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THE EFFECT OF SLAG MODELING TO IMPROVE

STEELMAKING PROCESSES

E.B. Pretorius and R. Marr

Applications Technology Group


Baker Refractories
York, PA 17405-1189

ABSTRACT

This paper attempts to illustrate the benefits of using slag models based on the
thermodynamics of steelmaking reactions and the multi-dimensional modeling of phase
equilibria. The use of mass balance calculations and the application of these
personal computer-based slag models to the refinement of standard operating procedures can
simultaneously result in shorter process times, more predictable metallurgical results, and
lower refractory costs.

1. INTRODUCTION

The drive in recent years by the iron and steelmaking industry to cut costs and still produce
high quality steels, has illuminated the importance of good slag practices in primary and
secondary steelmaking processes. There has been a gradual realization that the slag phase in
steelmaking is not a necessary evil but a crucial part of modern steelmaking practices. The
goals of producing high quality steel and low costs can not be realized by poor slag practices.
The concept of "slag engineering" or "slag optimization" is becoming more common in many
steelmaking works, as the need to implement these concepts is driven by more stringent steel
quality requirements.

One of the advantages of slag engineering is that customized slags can be designed to fulfill
the metallurgical requirements of specific steel grades. An essential requirement here is the
steelmakers ability to estimate the composition of the slag at any stage of the process. This can
only be done by a mass-balance approach where all the factors contributing to the slag are
considered, viz.: carryover slag, taphole material, deoxidation products, alloy oxidation
products, refractory material, and flux additions. By controlling and manipulating slag
composition and slag formation rates, the efficiency of the steelmaking process can be
optimized.

This paper attempts to illustrate the benefits of using slag models based on the
thermodynamics of steelmaking reactions and the multi-dimensional modeling of phase
equilibria, in conjunction with mass-balance calculations. The application of these computer-
based slag models to the refinement of standard operating procedures can simultaneously
result in shorter process times, more predictable metallurgical results and lower refractory
costs. Although the models discussed represent an advance over previous models available
for in-plant use, they are still subject to the primary limitation of requiring conditions close to
equilibrium (high fluidity and/or stirring). Thus while the models are very applicable to
EAF/BOF refining slags, ladle furnace slags, and stainless steel reduction slags; they do not
apply to stainless steel decarburization slags.

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2. MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS AND SLAG MODELS

Knowledge and control of the parameters affecting the efficiency of the steelmaking process
empowers the steelmaker to make the necessary decisions for optimization. A mass-balance
calculation approach, using simple spreadsheets, is a fundamental tool that can be used to
evaluate the critical operational (and cost) parameters in the EAF, the ladle furnace, and the
stainless steel vessel (AOD, VOD, and CLU).

For example, an approximate slag composition in the EAF can be calculated from typical heat
data: the heel in the furnace, the scrap composition, the fluxes added, the extent of blow and
carbon injection. With the use of historical data, slag and steel analyses, the assumptions and
boundary conditions of the mass balance can be adjusted to give a fairly reliable prediction
of the EAF slag composition. This will enable the steelmaker to adjust his flux addition and
carbon and oxygen injection for optimum energy consumption, good foaming practice and
minimum refractory wear. A consistent foaming practice can then be achieved for all grades
of steel without the formation of watery FeO-rich slags for low-C heats, or crusty bottom-
building slags for high-C heats. The recovery of chromium from EAF slags can be enhanced
by the design of flux recipes and reduction adds that will result in reasonably fluid basic slags
with low chromium oxide solubilities.

The application of a mass-balance approach is even more effective for ladle furnace operations
and stainless steel production (AOD/VOD/CLU) [1]. The use of a mass-balance calculation to
obtain a good estimate of the composition of a slag in a ladle or stainless steel vessel enables
the steelmaker to adjust his alloy and flux additions to optimize the slag for steelmaking
requirements (sulfur removal or retention ) and compensate for the effect of carryover slag. A
mass-balance is especially useful to generate flux additions recipes for various steel grades.
An accurate estimation of the slag composition in the EAF, ladle, or AOD is a indispensable
piece of information. However, this information without the ability and knowledge to quickly
interpret the composition of the slag, and make the necessary adjustments for optimum
metallurgical or refractory benefit, is of limited use. Baker Refractories has employed a
personal computer based slag model for more than ten years which uses the solidus
(crystallized mineralogy) phase relations to estimate slag compatibility with basic refractories.
This model is based on Raits mineralogical work [2] and has been extensively published
through ISS short courses.

These initial solidus models have severe limitations. They do not accurately show the effect of
temperature variations of the melt phase on the maximum solubility of CaO or MgO. They do
not accurately predict the melt phase amounts, or the effect of fluidizing components such as
Al2O3, SiO2, FeO or CaF2. Thus solidus models are not useful for metallurgical predictions.

Solidus based programs had the advantage of being operable on the then available personal
computers, which early thermodynamic and liquidus surface based phase models were not
[3,4]. The improvement of personal computers by 1990 allowed the design of a liquidus
program and its tie-in to spreadsheet-based mass balance calculations. This brought slag
engineering out of the lab and onto the shop floor. The selection of particular areas on these
multi-component and multi-dimensional phase diagrams that are of special interest to the
steelmaker, can greatly simplify the modeling possibilities, allowing quicker results and the
use of a PC platform. Since most steelmaking slags are basic in nature, the models described
in this paper have been designed for basic slags. The models utilize a statistical and
mathematical approach to describe the liquidus surface and solidus phase relations as a

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function of temperature and composition for basic slags that are compatible with magnesia and
dolomite refractories [5,6].

The liquidus surface has been mathematically modeled in 3D space by a combination of


geometric and thermodynamic estimates. At a given temperature, for any composition, the
models seek the CaO/MgO saturated liquidus boundary (Point O on Figure 1). The
adjustment of CaO/MgO levels to achieve the 100% fluid boundary is shown, and
desulfurization (for reduced slags) is estimated for the 100% fluid slags using published
optical basicity correlations [7,8].

SiO2

S = SiO2
10 90
M = MgO
M2S = Mg2SiO4 20 80
S+L All liquid
C2S = Ca2SiO4
30 70 All solid
L = liquid
Liquid + solid(s)
40 60

50 50
M2S + L
Mg2SiO4
60 O 40
C2S + L
Ca2SiO4 M+L M2S + L + M
70 C2 S + L + M 30

80 20

90 10

CaO 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 MgO

Figure 1. Isothermal section for the CaO-MgO-SiO2 system at 1600C (2912F)

Currently two models have been developed: The first model is applicable to oxidized slags
and incorporates the components CaO, MgO, SiO2, Al2O3, FeO, and MnO, and can be used for
EAF and BOF slags. This model defines the compositions of slags with good foaming
properties that are also compatible with magnesia slag-line refractories.
The second model has been designed for reduced slags and incorporates the components
CaO, MgO, SiO2, Al2O3 and CaF2, and can be applied to ladle slags and stainless steel
reduction slags. This model defines slag compositions that are not only the optimum slags for
metallurgical practice, but are also fully compatible with magnesia and dolomite refractories.
Compatible slags are defined as just being CaO and MgO saturated and having a high fluidity.
Considering the various combinations of fluidizers (SiO2, Al2O3, and/or CaF2), an infinite
number of slag compositions can be generated that will have different sulfide capacities, so
that slag compositions can be engineered for a specific steel grade or heat.

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3. APPLICATION OF THE MODELS

Example I: The role of carryover slag from an EAF in C-Steel production

The extent to which oxidized carryover slag from the EAF can be tolerated in the ladle
depends largely on the type and quality of steel produced. For example, for some grades of
steel, such as rebar, the slag in the ladle plays a limited metallurgical role because of the fairly
high P and S specifications of the steel. Here the carryover slag has an advantage as it
provides the necessary slag volume required for arc-flare protection. A suitable amount of
lime is usually added to neutralize the slag to improve refractory compatibility [9,10].

In contrast, for most Al-killed steel grades, carryover slag from the EAF has to be minimized.
Carryover slag contains significant amounts of FeO, MnO, SiO2, and P2O5, which will be
reduced back to the steel by the dissolved Al in the steel during stirring operations.

The FeO and MnO are particularly responsible for Al fade and inclusion formation, whereas
the reversion of Si and P may be detrimental for some grades of steel. Most AK-steel
producers use some kind of method to eliminate or minimize the carryover of furnace slag into
the ladle [11]. However, a major benefit of utilizing and optimizing furnace carryover slag is
that the carryover slag is already hot, and mostly liquid, so that it can act as a fluxing
precursor, enhancing the dissolution kinetics of other flux additions. One of the primary
concerns regarding slag carryover is the reversion of phosphorous for steel grades with very
low P specifications. In these cases the carryover slag is either minimized during tap or
removed after tap and a complete synthetic slag mixture is used.

However, for the majority of steel grades, a certain amount of slag carryover can be tolerated,
and can even be beneficial, provided that it is controllable and conditioned by the addition of
suitable fluxes and deoxidation agents [12,13]. The composition of the EAF slag will have a
major impact on the type of slag formed in the ladle, i.e., the carryover of a "balanced" EAF
slag could result in a good slag in the ladle. This is demonstrated in the following mass-
balance example which calculates the composition of slags that will be generated in the ladle
when no fluxes are added during tap.

455 kg (1000 pounds) of carryover slag


136 kg (300 pounds) of FeSi (75% recovery)
227 kg (500 pounds) of SiMn (95% recovery)

Table I shows the changes in ladle slag composition as the EAF slag is deoxidized using either
Al shot or FeSi or CaC2 pellets. For the sake of simplicity, it was assumed that complete slag
reduction was achieved during the slag deoxidation process. Before the availability of a
convenient slag model this typical mass balance would have been used to primarily calculate
the weights of slag reductants needed.

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Table I. Changes in ladle slag composition using various slag deoxidation agents.
(Units in pounds)

Carryover Deoxidized Deoxidized Deoxidized slag


slag slag using Al slag using FeSi using CaC2
% MgO 8 7.9 8.0 8.4
% CaO 43 42.5 43.2 52.1
% FeO 21
Mass-balance % Al2O3 5 17.2 5.0 5.2
application % SiO2 18 32.4 43.8 34.3
% MnO 6
Al added 65.4
FeSi added 67.8
CaC2 added 77.6
Slag model CaO required* 214 107 0
application MgO required* 68 108 0
*
The amounts of CaO and MgO required for refractory protection, calculated using the
reduced" slag model at 1600C (2912F). This slag is already CaO and MgO saturated.

From Table I, the mass balance portion, an estimated slag composition is obtained; to which
the slag model may be applied as shown. The results indicate that the CaC2 reduced slag is
over-saturated with respect to the basic oxides, while the other slags are under-saturated. The
model also allows the accurate prediction of desulfurization from these slags as will be seen in
a later example. Utilizing mass balances and the "reduced" slag model the necessary additions
of lime, dolomite, fluorspar, and/or Ca-aluminate for optimum metallurgical and refractory
slags, can be calculated and incorporated in the flux mix.

Example II: Application of the model to the desulfurization of C-Steel

Two grades of steel for which balancing the slag metallurgical requirements against refractory
compatibility is difficult are: Low carbon aluminum- killed and high carbon silicon-killed
steels. In the case of the low carbon aluminum-killed steels, the situation is often one of
under-saturation with the basic oxides (especially lime), while for high carbon silicon-killed
steels the opposite (lime over-saturation) is frequently the case.

a) Low Carbon Al-killed steels:

If the amount of slag carryover is carefully controlled (a requirement for AK-steel) but the
extent of oxygen blown into the steel is not, the slags that form in the ladle could have a wide
composition range. The following mass balance example (Table II) shows the effect of the O
content in the steel during tap on the composition of the ladle slag and other metallurgical
parameters.

100 tons steel tapped from the furnace


227 kg (500 pounds) of carryover slag (EBT)
455 kg (1000 pounds) of a 80/20 lime-spar mixture during tap
Al addition based on an oxygen probe reading just prior to tap.

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Table II. Changes in ladle slag composition as a function of steel oxygen content

O in steel 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400


Al added (lb.) 89 141 198 263 335 447
Deoxidation 100 95 90 85 80 70
efficiency*
MgO 5.6 5.3 5.6 7.0 8.6 9.6
CaO 66.5 62.7 58.3 53.9 49.3 44.0
Al2O3 16 20.8 25.6 29.3 33.3 38.4
SiO2 5.6 5.3 5.0 4.6 4.3 3.8
CaF2 6.2 5.9 5.5 5.1 4.6 4.1

* The deoxidation efficiency decreases because of an increase in the


oxygen content of the steel and the carryover slag.

Because the flux addition during tap is fixed at 455 kg (1000 pounds) and no adjustments are
made for Al additions, the compositions of the slags range from lime over-saturated to lime
under-saturated. Figure 2 is a plot of the CaO and Al2O3 content of the slag, which shows the
diluting effect of the alumina (from the Al) on the fixed addition of lime. Superimposed on
this diagram is the desulfurization efficiency of these slags.

40
100

35

% Desulfurization
80
30
% Al2O3

25
60

20 Slag
Desulfurization
40
15
40 45 50 55 60 65 70

% CaO
Figure 2. Plot of % CaO versus % Al2O3 in the slags and the
desulfurizing efficiency of the slags

This figure shows why poor desulfurization can be observed for some heats of the same steel
grade even though the oxygen content in the steel is very low (< 5 ppm). The slags with very
high CaO content on the right side of the plot are not completely fluid so that the amount of
liquid that can desulfurize is limited. On the other side of the spectrum (high Al2O3 slags), the

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slags are completely liquid but have lower sulfide capacities and are not refractory compatible.
Applying a mass-balance approach and the "reduced" slag model to the above example will
immediately highlight the necessary adjustments in the flux mix, in order to form slags in the
ladle according to the steelmaking requirements (low or high sulfide capacities) that are also
compatible with the ladle refractories. For example, additions of lime, dolomite, Ca-
aluminate, and fluorspar could be balanced to form 100% fluid, consistent slags (composition
and volume) in the ladle for any Al addition. The model allows for the selection of slag
volume, sulfide capacity and refractory compatibility simultaneously.

b) High carbon Si-killed grades

Typical problems that are encountered when high carbon Si-killed steel grades are produced
are poor desulfurization in the ladle and clogging at the caster. Both of these problems can be
corrected if a mass-balance approach is used to evaluate the input parameters to achieve an
equilibrium fluid slag. For example consider the following parameters:

Carryover slag: The amount of slag carryover from the furnace is easier to control because
these slags have a lower FeO content and therefore have higher viscosities. The amount of
slag carryover for high-C heats are usually less than for low-C heats.

Alloy additions: Good alloy recoveries are standard for high-C steel due to the lower oxygen
content during tap and the limited amount of furnace slag carryover. The addition of alloys
with low Al levels is very important, as Al pickup can occur under these circumstances, which
may lead to casting problems if the metal stream is not shrouded.

Flux additions: The flux addition at tap should be balanced by sufficient additions of suitable
fluidizers. It is important to realize that considerably less fluidizers are generated when high-
C steel is tapped than when low-C steel is tapped. Less furnace slag is carried over to the
ladle, improved alloy yields generate less SiO2, and the amount of SiO2 entering into the slag
from steel deoxidation is considerably less due to the lower O content in the steel during tap.

Ignoring the parameters above and adding a "standard" 80/20 lime/spar flux mix, can form
very stiff slags at the ladle furnace; which upon arcing create excessive dust and result in poor
thermal efficiency. It is not uncommon to find slags that are so "hard" that arc-flare damage
occurs in the slag line, especially on the stir-plug side. These lime over-saturated slags have
poor desulfurizing properties, because the amount of liquid that can desulfurize is limited even
though the liquid portion of the slag has a high sulfide capacity. Unfortunately, one of the
misconceptions on sulfur removal (especially the Si killed grades) is that the addition of more
lime to a slag will improve desulfurization. The addition of lime to a slag that can dissolve
more lime is beneficial, but the addition of lime to the slags mentioned above only increases
the refractoriness of the slags and actually decreases desulfurization.

3. SAMPLING PROBLEMS WITH NON-EQUILIBRIUM SLAGS:

Slag samples are usually taken with a steel rod in the vicinity of the stir area of the ladle. If
the slag has a high fluidity, such a sample would be fairly representative of the slag in the
ladle. However, when the fluidity of the slag is low, so that slags are stiff or crusty, a rod slag
sample in the stir area might give a very misleading result. Such a sample would give an
indication of the liquid composition of the slag but would not be representative of the total

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slag composition in the ladle. A more representative slag sample would be a cup sample of the
crusty slag in the middle of the ladle. The results in Table III represent the differences
between a calculated ( mass-balance) and analyzed slag composition for a specific high-C steel
heat.

Table III. Differences between the calculated and analyzed slag


compositions.

Calculated Analyzed
(Slag A) (Slag B)
% MgO 3 9
% CaO 70 53
% Al2O3 2 4
% SiO2 12 21
% CaF2 12 13
% FeO + <1 <1
% MnO

The calculated slag analysis confirm what was seen in practice. Very stiff slags that contain
excess lime. The large discrepancy between the calculated slag and the analyzed slags is due
to poor sampling of the slag in the stir area of the ladle. Without a metallurgically predictive
slag model, the engineering/operating solution to this problem was a major addition of
fluorspar which assured the achievement of metallurgical goals at the expense of the
refractories. The problem is compounded by adding too much lime, then adding too much
spar to compensate. In a LF operation, this consumes more time and energy. A more detailed
treatment of slag rheology follows because of its major application in such situations.

4. DESULFURIZATION PRINCIPLES AND SLAG RHEOLOGY

Most steelmaking slags are composed of a mixture of liquid and solids. The balance between
the liquid and solid fractions of a slag has a large impact on the rheology of the slag, and is a
function of slag composition and temperature. The composition of the slag is influenced by all
the contributions from the steelmaking process (EAF slags, fluxes). A key requirement in the
design of optimum slags is that these slags are fluid at processing temperatures. A common
mistake that is made in mass-balance calculations (such as sulfide capacity and sulfur
distribution) is the assumption that the slags are completely liquid at steelmaking
temperatures. In many cases the slags could be over-saturated with CaO and/or MgO so that
worse than calculated sulfur removal is observed. This is illustrated in the following example:

Consider the following two slags at 1600C (2912F):

Slag A Slag B
% SiO2 38 35
% CaO 45 50
% MgO 17 10

Phases present 98% liquid, 1% Ca2SiO4, 43% liquid, 45% Ca2SiO4,


1% MgO 12% MgO

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It is the lime dissolved in the liquid fraction of the slag that is removing sulfur from the steel
and not the lime as determined by the chemical analysis of the "total" slag. The undissolved
lime in the slag does not remove sulfur [14]. The composition of the liquid fraction of slag B
is very similar to the composition of slag A. The addition of more lime than the slag can
dissolve (slag A to slag B), will only result in a decrease in the amount of liquid in the slag
that can desulfurize (liquid composition stayed constant) and an increase in the viscosity of the
slag. The errors that can be made by not considering the solid/liquid ratio of a slag are
illustrated in Table IV.

Table IV. Example of possible errors in the calculation of final metal sulfur content

Considering the total Considering the total Considering only the


slag chemistry (Slag A) slag chemistry (Slag B) liquid fraction of slag B
Si (wt%) 0.035 0.035 0.035
WM (tons) 100 100 100
WS (lb.) 2000 2000 (2000*0.43) = 860
0.698 0.717 0.698
[% O] (ppm) 20 20 20
log CS -3.01 -2.74 -3.01
LS 36.71 67.62 36.71
SF (wt%) 0.025 0.021 0.030
Calculated Correct Wrong!! Correct
result

The application of the "reduced" slag model is a very useful tool to evaluate and design
desulfurization slags for C-Steel and stainless steel production since it calculates to a 100%
fluid slag. The model provides information on the solid-liquid phase equilibrium relationships
for multi-component slags as a function of temperature and composition which is critical for
the engineering of slags to achieve desulfurization goals. The choice of fluidizers (SiO2,
Al2O3 and/or CaF2) in the design of these slags is very important because the solubility of CaO
and MgO is strongly dependent on the type of fluidizer used. The slags listed in Table V were
generated with the reduced slag model and the effect of fluidizer on the solubility of CaO
and MgO is clearly illustrated. All the slags in Table V have a high fluidity and are just
saturated with respect to CaO and MgO and are therefor also compatible with magnesia and
dolomite refractories. From Table V it can be inferred that Al2O3 and CaF2 are much
stronger fluidizers than SiO2 for increasing the solubility of CaO in the slag. The effect of
Al2O3 on the solubility of CaO and MgO is illustrated in Figure 3. These slags are also just
saturated with respect to CaO and MgO and therefore contain the maximum amount of CaO
and MgO that can be dissolved at 1600C (2912F).

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Table V. Compositions of slags that are just CaO and MgO saturated at 1600C
=optical basicity, Cs = sulfide capacity, and Sf=final sulfur)
(

Slag 1 Slag 2 Slag 3 Slag 4


% CaO 45 52 54 58
% MgO 17 10 13 8
% Al2O3 17 23
% SiO2 38 21 22 9
% CaF2 11 3
0.696 0.744 0.766 0.788
-Log Cs 3.04 2.35 2.04 1.72
Sf* 0.035 0.017 0.010 0.005
*
Using 100 tons of steel, 2000 pounds of slag,
Si = 0.05%, O = 15 ppm

18 58
CaO 1600C
17 57
MgO
56
% MgO dissolved in the slag

% CaO dissolved in the slag


16
55
15 54
14 53
52
13
51
12
50
11 49
10 48
47
9
46
8 45
7 44
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

% Al2O3 in the slag


Figure 3. CaO and MgO solubility as a function of Al2O3 content in CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2
slags at 1600C (2912F).

The effect of CaF2 on the solubility of CaO is similar to that of Al2O3, but higher amounts of
CaO can be dissolved in certain composition ranges. However, the MgO requirements of
CaF2 based slags are high (> 12% MgO) so that extensive refractory wear can occur for fully
liquid CaF2-containing slags if insufficient MgO is added to satisfy solution requirements.

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Using the reduced slag model a infinite number of slags can be designed with various
sulfide capacities, using various combinations of fluidizing agents, to obtain specific
metallurgical goals.

4.1. Slags for resulfurized steel grades

To generate fluid slags of decreased thermodynamic sulfide capacity (while maintaining


basicity for basic refractory compatibility) requires substitution of MgO for CaO. These slags
will have lower CaO/SiO2 ratios which will increase the solubility of MgO in the slag. The
MgO saturation values as a function of CaO/SiO2 ratios are shown in Figure 4. All these slags
are 100% fluid at steelmaking temperatures and compatible with magnesia slag line
refractories.

45
1700C
% MgO dissolved in the Slag

1600C
40

35

30

25

20

15
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
% CaO/% SiO2
Figure 4. MgO saturation requirements of CaO-MgO-SiO2 slags at 1600C (2912F)

The use of more than about 3% of Al2O3 and CaF2 as fluidizers should be avoided as these
components will increase the solubility of lime in the slag and hence desulfurization. An
alternate approach is to manipulate slag rheology in order to minimize sulfur removal (where
it is desired to first desulfurize and then precisely resulfurize). By adding excess CaO and
MgO to the slag (often as calcined dolomite), the fluidity of the slags can be decreased so that
the effective amount of liquid that can desulfurize is diminished. In either of these
circumstances the slag model allows the prediction of resulfurization efficiency.

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5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper has attempted to demonstrate the benefits of applying a mass-balance approach in
conjunction with slag models, to the improvement of steelmaking practices. These tools can
be used to optimize the thermodynamics and kinetics of various steelmaking reactions which
is the key to improve the overall efficiency of the steelmaking process. Unfortunately, in
many plants the utopia of optimized conditions can not always be achieved because of the
reality of plant constraints. However, any small improvement, such as a time savings of 5
minutes per heat, or improving alloy recoveries by 10%, can lead to significant cumulative
savings over an extended period of time.

REFERENCES

1. L.A. Frank, Ladle Flux Practices for Plain Carbon AK Steels, 53 th Electric Furnace
Conference, 1994.

2. J.R. Rait, Basic Refractories, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1950.

3. P.V. Riboud and H. Gaye, Molten Slag Properties and their Use in Steelmaking Process
Control, 4 th International Conference on Molten Slags and Fluxes, ISIJ, Sendia, 1992.

4. M. Faral and H. Gaye, Metal Slag Equilibria, Second International Symposium on


Metallurgical Slags and Fluxes, AIME, 1984.

5. D.L. Heath, Mathematical Treatment of Multicomponent Systems, American Ceram Soc


Journal, February 1957.

6. A.A. Akberdin, Calculation of the Equilibrium Phase Composition of Oxide Systems,


Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Metally, No. 2, pp 20-28, 1989.

7. I.D. Somerville and D.J. Sosinsky, The Application of the Optical Basicity Concept to
Metallurgical Slags, Second Symposium on metallurgical Slags and Fluxes, AIME, 1984.

8. M. Hino, S. Kitagawa, and S. Ban-Ya, Sulfide Capacities of CaO-Al2O3-MgO and CaO-


Al2O3-SiO2 slags, 4 th International Conference on Slags and Fluxes, Sendia, ISIJ, 1992.

9. P. Williams and J. Quin, The Use of Slag Characterisation to Monitor Steelmaking


Processes with Particular Reference to Metallurgical Control and Refractory Performance,
SEAISI MALAYSIA Conference, 1986.

10. J.S. Soady, P.Williams, and D. Taylor, Optimised Refractory-Compatible Practices for
Secondary Ladle Processes, Personal Communication.

11. M.A. Orehoski, Ladle Refining Processes, Iron and Steelmaker, January, 1986.

12. F.A. Kemeny and D.J. Sosinsky, Synthetic Ladle Slag Engineering for Improved
Chemistry and Ladle Life, 48 th Electric Furnace Conference, 1990.

13. G.A. Faulring, Effect of CaC2 on furnace slag, 49 th Electric Furnace Conference, 1990.

14. E.B. Pretorius, A Practical Guide to Ladle and AOD Slag Fundamentals, ISS
Shortcourse, Chicago, February, 1995.

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