results in the Ingard/Ingard-Myers condition
In this situation we have to incorporate the refraction effects of the (vanishingly thin)
boundary layer into the boundary condition. This may be done by introducing the per-
turbed wall streamline as intermediary, to obtain Ingards condition (Ingard, 1959)
i + u0 n ,
p = iZ v x wall (44)
x
valid for mean flow in x direction. The more general situation of flow along an arbitrarily
curved surface, due to Myers (1980), is more complicated
i + v 0 n n p = iZ v n , x wall (45)
We will not use this condition here in the setting of straight ducts.
Finally, it should be noted that a very thin boundary layer along an impedance wall
may be unstable for certain (complex) frequencies, leading in time domain to an abso-
lute instability (an instability that is not convected away with the mean flow but grows
exponentially at any point of observation). More in particular, the growth rate becomes
infinite for a vanishing boundary layer, leading to an ill-posed, unphysical, problem in time
domain (Brambley, 2009). A regularised boundary condition should be used, for example
by allowing for a very thin, but non-zero boundary layer thickness (Rienstra and Darau,
2011).
In frequency domain, however, there is no problem. We are free to prescribe the
frequency of interest, and if this is real, the worst instability we may have to deal with is
a convective instability. The only problem is perhaps the fact that this instability is very
sensitive to the boundary layer thickness (Rienstra and Vilenski, 2008), and may not be
predicted accurately by a vanishing boundary layer model.
VKI - 14 -
3.3 Non-dimensionalisation 3 THE EQUATIONS
3.3 Non-dimensionalisation
Since we dont want to get lost in a jungle of symbols and variables, it is wise to make
our problem dimensionless.
Consider in a duct, with radius a, wall impedance Z, uniform sound speed c0 , mean
flow velocity U and mean density 0 , time-harmonic acoustic waves of angular frequency
and modal wave number k. We scale our variables as follows
at
x := ax, t := , p := 0 c20 p, := 0 , := c0 v,
v
c0
(46)
c0 k
:= , k := , Z := 0 c0 Z, U := c0 M,
a a
while intensity scales on 0 c30 and power on 0 c30 a2 . The impedance Z is usually scaled on
the local density and sound speed, but since we consider here only uniform mean flows,
this is equivalent to 0 and c0 . M is known as the mean flow Mach number.
Note that we used for notational convenience the same symbol for the dimensional
and dimensionless frequency . If is the dimensional frequency, then k0 = /c0 is the
corresponding free field wave number. The dimensionless quantity
a
He = = k0 a (47)
c0
is called the Helmholtz number, and the most important parameter in duct acoustics.
It is just equal to our dimensionless frequency .
VKI - 15 -
4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW
are called duct modes, and they form a complete set of building blocks suitable for con-
structing any sound field in a duct. At the same time, they are particular shape-preserving
solutions with easily interpretable properties.
VKI - 16 -
4.1 Hard-walled Cylindrical Ducts 4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW
15
k05
10
k04
5 k03
k01 k02
0
+ +
k02 k01
+
-5 k03
+
k04
-10
+
k05
-15
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
All m and m are real, while only a finite number of km are real; see figure 5. The
+
branch we selected here of the complex square root in km is chosen such that eikm x
describes a right-running wave and eikm x a left-running wave. This will be further
clarified later.
If we normalise the modes in a convenient way, by using (142), such that
Z 1
2
Nm J(m r)2 r dr = 1 (55)
0
The normalisation factor Nm is chosen such that a modal amplitude Am scales with the
energy content of the corresponding mode (see below).
VKI - 17 -
4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW 4.1 Hard-walled Cylindrical Ducts
A surface of constant phase, m+Re(km )x = constant, is a helicoid of pitch 2m/|Re(km |);
see figure 6.
pitch
x-axis
Figure 6: Surface of constant phase m + Re(km )x.
In fact, this is the only non-trivial eigenvalue equal to zero. All others are greater, the
smallest being given by
0
j11 = 1.84118 . (59)
0 0
Since the zeros of Jm form an ever increasing sequence both in m and in (with jm '
1 3
( + 2 m 4 ) for ; see Appendix A.1), there are for any always a (finite) = 0
2
and m = m0 beyond which m > 2 , so that km is purely imaginary, and the mode
decays exponentially in x.
So we see that there are always a finite number of modes with real km (see figure 5).
Since they are the only modes that propagate (see below), they are called cut-on. The
remaining infinite number of modes, with imaginary km , are evanescent and therefore
called cut-off.
For low frequency, i.e. for
0
< j11 = 1.84118 (60)
all modes are cut-off except for the plane wave. In this case a plane wave approximation
(i.e. considering only the first mode) is applicable if we are far enough away from any
sources, changes in boundary condition, or other scattering objects, for the generated
evanescent modes to become negligible. In general we say that a mode propagates or
decays exponentially depending on the frequency being lower or higher than the cut-off
or resonance frequency
0
jm c0
fc = . (61)
2a
There are various ways to portray the modal wave numbers. Important and mean-
ingful are the locations of km in the complex plane (figure 5). If they are real, the mode is
VKI - 18 -
4.1 Hard-walled Cylindrical Ducts 4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW
Im(km), = 20 Re(km), = 20
60 20
22 22
21 21
20 20
15
19 19
40
18 18
17 17
10
16 16
15 20 15
14 14 5
13 13
12 12
m 11 0 m 11 0
10 10
9 9
8 8 -5
7 -20 7
6 6
5 5 -10
4 4
3 -40 3
2 2
-15
1 1
0 0
-60 -20
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(left running) (right running) (left running) (right running)
Figure 7: Imaginary and real parts of left and right running modal wave numbers
20
10
cut-on right running
Re(km1)
m=0 m = 17
0
-20
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 8: Real part of the 1st radial cut-on modes, as a function of Helmholtz number
cut-on and propagates without attenuation, while for any complex wave number, the
corresponding mode decays according to
eIm(km )x for x (62)
Other graphical representations are figures 7 of Im km and Re km coloured for each index
combination m, . The triangle where Im km = 0 (cut-on) is clearly visible. In figure 8
we see the first radial modes Re km1 as a function of . We see indeed that each m-modes
are cut-on only above a certain frequency.
VKI - 19 -
4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW 4.1 Hard-walled Cylindrical Ducts
hI ex i = 41 (pu + pu) = 1
2
Re(pu) (64)
over a duct cross section x = constant the transmitted acoustic power (148)
0
X X + 2
2 X
2
X
P= km |Am | + km |Bm | + m Im(Am Bm ).
m= =1 m= = +1
0
(65)
+
where 0 = 0 (m) is the number of cut-on modes per m, and m = ikm = ikm is
+
positive real if km is imaginary. Note that km = km .
With only right- or only left-running modes (Bm = 0 or Am = 0), this summation
consists of only a finite number of terms: the cut-on modes. In this situation only cut-
on modes propagate energy. The distinction between right and left running modes
is confirmed for cut-on modes by the direction of propagation of the energy. With only
right-running modes the power P > 0 is positive and clearly the energy propagates to
the right, and with only left-running modes the power P < 0 is negative and the energy
propagates to the left (Morfey, 1971).
Cut-off modes decay in positive direction for right-running modes, and in negative
direction for left-running modes. Left- or right-running cut-off modes alone do not prop-
agate energy, but in combination they do, as is clear from the term with Am Bm in (65).
In this way it is possible that through a finite section of a duct with only cut-off modes,
energy is transported from one end to the other. This is called tunnelling.
The axial phase velocity (the velocity of a wave crest) of a cut-on mode is equal to
vf =
(66)
km
The axial group velocity (the signal velocity) of a cut-on mode is given by
dk 1
km
m
vg = = . (67)
d
Note that vg = 0 at the cut-off frequency, while for the other frequencies
Except for the plane 01wave, where vf = vg = 1, the axial group velocity is smaller
than 1 (i.e. smaller than c0 dimensionally) because the modal wave fronts do not propagate
parallel to the x-axis, but rather follow a longer path. For m 6= 0 they spiral around the
x-axis, with a right-hand rotation for m > 0 and a left-hand rotation for m < 0.
5
ij = 1 if i = j, ij = 0 if i 6= j
VKI - 20 -
4.2 Rectangular Ducts 4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW
Jm (m ) iZ
0
= , (72)
m Jm (m )
The soft-wall modes are not orthogonal, but a normalization that preserves the relation
Z 1
Um (r)Um (r)r ddr = 1
0
is s
2 )
Im(m
|Z|
Nm = . (73)
|Jm (m )| Re(Z)
Qualitatively, the behaviour of these modes in the complex km -plane is as follows.
If Im(Z) > 0, all modes may be found not very far from their hard wall values on the
0
real interval (, ) or the imaginary axis (that is, with m = jm .) More precisely, if we
0
vary Z from |Z| = to Z = 0, m varies from its |Z| = -value jm to its Z = 0-value
0
jm . (jm is the -th zero of Jm .) These jm and jm are real and interlaced according to
VKI - 21 -
4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW 4.3 Soft Wall Modes
0
the inequalities jm < jm < jm,+1 < etc., so the corresponding km are also interlaced
and shift into a direction of increasing mode number .
However, if Im(Z) < 0 (for +it-sign convention), a couple of two modes wander into
their quarter of the complex plane in a more irregular way, and in general quite far away
from the others. In figure 10 this behaviour is depicted by the trajectories of the modes as
the impedance varies along lines of constant real part (figure 9). For small enough Re(Z)
ZC
imaginary
axis real axis
B
Re(Z) =constant
(here, smaller than 1.4) we see the first (=1) mode being launched into the complex km -
plane when Im(Z) is negative, and then returning as a (for example) = 2 or 4 mode
when Im(Z) is positive. We will call these irregular modes surface waves: their maximum
is at the wall surface, and away from the wall they decay exponentially (Rienstra, 2003).
This is most purely the case for an imaginary impedance Z = iX. See figure 11.
A solution m = i%m , %m real, may be found6 satisfying
Im (%m ) X
0
= if < X < 0. (74)
%m Im (%m ) m
6 0
The function h(z) = zIm (z)/Im (z) increases monotonically, from h(0) = m to h(z) z as z .
VKI - 22 -
4.3 Soft Wall Modes 4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW
15
-
k05 k05
10 -
k04
k01
k04 (a)
- (b)
5 k03
6
k03 k01
k02
k02 AU
0 +
k02 +
+ AK k02
k03 +
? k01
+
-5 k03
+
k04
+
k01
+
k04
-10
-
+ +
k05 k05
-15
15
- -
k05 k05
10 - -
k04 k04
- (c)
- (d)
5 k03 k03
k k
k01 02 k01 02
- - - -
0
+ k+ + k+
k02
k02 01 01
+ +
-5 k03 k03
k04 k04
+ +
-10
+ +
k05 k05
-15
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
VKI - 23 -
4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW 4.4 Attenuation of Sound
k05
10
k04
?
5 k03
surface wave k01 k02
0
+ + surface wave -
k02 k01
+
-5 k03
+
k04 6
-10
+
k05
0
m2
Jm ()2 + 1 2 Jm ()2 = 0 (76)
An example is given in figure 12. No mode is lost, as the two corresponding modes
degenerate into
VKI - 24 -
4.4 Attenuation of Sound 4 UNIFORM MEDIUM, NO MEAN FLOW
Equation (76) does not involve a problem parameter, so it can be solved for once, yielding
(opt)
a
Zm = 0 c0 Km , (80)
c0
scaling only linearly with the Helmholtz number (as indeed follows directly from (72)).
Note that for more complicated geometries (like with a mean flow), the Cremer-optimal
impedances cannot be given like this, as they depend on other problem parameters.
6
6 k03
4
2
3
JJ
^ + +
k02 k01
0
k01 k02
J
]J
+
-2
-4
+
k03
?
-6
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Figure 12: Trajectories of km (m = 0, = 5) passing Cremers optimum. Im(Z) varies
from to and Re(Z) is fixed at 1.4165. At Z = 1.4165 i0.6082 the first two modes
coalesce as k01 = k02 = (4.3057, 0.8857).
VKI - 25 -
5 UNIFORM MEDIUM WITH MEAN FLOW
where the radial modes and radial and axial wave numbers satisfy
00 1 0
2 m2
Um + Um + m 2 Um = 0
r r
2
m = ( Mkm )2 km
2 (83)
p 2
M 2 m 2
km = , = 1 M2
2
and solution (regular in r = 0)
In order to sort the right and left running modes we define the square root in km as
before by using the square root (143) (see figures 13 and 14)
q
m
2 2 m
2 = . (85)
The corresponding phase and group velocities for cut-on modes are found to be
vf =
, (86)
km
dk 1 km
m
vg = =
+ M. (87)
d Mkm
Note that vg = 0 at the cut-off frequency, while for the other frequencies
Due to the mean flow, the axial modal wave numbers are shifted to the left (M > 0), or
right (M < 0), by a fixed amount of M/ 2 , while the (dimensionless) cut-off frequency
VKI - 26 -
5.1 Hard-walled Cylindrical Ducts 5 UNIFORM MEDIUM WITH MEAN FLOW
Figure 13: Imaginary and real parts of left and right running modal wave numbers
M = 0.5
20
10
Re(km1)
m=0
cut-on right running
0
cut-off
m = 20
-10
-20
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 14: Real part of the 1st radial modes, as a function of Helmholtz number
is lowered from = m for no flow to = m with flow. So with flow more modes
are possibly cut-on than without. Note that (for M > 0) a right-running mmode for
frequencies along the interval m < < m has a negative phase velocity, which is
thus opposite to its group velocity. Altogether we have for M > 0
vf < M 1 < vg < 0 on m <
vf+ <0< vg+ <M on m < < m (89)
0<M < vg+ <1+M < vf+ on m <
Similar relations apply if M < 0. Since vg < 0 < vg+ , this shows that it is not the sign of
km but of its radical that corresponds with the direction of propagation (c.f. eq. 95).
VKI - 27 -
5 UNIFORM MEDIUM WITH MEAN FLOW 5.1 Hard-walled Cylindrical Ducts
Eigenvalues m are determined like before (53). Again, we normalise Um like (56),
while they are orthogonal and satisfy (63).
It is convenient to introduce the Lorentz or Prandtl-Glauert type transformation
m M
q
x = X, = , m = m , km = , m 2
= 1 m (90)
where the sign of m follows definition (143). Then we have for pressure p and axial
acoustic velocity u
X X +
im X im X
p= Am e +Bm e e iM X Um (r) eim (91)
m= =1
+
X X m M +
im X
m M
im X
u= +
Am e +
Bm e e iM X Um (r) eim
m= =1
1 Mm 1 Mm
case of the plane wave m = 0, = 1, with 01 = 0, k01 =
This includes the important
/(1 M) and U01 = 2, such that
ix ix
p(x, r, ) = 2 A01 e 1+M +B01 e 1M
ix ix
(92)
u(x, r, ) = 2 A01 e 1+M B01 e 1M
If we have at position x = 0 a given pressure and axial velocity profiles P (0, r, ) and
V (0, r, ), we can expand these profiles in the following Fourier-Bessel series
X
X
[P (0, r, ), V (0, r, )] = [Pm , Vm ]Um (r) eim ,
m= =1
where
2Z 1
1
Z
[Pm , Vm ] = [P (0, r, ), V (0, r, )]Um (r) e im r drd,
2 0 0
hI ex i = 12 Re (p + Mu)(u + Mp)
(94)
VKI - 28 -
5.2 Soft Wall and Uniform Mean Flow 5 UNIFORM MEDIUM WITH MEAN FLOW
+
0 = 0 (m) is the number of cut-on modes per m, and m = im = im is positive
real for cut-off modes. Note the coupling between left- and right-running cut-off modes.
(1 M)2 Jm () i 3 ZJm
0
() = 0. (96)
VKI - 29 -
5 UNIFORM MEDIUM WITH MEAN FLOW 5.2 Soft Wall and Uniform Mean Flow
In other words, it has become a surface wave of two-dimensional nature, and approx-
imately8 described by
(1 M)2 + 3 Z() = 0. (97)
The egg (figure 16), indicating the location of possible surface waves for Re(Z) = 0 in
the 2D limit, is drawn in the figures 17 by a dotted line. The 2D surface wave solutions
(figure 16) are indicated by black lines. The behaviour of the modes is to a certain extent
similar to the no-flow situation (section 4.3, figures 10), although the effect of the mean
flow is that we have now 4 rather than 2 possible surface waves. For large Re Z, the modes
remain near their hard-wall values. For lower values of Re Z the behaviour becomes more
irregular. The modes change position with a neighbour, and some become temporarily a
surface wave. The two hydrodynamic modes disappear to infinity for Im Z .
An example of a modal shape function with impedance walls is given in figure 15.
no solutions
i M 1
branch cuts (Im = 0)
HI
SL
q
1+8M 2 +1 no solutions
2M
Re <0 Re >0 M 1
Re >0 Re <0
no solutions
SR
HS i M 1
no solutions
Figure 16: Reduced wave number -plane as described by eq. (97), with regions of exis-
tence of surface waves. Thick lines map to imaginary Z-axis. Here, M = 0.5 is taken.
8 0
Note that Jm (z)/Jm (z) i sign(Im(z)) for |z| , while Im() < 0.
VKI - 30 -
5.2 Soft Wall and Uniform Mean Flow 5 UNIFORM MEDIUM WITH MEAN FLOW
5 5
4 4
Z=3+ i Z=2+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5
4 4
Z=1+ i Z=0.5+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 5
4 4
Z=0.3+ i Z=0.01+ i
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
VKI - 31 -
6 SOURCE EXPANSION
6 Source Expansion
6.1 Modal Amplitudes
A source at x = 0, defined by
p(0, r, ) = p0 (r, )
produces in a hard walled duct a sound field (57a) with modal amplitudes given by
2 Z 1
1
Z
Am = p0 (r, )Um (r) e im r drd, Bm = 0 (98)
2 0 0
if x > 0, and the same in x < 0 but with A and B interchanged; apply (63), Note that
small details of the source (averaged out for the lower modes in the process of integration),
only contribute to higher order modes and do not generate sound if these modes are cut-off.
This function, periodic in with period 2/B, may be expanded in a Fourier series:
X
p(, r, 0) = qn (r) einB . (100)
n=
VKI - 32 -
6.3 Tyler and Sofrin Rule for Rotor-Stator Interaction 6 SOURCE EXPANSION
However, we can do better than that, because most of the m-components are just zero.
The field is periodic in with the stator periodicity 2/V in such a way that when we
travel with the rotor over an angle = 2/V in a time step t = / the field must
be the same:
X X
p(r, , t) = Qnm (r) einB(tt)im() . (105)
n= m=
m = kV + nB (106)
VKI - 33 -
6 SOURCE EXPANSION 6.3 Tyler and Sofrin Rule for Rotor-Stator Interaction
Figure 18: Sketch of high by-pass turbo fan engine. Note the fan (or inlet rotor), which
produces with the stator (or outlet guide vanes) the important rotor-stator interaction
noise. This is to be attenuated by the acoustically lined walls of the inlet and bypass
duct.
where k is any integer, and n the harmonic of interest. By selecting B and V such that
the lowest |m| possible is high enough for the harmonic of interest to be cut-off, this
component is effectively absent for a long enough inlet duct. In practice, only the first
harmonic is reduced in this way. A recent development is that the second harmonic, which
is usually cut-on, is reduced by selecting the mode number m to be of opposite sign of n,
which means: counter rotating with respect to the rotor. In this case the rotor itself acts
as a shield obstructing the spiralling modes to leave the duct (Schulten, 1993).
In detail: for a cut-off n-th harmonic (we only have to consider positive n) we need
nB j 0 c0
< m1 or 0
nBMtip < jm1 . (107)
2 2a
0
Since typically Mtip is slightly smaller than 1 and jm1 is slightly larger than |m| we get
the evanescent wave condition (all modes are cut off)
nB 6 |m| = |kV + nB|. (108)
The only values of kV for which this inequality is not satisfied automatically is in the
interval 2nB < kV < 0. If we make the step size V big enough so that we avoid this
interval for k = 1, we avoid it for any k. So we have finally the condition: V > 2nB.
Consider, as a realistic example, the following configuration of a rotor with B = 22
blades and a stator with V = 55 vanes. The generated m-modes are for the first two
harmonics:
for n = 1 : m = , 33, 22, 77,
for n = 2 : m = , 11, 44, 99,
which indeed corresponds to only cut-off modes of the first harmonic (m = 22 and larger)
and a counter rotating cut-on second harmonic (m = 11).
VKI - 34 -
6.4 Point Source in a Lined Flow Duct 6 SOURCE EXPANSION
2 pm 1 pm 2 m2 (r r0 )
+ + p
m = , (113)
r 2 r r r2 4 2 r0
with
2 = 2 2 , = M. (114)
This has solution
1
pm (r, ) = A()Jm (r) + H(r r0 ) Jm (r0 )Ym (r) Ym (r0 )Jm (r) (115)
8
VKI - 35 -
6 SOURCE EXPANSION 6.4 Point Source in a Lined Flow Duct
where H denotes Heaviside stepfunction, and use is made of the Wronskian (132). A()
is to be determined from the boundary conditions at r = 1, which is (assuming uniform
convergence of the mmodal series) per mode
i2 pm + Z p0m = 0 at r = 1. (116)
Em () = i2 Jm () + ZJm 0
()
Gm (r, ) = Jm ()Ym (r) Ym ()Jm (r)
0
Hm (r, ) = Jm ()Ym (r) Ym0 ()Jm (r)
By substituting the defining series we find that Gm and Hm are analytic functions of 2 ,
while both Em and Jm (r< ) can be written as m times an analytic function of 2 . As a
result, pm (r, ) is a meromorphic9 function of . It has isolated poles = km
, given by
Em (km ) = 0,
+
the integral is evaluated as a sum over the residues in the poles at = km for x > x0
and at km for x < x0 . From eigenvalue equation Em (km ) = 0 and the Wronskian (132)
we obtain
2Z
i2m Gm (r> , m ) + ZHm (r> , m ) = Jm (m r> ).
Jm (m )
9
A meromorphic function is analytic on the complex plane except for isolated poles.
VKI - 36 -
6.4 Point Source in a Lined Flow Duct 6 SOURCE EXPANSION
where m = (km ). We can skip the distinction between r> and r< and achieve the soft
wall modal expansion
1 X Jm (m r)Jm (m r0 ) ikm (xx0 )
pm (r, x) = 2 (
e (117)
2i =1 Qm Jm m )
where for x > x0 the sum pertains to the right-running waves, corresponding to the modal
+
wave numbers km found in the lower complex half plane, and for x < x0 the left-running
waves, corresponding to km found in the upper complex half plane (Rienstra and Tester,
2008).
Only if a mode from the upper half plane is to be interpreted as a right-running instabil-
ity (the necessary analysis is subtle, and involves the dependence of Z (Brambley et al.,
2012; Rienstra and Darau, 2011)), its contribution is to be excluded from the set of modes
for x < x0 and included in the modes for x > x0 . The form of the solution remains exactly
the same, as we do no more than deforming the integration contour into the upper half
plane.
It may be noted that expression (117) is continuous in (x, r), except at (x0 , r0 ) where
the series slowly diverges like a harmonic series. As may be expected from the symmetry
of the configuration, the clockwise and anti-clockwise rotating circumferential modes are
equal, i.e. pm (r, x) = pm (r, x).
Solution (117) is very general. It includes both the no-flow solution (take M = 0)
and the hard walled duct (take Z = ). Without mean flow the problem becomes
+
symmetric in x and it may be notationally convenient to write m = m , km = km
and km = km .
Finding all the eigenvalues km is evidently crucial for the evaluation of the series (117),
in particular when surface waves (compare with figures 17 and 16) occur. Examples of
pm (x, r) are plotted in figures 20 and 21.
VKI - 37 -
6 SOURCE EXPANSION 6.5 Point Source in a Duct Wall
0.15
50
0.1
0.05
pm
0 0
0.05
50 0.1
0.15
Figure 20: Eigenvalues km and Re(pm ), Im(pm ) and |pm | is plotted of the m = 5-th
component of the point source field in a lined flow duct with = 10, Z = 0.1 3i, x0 = 0,
r0 = 0.7, M = 0.5 at r = 0.7 and = 0 . Note the presence of 3 surface waves.
We solve equation (4) again via Fourier transformation in x, and Fourier series expansion
in . We obtain
X Z
im(0 )
p(x, r, ) = e Am ()Jm (()r) ei(xx0 ) d (119)
m=
where ()2 = 2 2 . From the Fourier transformed boundary condition (118) it follows
that Am Jn0 () = /4 2 i, so
X im(0 ) Jm (r) i(xx0)
Z
p(x, r, ) = 2 e 0
e d.
4 i m= Jm ()
VKI - 38 -
6.5 Point Source in a Duct Wall 6 SOURCE EXPANSION
The poles of the meromorphic integrand are found at = km (we use the symmetry
in x), and since the waves must be outgoing the integration contour in the -plane must
be located as in figure 19. Closing the contour via Im() for x > 0 and via
Im() + yields the solution, in the form of a series over the residue-contributions10
in = km . This yields the modal expansion
X X Jm (m r) eikm |xx0|im(0 )
p(x, r, ) = . (120)
2 m= =1 (1 m2 /m
2 )J (
m m )km
10 0
Near = km is Jm (()) ' ( km )km 1 00
m Jm (m ).
VKI - 39 -
7 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
Um (r) = N
m Jm (m r),
X
Cm = Tm Am , or C = T A.
=1
Um (r) and N
m are the obvious generalisations of Um (r) and Nm on the interval [0, b].
Suitable conditions of convergence of the infinite series are assumed, while
0
p
m = jm /a, km = 2 m 2 , Im(km ) 6 0,
0
p
m = jm /b , `m = 2 m 2 , Im(`m ) 6 0.
The matrices R and T are introduced to use the fact that each incident mode reflects and
transmits into a modal spectrum. When acting on the incident field amplitude vector A,
they produce the reflection and transmission field amplitude vectors B and C. Therefore,
they are called reflection matrix and transmission matrix.
VKI - 40 -
7.1 A Discontinuity in Diameter 7 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
r=a
r=b
At the walls we have the boundary condition of vanishing normal velocity. At the
interface x = 0, 0 6 r 6 b we have continuity of pressure and axial velocity.
At the edges we have the so-called edge condition (Mittra and Lee, 1971): the energy
integral of the field in a neighbourhood of an edge must be finite (no source hidden in
the edge). This condition is necessary in a geometry with edges because the boundary
conditions lose their meaning at an edge, whereas the differential equation is not valid at
the boundary. In the context of modal series expansions this condition is related to the
convergence rate of the series. A -function type of a spurious edge source generates a
divergent series expansion (to be interpreted as a generalised function). Although its role
remains in the usual engineering practice somewhat in the background, the edge condition
is certainly important in the present problem.
Since the problem is linear it is sufficient to determine the scattered field of a single
-mode. It then follows that the continuity of pressure at the interface
Tm Um
X X
(Rm + )Um = (122)
=1 =1
yields, after multiplication with Um (r)r, integration from 0 to b, and using orthonormal-
ity, the following relation11 to express Tm in the vector Rm :
Um , Um b (Rm + ) = Tm ,
X
(123)
=1
where
Z b
f,g b = f (r)g(r)r dr.
0
This integral may be evaluated by using equations (142). The continuity of axial velocity
at the interface
m
X X
km (Rm )Um = `m Tm U (124)
=1 =1
11
ij = 1 if i = j, ij = 0 if i 6= j.
VKI - 41 -
7 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION 7.1 A Discontinuity in Diameter
yields, after multiplication with Um (r)r, integration from 0 to a of the left hand side,
and from 0 to b of the right hand side, using px = 0 on b 6 r 6 a, the following relation
expressing Rm in the vector Tm :
Um , Um b `m Tm .
X
km (Rm ) = (125)
=1
Both equations (123) and (125) are valid for any and , so we can write in matrix
notation
M(R + I) = T,
(126)
k (R I) = M> ` T ,
for identity matrix I, matrix M and its transpose M> , and diagonal matrices k and `,
given by
m , Um , k = km , ` = `m .
M = U b
which can be evaluated by standard techniques for any sufficiently large truncated matri-
ces.
A suitable choice of truncation (Masterman and Clarricoats, 1971; Masterman et al.,
1969; Rienstra, 1992; Wu, 1973), allowing for a certain balance between the accuracy in
x < 0 and in x > 0, is to include proportionally more terms in the wider duct: a truncation
of the series of (123) after, say, P terms and of (125) after Q terms, with P/a ' Q/b.
This gives truncated matrices MQP , M> P Q , kP P , `QQ , so that we obtain RP P and
TQP .
It should be noted that if we take P/Q very much different from a/b, we may converge
for P, Q to another solution (127) than the physical one. This is not an artefact of
the method: the solution is indeed not unique, because we have not yet explicitly satisfied
the edge condition. The behaviour near the edge depends on the way we let P and Q
tend to infinity, and the edge condition is satisfied if their ratio remains: P/Q ' a/b.
VKI - 42 -
7.2 Open End Reflection 7 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
ei%
pm (x, r) ' Dm () (% ), (129)
%
where x = % cos , r = % sin , and Dm () is called the directivity function, and |Dm ()|
is the radiation pattern.
The reflection matrix {Rm } and the directivity function are both described by com-
plex integrals, which have to be evaluated numerically. Some important properties are:
At resonance = m we have total reflection in itself, Rm = 1, and no reflection
in any other mode, Rm = 0.
Near resonance m the modulus |Rm ()| behaves linearly from the left, and like
a square root from the right side; the behaviour of the phase arg(Rm ()) is similar
but reversed: linearly from the right and like a square root from the left.
A reciprocity relation between the , and the , -coefficients:
km Rm = km Rm .
1
In the forward arc, 0 < < , Dm () consists of lobes (maxima interlaced by zeros),
2
while D01 (0) = 21 2 i 2 and Dm (0) = 0.
1
In the rearward arc, 6 < , Dm () is free of zeros, and tends to zero for
2
if m > 1 and to a finite value if m = 0.
If km is real and 6= , the zeros of Dm () are found at
= arcsin(m /).
If the mode is cut on, the main lobe is located at
m = arcsin(m /).
If 0, the radiation pattern of the plane wave m = 01 becomes spherically shaped
and small like O( 2), while the reflection coefficient becomes R011 ' exp(i 2),
where = 0.6127. The dimensional distance a is called the end correction, since
x = a is a fictitious point just outside the pipe, at which the wave appears to reflect
with p = 0.
VKI - 43 -
7 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION 7.2 Open End Reflection
1 1.5
|R011|
0.8 1 022
011
0.6 0.5
|R021| |R022| 012
0.4 0
021
0.2 |R012| 0.5
0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1.5
122
0.8 1
|R122|
|R111| 111
0.6 0.5
112
0.4 |R121| 0
121
0.2 |R112| 0.5
0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1.5
222
0.8 1
211
0.6 0.5
212
0.4 |R221| 0
221
|R211|
0.2 |R212| 0.5
|R222|
0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
VKI - 44 -
7.2 Open End Reflection 7 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
Based on the method presented in (Rienstra, 1984), plots of Rm and |Dm ()| may
be generated, as given in figures 23 and 24.
Of the reflection coefficient we have plotted modulus |Rm ()| and phase m =
arg(Rm ) as a function of = 0 . . . 7., for m = 0 . . . 2 and , = 1, 2. Note that the
resonance (cut-off) frequencies are = 3.8317 and 7.0156 for m = 0, = 1.8412 and
5.3314 for m = 1, and = 3.0542 and 6.7061 for m = 2.
The radiation pattern is plotted, on dB-scale, of the first radial mode ( = 1) for
m = 0 and m = 1, and = 2, 4, 6. For m = 0 the main lobe is at 01 = 0, while the zeros
are found for = 4 at = 73.3 , and for = 6 at = 39.7 . For m = 1 we have the main
lobe at 11 = 67.0 , 27.4, 17.9 for = 2, 4, 6. The zero is found at = 62.7 for = 6.
Furthermore, the trend is clear that for higher frequencies the refraction effects become
smaller, and the sound radiates more and more like rays (Chapman, 1994). It is instructive
to compare the wave front velocity of a mode (the sound speed, dimensionless 1) and the
axial phase velocity vf (66). As the mode spirals through the duct, the wave front makes
an angle m with the x-axis such that cos(m ) = 1/vf = km /. Indeed,
m = arccos(km /) = arcsin(m /)
is the angle at which the mode radiates out of the open end, i.e. the angle of the main
lobe.
90 100 90 100
120 60 120 60
60 60
150 30 150 30
20 20
180 0 180 0
Figure 24: Radiation pattern 20 log10 |Dm | + 71.7 for m = 01, = 11 and = 2, 4, 6.
VKI - 45 -
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REFERENCES REFERENCES
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A APPENDIX
A Appendix
A.1 Bessel Functions
The Bessel equation for integer m (which results naturally if we study the eigenvalue
problem 2 = 2 of the Laplace operator in polar coordinates)
001 0 m2
y + y + 1 2 y =0 (130)
x x
has two independent solutions (Watson, 1944; Abramowitz and Stegun, 1964; Erdelyi et al.,
1953; Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, 1994; Luke, 1969). Standardized forms are
Jm (x), m-th order ordinary Bessel function of the 1st kind, (131a)
Ym (x), m-th order ordinary Bessel function of the 2nd kind. (131b)
2
Jm (x)Ym0 (x) Ym (x)Jm
0
(x) = . (132)
x
Bessel functions of imaginary argument give rise to modified Bessel functions. A stan-
dardised modified Bessel function of the 1st kind is
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
increasing. Jm (x) and Jm (x) have an infinite number of real zeros (Table 1), all of which
are simple with the possible exception of x = 0. The -th positive (6= 0) zeros are denoted
0
by jm and jm respectively, except that x = 0 is counted as the first zero of J00 : j01
0
= 0.
0 0
It follows that j0, = j1,1 . In general it is true that jm1 > m.
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A APPENDIX A.1 Bessel Functions
@m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
@@
1 0.0000 1.8412 3.0542 4.2012 5.3176 6.4156 7.5013 8.5778 9.6474 10.711 11.771
2 3.8317 5.3314 6.7061 8.0152 9.2824 10.520 11.735 12.932 14.116 15.287 16.448
3 7.0156 8.5363 9.9695 11.346 12.682 13.987 15.268 16.529 17.774 19.005 20.223
4 10.173 11.706 13.170 14.586 15.964 17.313 18.637 19.942 21.229 22.501 23.761
0
Table 1: Zeros of Jm (x)
yielding
0
jm ' ( + 21 m 14 ), jm ' ( + 21 m 43 ) for (137)
Asymptotic behaviour for m :
1 ex m
Jm (x) ' (138)
2m 2m
Important recurrence relations are
m
Jm1 (x) + Jm+1 (x) = 2 Jm (x) (139)
x
0
Jm1 (x) Jm+1 (x) = 2Jm (x) (140)
In particular:
J00 (x) = J1 (x) (141)
Relations involving integrals:
m2 n2
Z
2 2
( )x Jm (x)Jn (x) dx = xJn0 (x)Jm (x) xJm
0
(x)Jn (x)
x
Z (142)
2 2
2 xJm (x) dx = ( x m )Jm (x) + x Jm (x)2
2 2 2 2 2 2 0
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A.2 An Important Complex Square Root A APPENDIX
The sign choice is made such that always Im() 6 0. This implies that the branch cuts
are located right along the curves where Im() = 0, i.e. along the imaginary axis, and
the real interval |z| 6 1. For definiteness the branch cuts are included in the domain of
definition as the limits from the Re > 0 side. See figure 26. If we take care along the
branch cuts, where sign(Im ) is not defined, a simple way to determine is
(z) = sign Im 1 z 2 1 z2 (144)
zC
Im() = 0
H
HH
j
(0) = 1
Re() < 0 Re() = 0
1 Re() > 0 1
real axis
branch cut
?
6 branch cut
Re() > 0
Re() = 0 Re() < 0
QQ
k
Q
Im() = 0
Im() 6 0
everywhere
imaginary
axis
Figure 26: Branch cuts and signs of (z) = 1 z 2 in complex z-plane.
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A APPENDIX A.3 Myers Energy Corollary
as shown by Myers (1991). Mean flow pressure and its perturbation are denoted by p0
and p0 , density by 0 and 0 , velocity by v 0 and v 0 , sound speed by c0 , temperature by T0
and T 0 , entropy by s0 and s0 , and vorticity by 0 = v 0 and 0 = v 0 .
Note that these equations only contain mean flow and and first order perturbation
terms. Consequently, this conservation law is exactly valid for small linear disturbances
(p0 , v 0 , etc.) of a mean flow (p0 , v0 , etc.).
The perturbation energy defined by E and I is not conserved, unless D = 0, for
example with irrotational and isentropic flow, or a uniform medium without mean flow.
Taking the time average of (145) for time harmonic perturbations yields
By taking the volume integral of (147) over a volume V with boundary V and applying
the divergence theorem, we find
Z Z
hI ni d + hDi dx = 0. (149)
V V
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