Advances in Environment, Ecosystems and Sustainable Tourism

The role of forests in controlling land degradation through erosion in

Romania
MARIOARA COSTEA
Department of Ecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Science
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
5-7, Dr. Ion Ratiu Street, Sibiu, RO - 550012
ROMANIA
marioara_costea@yahoo.com

Abstract: In the last decades, mankind has been faced with land degradation caused by improper exploitation in
the historical past. On a global scale, the forest area decreased to about 30% of the land area in the last two
centuries [1]. The reductions of forest areas occurred mainly in densely populated areas, for farmland and
settlements expansion, but also in less populated regions of the world. Overall, the forest area reduction from
anthropogenic causes recorded a rate of 9 million ha/year during the last decades [2] [3]. Such changes in forest
structure also occurred in Romania and have led to the accelaration of geomorphological and hydrological
processes and have increased the areas degraded by erosion. This paper presents the current situation of forests
in Romania, the regressive dynamic as an acceleration factor of the degradation processes in the last two
decades and rehabilitation measures of degraded lands through afforestation. Statistical data of the last two
decades provided by INSSE National Institute for Statistics were processed and interpreted in this paper [4].

Keywords:naturalness index, forest fund, deforestations, degraded lands, ecological rehabilitation, Romania.

1 Introduction statistic is an argument for the relatively large share

Forests play an important role in maintaining the
quality of landscapes, of plant and animal
biodiversity, in preventing land degradation and in
maintaing the quality of ecosystems. Given the
current climate variability [5] [6] and
unprecedented human pressure on lands through
intensive use and conversion [5] [7] [3], the forests
have a very important environmental and anti-
erosional role [8] [1].
Worldwide, about 29% of land is degraded and
its share in Romania was about 2.08% of the total
land fund in 2010 [9], water erosion being
considered the most widespread and important
phenomenon in land degradation. This
phenomenon affects about 6.3 million ha, or 43.2%
of the total agricultural land in Romania [4].
In the State of Environment Report for 2010, the
European Environment Agency shows that the
degraded areas are growing [1] [10]. In the years
between 1990 and 2000, at least 275 hectares of
land, the equivalent of 1000 km2 per year, were lost
every day in the European Union. Between 2000
and 2006, losses have increased on average by 3%
and at regional level over 10% in areas with wet
climate or in the Mediterranean environment (14%
in Ireland and Cyprus and 15% in Spain) [8]. This
of forests with a protective role in Europe. In 2010,
the soil protection forests occupied an area of 36.5
million ha (21.6%), being especially spread in
vulnerable areas of Mediterranean and Northern
Europe [10]. Forests are involved in soil erosion
reduction, as they constitute a buffer in reducing
the intensity of morphogenetic processes related to
the pluvial denudation and gravitational processes
(like landslides, collapse).
In our country forests occur as forestry massifs,
mainly spread in the mountain regions, but also
scattered in the hilly regions, plateaus and plains
(as riverside coppices and protective forest
curtains). Today, the forest fund has a share of
about 28% of the total land fund and is expanding
under compact form in mountain and hilly regions
and very fragmented and dispersed in the plains [9].
At county level, the largest forest areas are found in
mountain counties like Suceava (453.7 thousand
ha), Caras-Severin (411.4 thousand ha) and
Hunedoara (365.6 thousand ha), and the smallest in
the southern part of the country, in the counties of
the Romanian Plain (Calarasi - 22.3 thousand ha,
Ilfov - 25.2 thousand ha, Ialomita 26.2 thousand
ha, Braila - 28.4 thousand ha) and Dobrudja
(Constanta - 38.2 thousand ha) (fig.1) [4].

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Fig. 1 Distribution by counties of forest fund, naturalness index and forest area per capita
2 Naturalness index as landscape
quality indicator
Starting from the premise that forests are an
indicator of landscape naturality, a protection and
stability factor of land, the naturalness index was
used to demonstrate that degradation through
erosion and changes in the original landscape are
more pronounced where the forest areas are smaller
(In) [11]. The naturalness index represents the
percentage ratio between the forest area (forest and
other forest vegetation) and the total area of the
land fund.
The naturalness index values between 4.38
(Calarasi) and 53.04 (Suceava) indicate a large
discrepancy between the counties located in the
Romanian Plain and the counties with high
development in the Carpathian and Sub-Carpathian
area, where the frequency of forests is very high
(fig.1). This discrepancy can also be seen at county
level in forested surface asignable to each
inhabitant (fig.1). At country level, this was on
average 0.27 ha/capita in 1998, and 0.32 ha/capita
in 2010, very close to the minimum of 0.3 ha/capita
allowed by FAO [2] to maintain the landscape
equilibrium.
ISBN: 978-1-61804-195-1
At county level, the forest area per capita has
large gaps between the minimum of 0.01 ha/capita
in Ilfov county, including Bucharest, and the
maximum of 1.28 ha/capita in Caras-Severin. For
18 counties this index has lower values than the
minimum allowed by FAO, and they are extended
in the hills, plateaus and plains areas, where the risk
of degradation through erosion is high due to
geological features, climatic conditions and
inadequate agricultural use.
3 Forest dynamics in Romania as a
potentiating factor of land
degradation
Trees and litter have a particularly important role in
erosion mitigation or impact energy annihilation at
ground level, by limiting splash erosion and runoff
and by absorbing water. The intervention of forest
in the hydric cicle regulation ( especially of liquid
and solid flow) [6] [12] is achieved through the
ability of vegetation to intercept rainfall water, the
increase of infiltration in the geological substrate
(favored by roots penetration), water absobtion
from the substrate, soil stabilization etc. [13].
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 Advances in Environment, Ecosystems and Sustainable Tourism
The influence on the flow is significant [6]; it
depends on the absorption capacity of the litter (30
- 40% of total interception, depending on litter
thickness, amount of rainfall and slope), the
interception in the foliage (varies by species and
canopy development, representing about 19% for
beech forests without leaves and 40% for leafy
beech forest), in the trunks and branches
(depending on age and species, the bark being more
rough on oak, sessile oak, pine, acacia, sometimes
the interception in the bark reaches up to 15 to 20%
of the total) [14]. In this context, the regressive
dynamic of forest areas can attract geomorphologic
imbalances associated with the acceleration of the
current runoff processes, soil imbalances through
loss of humus horizon, hydrological phenomena of
maximum flow (flash floods, flooding) and also the
degrading of ecological systems.
In our country, the forest fund area has
undergone accentuated dynamics since historical
times, due to human pressure. Bacanaru, Velcea
(2005) showed that until the end of the 18th
century "the offensive against forests was limited to
deforestation for choosing sites for settlements and
places for plowing and sowing, hayfields and
pastures" (p. 232) [15].
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the
anthropogenic pressure increased significantly as a
result of industrial and communication ways
development and of using wood as raw material,
but especially as fuel. The toponyms that appear on
the peaks and slopes of hills and plateaus, like
Carpinis, Faget, Stejeris etc., reveal the existence of
larger forest areas in the past. David (1939), quoted
by Bacanaru, Velcea (2005), estimated that
inventorying and mapping of toponyms indicating
the presence of forests would reconstitute the area
occupied by forests in the last centuries at about 75
- 80% of Romania's surface [15].
In the last two decades, forest areas have
undergone significant variations. Deforestations
were the main reason for forest areas reduction. In
2000, forests and areas occupied by forest
vegetation totalized 6 457.3 thousand ha (27.08%
of the country surface), with about 228 thousand
hectares less than in 1990 (when the forest fund
represented 28.04%). During this period, one of the
main causes of the forest fund decline, about 3.4%,
was the intensive use of wood that occurred
subsequently to the restitution of forest areas to
their former owners (Land Fund Law 18/1991 as
amended) [16]. Total deforestations have generated
imbalances in geomorphological and hydrological
systems in rainy years (1996, 1998, 2005, 2007).
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Between 1990 and 2011, the forests were cut
down on area of 71.1 thousand ha, which
determined an annual average of deforestation rate
of 3 230 ha/year. Compared to this value, between
2000 and 2011 over 4 000 ha/year were deforested
(4697 ha/2004, 5310 ha/2005, 5480 ha/2006, 4826
ha/2010, 4453 ha/2011) (table 1) [4].
On the other hand, the decrease of forest areas
was also recorded as a result of forest degradation
due to natural phenomena, such as storms or
breakage of trunks due to being loaded with snow
[17]. Subsequently, the forest areas have increased
through reforestations, so that in 2010 the area was
about 300 thousand ha larger than in 2000 and also
exceeded the surface of 1990 with about 72
thousand ha.
The table below (table 1) shows that cuts in the
last decades were made both for economic reasons,
to increase the economic value of forest areas, and
for ecological reasons, to recover the forests
ecosystems degraded by natural causes. Trunks
broken by snow and windfall (these phenomena are
often associated) are the most important natural
phenomena which degrade the Romanian forests,
unlike in the countries of Southern Europe, where
the self-ignition phenomena predominates.
Researches conducted by Popa (2007) about the
risk of broken trunks reveal that the forests from
Suceava, Harghita and Covasna counties are the
most vulnerable to this phenomena, a volume of
100 000 m3 of wood being quantified as minimum
losses for a single event. Catastrophic forest
fallings occured in Romania in 1995 in Harghita
and Covasna counties, when 7 8 mil. m3 of
wooden material were degraded and in 2002 in the
Suceava county, when the losses were quantified at
6 to 7 milion m3 [17].
The most significant regressive dynamic of the
forest areas was registered between 1990 and 2000
(fig.2). Their reduction can be mainly attributed to
changes of ownership form on forests, to economic
interests in rapid earnings, to the infringement of
current legislation or legislative gap in this domain.
In 1996, 511.1 thousand ha of forest (7.6% of total
forest surfaces) have entered into private property;
this area has continued to increase (in 2000 it was
about 611.6 thousand ha) until 2010, when it
reached a value of 2610.9 thousand ha (i.e. 38.6%
of the forest fund surface). Comparative analysis of
forest dynamics and distribution of degraded land
reveals an overlay of counties with regressive
dynamic of forest ranging from 10 to 20 thousand
ha between 1990 and 2010, with the counties where
degraded and unproductive areas in 2000 and 2010
exceeded 20 thousand ha.
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Table 1 Area of forest fund on which cutting works were made (ha)
Types of cuts 1990 2000 2010 2011
Total of regeneration cuts, from which 72915 54543 99229 107690
Forest regenerations 66493 48966 71722 78536
succesive and progressive cuts 35482 40704 61129 69220
gardening cuts 28324 5688 5767 4863
clear cuts 2687 2574 4826 4453
Coppice regeneration 3109 4097 4568 4565
Substitution-recovery of weakley productive and degraded 3313 1480 1033 1088
arboretums
Conservation cuts - - 21906 23501
Hygiene and cleaning operations 1502188 658122 695894 709156
Care cuts in the young forests 286902 226127 132303 158138
Accidental products cuts 512268 479893 471027 560341
Conversion cuts of wooded grassland - - 4644 7267
Source: INSSE online series

Fig.2 Situation of degraded land and evolution of forest fund by counties from 1990 to 2010.

This reduction of forest areas can be a major
risk factor in the recrudescence and the acceleration
of erosion processes and in increasing the degraded
areas in hilly and plateau regions, but also in
mountain units, corresponding to the counties of:
Alba, Sibiu, Bistrita Nasaud, Suceava, Vaslui,
Caras Severin, Valcea, Arges etc. The direct effect
of deforestation lies in interception decrease, runoff
increase, the initiation of surface erosion processes
and the development and rapid evolution of linear
erosion forms (rill, ravine and gully). Studies
conducted by Zavoianu et al. (1999) indicate that in
the climatic conditions of Romania, a reduction of
about 10% of forest areas determines an increase in
the thickness of water layer drained on the surface
and the increase of the flow energy, as well as the
increase of eroded material quantity. In the case of
coniferous forests, a reduction of the surface by

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10% results in an increase of 20-25 mm of the hydrological balance and in water drainage on
thickness of drained water layer. Deciduous forest slopes, implicitly in reducing the amount of solid
area reduction by the same percentage results in an material, i.e. the average rate of erosion.
increase of 17 to 19 mm of the thickness of drained This option, however, must be preceded by
water layer. The shrubs of junipers are able to identification operations of sediment sources and
retain an amount of about 6000 t/ha solid material geological features, soil type, and morphometric
in the subalpine level of the Carpathians, compared features of landforms. It is recommended to make
to 1000 to 1200 t/ha in the cleared areas [13]. an inventory of the areas affected by areolar
Degradation by surface erosion, especially erosion, linear erosion by runoff, gullying,
linear erosion, also occurs in forests, on the torrential erosion and to identify the forms of
operation roads. Researches show an increase in storage (eluvial, delluvial, colluvial, proluvial
erosion during the first years of forest exploitation, deposits) which can become, by reactivation,
and the operating mode used by pulling logs down sources of solid materials. First, operations to
mountainsides is relevant in the generation of remove moisture excessand to drain the surface are
channels, ravines and gullies. In the rainy periods needed, followed by afforestation with species that
of spring, summer or autumn, these towing can ensure the best protection. For the
channels become torrents of mud [9] [18]. improvement of eroded land through afforestation,
Likewise, the concentrated flow on forest roads the following species ensure good results: Scots
causes them strong erosion and degradation by pine plantations, black pine, acacia, oak, sessile
ravening. Studies conducted by Radoane (1985) in oak, alder, cherry, willow, poplar, ash [13] [14]
the Moldavian Subcarpathians show that the [17]; the results depend on the geological substrata
initiation and developement of ravines and gullies and soil type, the slopes exposure and declivity.
occur both downstream and upstream of the road Statistical data on the surface of woodlands in
belt, the ravines reaching widths of 3 to 16 m, Romania in the last 5 years shows the concern for
depths of 1 to 3 m and lengths of 18 to 66 m in a maintaining land quality, ecological balance and
single season. Turbidity measurements made by landscape quality. At national level, clearcutting
the author have demonstrated, through its values, was balanced by afforestations. Just between 2005
the erosive capacity of water flow on forest roads and2010 afforestations were performed on 72.9 ha,
on different rainfall events: on June 11, 1981 for a with an average of 12.2 thousand ha/year, but the
rainfall of 16 mm, with a maximum intensity of 3 available data does not certify that these works
mm/min, the liquid flow was about 1 l/s, and the were made on deforested or degraded areas.
turbidity of 87g/l, and the sudden melting of snow Moreover, a period oftime is required between
on April 15, 1981, led to a fluid flow of 3 l/s and a these operations, in order to perform cleaning
turbidity of 125 g/l [18]. works, in which case the quantities of rainfall can
cause imbalances and can install linear erosions on
gullies and ravines. The figure below shows that
4 Afforestation as an option in land afforestation efforts have however been made in
counties with hydric and wind erosion problems.
degradation management For Suceava and Harghita, counties affected in
Afforestation is a desirable and necessary measure
previous years by forest degradation through trunks
in territorial planning and land use management in
breakage, these actions serve to protect the land and
order to diminish and extinguish the erosion
the forest rehabilitation (fig. 3).
processes. Through absorption consumption and
evaporation the forest intervenes in the

2000
1800
(ha)

1600
2005
1400
2008
1200 2010
1000
800
600
400
200
0
MM

TM
GR

HR

HD

MH

PH

TR
CT

IF

NT

OT
CJ

DJ

GJ
Cluj
CS

DB

IS

MS
GL

IL

TL
BC

BH

BN

BR

SM
BT

SJ
CV

SB
BZ
AR

VN
AG

VL
AB

BV

SV

VS

Fig.3 Afforestation works carried out in Romania in the period between 2005 and 2010 (Source data: INSSE)

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5 Conclusions
Relatively recent land fund transformations,
especially of the forest fund, were and are guided
by the economic and social transition, which
Romania is still facing and by spatial and
functional dynamics of human settlements. At
national level, the forest areas have registered both
negative (3.4% in 2000 compared to 1990) and
positive variations (4.6% in 2010 compared to
2000). Degraded areas decreased by 22% in 2010
compared to 2000 [4], although it is difficult to
verify this figure. Their reduction should be
reflected in land improvement works and in
afforestations. In reality, the first lack completely
or have been abandoned in many counties, although
they are still mentioned in statistics, and
afforestation initiatives are still timid compared to
the percentage of degraded land. The situation is
worrying at county as well as local level.
Legislation instability and infringement are
often the main causes of deforestation in the last
years. Under the conditions of changing property
type (1991) [16], the current economic crisis and
mismanagement in the implementation of territorial
planning and development strategies, land and
forest areas protection and conservation are
difficult actions. Activities in which we should all
get involved, from individual to community,
including specialists and managers in
administrative structures, are those of awareness of
the function of forest protection and of the
ecological role in the rehabilitation of degraded
land, of the accountability of actions at all levels
and of compliance with the law.
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