Principles of Competency-based Education

Learning and development is becoming more critical to organizational success. Tarique

(2014) identified rapid forces of change pressuring organizations to compete globally.
With more adult learners than ever before, educational environments are pressured to
present content that is flexible, lean, and value added. Additionally, educational settings
and workforces are multigenerational, adding another layer of complexity. What is the
best way to address these challenges? The answer is competency-based education.

What is the difference between competency-based education and

traditional education?
In competency-based education
learners master competencies at their own pace.
learners demonstrate mastery (100%) of competencies outlined for success in a
current subject or job position.
learners receive additional instruction if they are unable to master a certain
competency.
learners are able to retake classes as often as necessary to demonstrate
mastery.
In traditional education
learners progress through a curriculum at a specified pace.
learners must score higher than a failing grade, but 100% mastery is NOT
required to progress.
learners are expected to be fully trained by the provided curriculum.
learners failing to pass the course are considered to have a performance issue.

What are the principles of competency-based education?

Five main principles must be addressed when creating competency-based education:
Competencies are identified and verified using a systematic methodology.
Instruction is aligned to standards or competencies.
Progress through instruction is based on learner mastery.
Learners progress through instruction at their own pace.
Formative and summative assessments are aligned to standards and objectives.

What is a competency?
A competency is a cluster of related knowledge, skills, or attributes that are observable
and that enable one to perform effectively in a given job.

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Why are competencies important?
Competencies are used to ensure that a student has effectively mastered a skill. When
a person completes a competency-based education program, they are expected to be
able to effectively perform each function learned in the program.

How are competencies identified?

Identifying competencies is a critical part of competency-based education. Knowing
what to train is key and can be determined by conducting a needs assessment. For a
higher educational setting, the goal of a needs assessment is to identify whether
academic programs have enough employment opportunities to sustain instructional
offerings and attract students. Some factors to consider in this type of needs analysis
include skill levels of the occupation, starting salary ranges, and the type of instructional
programs offered (secondary or postsecondary). In a business setting, a needs
assessment is typically done by consulting with management about pain points and
obligations. Organizations may have monetary constraints regarding training.
Management may identify issues that need immediate attention, such as safety issues
or new work processes.
After factors are identified and a need is identified for training, the next step is to
conduct a job analysis or an occupational analysis. A job analysis typically works in a
company or organizational setting, focusing on one single job. An occupational analysis
consists of several closely related jobs, which works well for higher education settings.
A methodology of doing a job or occupational analysis is called
DACUM. DACUM is an acronym for developing a curriculum. This two-
day workshop is facilitated by a DACUM-certified facilitator. After the
job or occupation is identified, a panel of subject-matter experts
(SMEs) are identified to participate in the workshop. The DACUM
facilitator then asks SMEs to identify the duties and tasks of their job. If
you envision a job or occupation as a filing cabinet, the drawers of the
filing cabinet can be visualized as the duties and each individual file
can then be visualized as the task. Duties are the broad overviews of
work or categories. The tasks are then identified under the duty.
After the DACUM is completed, all of the tasks identified by SMEs
need to be verified. Questions asked during task verification include:
How frequently is the task performed?
How difficult is it to perform the task?
How important is the task?
Verification criteria will differ from organization to organization. The purpose of the
verification is to provide accurate information and filter tasks. Typically, organizations
gather this information by administering surveys to employees and management.

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Verifications also allow for gathering ratings for task statements and frequencies, which
elicits more public support.
After surveys are sent, competencies need to be identified. Every organization has
different ways to determine this information. Tasks can be deselected or recommended
for a task analysis. Tasks are selected on various factors, including percentage of
employees performing the task, task importance, task difficulty, and task criticality.
Conca & Juana-Espinosa (2011) also identified other techniques that organizations can
use to identify needed competencies, such as the Delphi techniques, benchmarking,
interviews of critical knowledge, self-evaluations, and surveys.
After the DACUM is completed, all the tasks identified by SMEs need to be analyzed.
Ideally, the same SMEs from the DACUM panel meet again to do the task analysis,
breaking down each individual task identified through verification for training needs.
During task analysis, SMEs break down the steps needed to perform each task,
determine good performance criteria, identify successful behaviors and cues needed to
know the task is done correctly, specify what tools and equipment are necessary, and
describe potential errors a novice can make.
After the task analysis is completed, a competency profile is created. This profile
consists of categorizing, clustering, and listing each competency. Often, competency
profiles are constructed by a panel of organizational leaders or outside consultants who
individually analyze and categorize the competencies. After each member has made an
assessment, the results are shared with the group in a think-pair-share method to
organize the competency profile most effectively.

How is instruction aligned to competencies?

After competencies are identified and verified, it is best practice to align instruction to
standards and competencies. To accomplish this, four criteria should be met:
Clearly and consistently communicates expectations for performance
Provides learner access to high-quality learning resources and support
Includes opportunities for practice and feedback
Includes instruction that can be individualized based on learner interests and
needs
It is important to explain clearly what the expectations are for learners. Learning goals
help learners focus their learning (Seidel, Rimmele, & Prenzel, 2005). When learners
understand exactly what they are supposed to learn and what their work will look like
when they learn it, they are better able to monitor and adjust their work, select effective
strategies, and connect current work to prior learning (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, &
Wiliam, 2003; Moss, Brookhart, & Long, 2011). Learner goals improve learning for all
age groups, from young children (Higgins, Harris, & Kuehn, 1994) through adult
learners (Knowles, 1973;1984).

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Because learners master competencies at different rates, it is imperative to have robust
resources available. To provide learners with learning options, the variety of resources
should be varied to include reading and media options. This gives learners control over
the way they learn and may improve learner motivation. Also, it is best practice to
provide accessible resources per Section 508 of the Americans with Disabilities Act.
The following site has more information: http://www.ada.gov/508.
Knowles (1984) emphasized that adult learners are self-directed learners, meaning that
the focus should be on process and not on content. To set up the learner for success,
competency-based education should include low-risk knowledge checks where the user
can do a trial run of the competency. Feedback can come from a peer, supervisor, or
predesigned feedback options. The Cycle of Practice and Feedback, adapted from
Ambrose et al
(2010), shows
that practice
leads to
observed
performance,
which allows for
targeted
feedback that
guides further
practice. The
competencies in the middle dictate the nature of practice, provide basis for evaluating
observed performance, and then allow for feedback to guide the learner on future
learning. Ambrose et al (2010) also stated that practice is not enough to foster learning.
To foster competency mastery, feedback should be timely and appropriate. While there
is no one-size-fits-all approach to feedback, a best practice is to appropriately time all
communication that is clear and that aligns with the competencies.
One way to implement individual instruction is by competency mapping, which allows
self-assessment of individuals strengths and weaknesses as they relate to their
careers. After competencies are identified, self-reported details can be ranked against
competencies. To give learners options, provide a variety of resources that includes
reading and media options. This gives learners control over the way they learn and may
improve learner motivation. Also, it is a good practice to provide accessible resources
per the ADA Section 508.
Making progress through learner mastery is not a new concept. Bloom (1971) called this
mastery learning, in which concepts and skills were organized into chunks or units and
where learners take a formative assessment based on goals. The assessment is
designed to give learners feedback. In competency-based education, this is often a
performance test, which is represented by skill tests and demonstrations and
simulations on the scale of fidelity. This is valuable because it focuses on the individual.

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No comparison is made of one person against another, allowing for an extra level of
personalization through the training materials.
Since learners have different learning styles and rates of mastery, their learning should
progress through instruction at their own pace. As competency-based training materials
are produced, the content needs to be learner focused. Materials often fall under one of
four categories:
The knowledge level is the lowest scale of fidelity where the learner receives
information.
Second is the application level that includes skill tests that allow the learner to
sample skills.
Third is the synthesis level that includes demonstrations and simulations.
The highest on the scale of fidelity is the creation level. This is where case
portfolio reviews are conducted.

How is competency-based education assessed?

Because competency-based education focuses on competencies the learner must
master, assessments must be aligned to competencies and objectives. When you
began this module, you took a diagnostic assessment or a pretest. This pretest focuses
on content in this module. If you took a pretest that was not aligned with the learning
objectives of the instruction, it would not properly assess your knowledge of the content.
Alignment is key in any type of training program.
In addition to diagnostic assessment, competency-based education should include
formative and summative assessments. Formative assessment provides feedback while
instruction is taking place. Formative assessment focuses on identifying areas of
improvement for the learner. An example of this is using polling software to assess
knowledge checks. Summative assessment provides feedback after learning is
complete. Here, no feedback is taking place during learning. Examples of summative
assessments include final examinations or portfolios.

References:
Adams, L. (2011). Learning a New Skill is Easier Said Than Done. Retrieved from
Gordon Training International website http://www.gordontraining.com/free-
workplace-articles/learning-a-new-skill-is-easier-said-than-done/.
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., Lovett, M. C., DiPietro, M., & Norman, M. K. (2010).
How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003). The nature of value of
formative assessment for learning. Improving Schools (6), 7-22.
Bloom, B. S. (1971). Mastery learning. Mastery learning: Theory and practice (pp. 47-
63). New York, NY. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

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Brookhart, S. M., & Moss, C. M. (2014). Learning Targets on Parade. Educational
Leadership, (72[2]), 28-33.
Higgins, K. M., Harris, N. A., & Kuehn, L. L. (1994). Placing assessment into the hands
of young children: A study of student-generated criteria and self-assessment.
Educational Assessment, (2[4]), 309-324.
Knowles, M. (1984). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (3rd ed.). Houston, TX:
Gulf Publishing.
Juana-Espinosa, S. D. (2012). Human resource management in the digital economy:
Creating synergy between competency models and information. Hershey, PA:
IGI Global.
Moss, C. M., Brookhart, S. M., & Long, B. A. (2011). Knowing your learning target.
Educational Leadership, (68[6]), 66-69.
Ross, J. A., Hogaboam-Gray, A., & Rolheiser, C. (2002). Student self-evaluation in
grade 5-6 mathematics effects on problem-solving achievement. Educational
Assessment, (8[1]), 43-58.
Seidel, T., Rimmele, R., & Prenzel, M. (2005). Clarity and coherence of lesson goals as
a scaffold for student learning. Learning and Instruction, (15[6]), 539-556.
Stolovitch, H., & Keeps, E. (2011). Telling ain't training. ASTD Press.
Tarique, I. (2014). Seven Trends in Corporate Training and Development: Strategies to
Align Goals with Employee Needs. Pearson Education.
The International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (2016).
Retrieved from The International Board of Standards for Training, Performance
and Instruction website http://ibstpi.org/.
Tri. (2013, December). The Four States of Competence Explained. Retrieved from
http://examinedexistence.com/the-four-states-of-competence-explained/.
United States Department of Justice (1990). Section 508 of The Americans with
Disabilities Act (29 U.S.C. 794d). Retrieved from The Americans with
Disabilities Act website http://www.ada.gov/508/.

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