Mathematical Symmetry

Symmetry operations
and Indices
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1 13
113
113

1 11 1 11
111 111

11 1
11 1 111
111
 FaceIntercepts
Eachfaceofacrystalmaybedefinedasa
function of its intercept with one or more of
functionofitsinterceptwithoneormoreof
thecrystallographicaxes.
Working in the orthorhombic system looking down the c-axis

b 1. 1a,, 1b,, c
1
4 2. a, 1b, c
3 3. 1a, 2b, c
a
2 4 1a,
4. 1 b,
b c
 c
2a, 1b, 1c

1a, 1b, 3c

1a,, 1b,, 2c
2a, 2b, 2c
b

a
 Theuniversallyemployedsystemfornotationofcrystalface
interceptswasproposedbyW.H.Miller.
te cepts as p oposed by e
c
Millerindicesofaface
consistofaseriesofwhole
numbersthathavebeen
derivedfromthe
interceptsoftheir
inversions,andif
necessary,theclearingof
f
fractions.

EachoftheseMillerindices
intersecttheveb axis. b

Theyaresimilarlydefinedas
elementsofsymmetry
l t f t with
ith
bars.
a
 Crystal Symmetry
CrystalSymmetry
Theexternalshapeofacrystalreflectsthe
The external shape of a crystal reflects the
presenceorabsenceoftranslationfree
symmetry elements in its unit cell
symmetryelementsinitsunitcell.

Whilenotalwaysimmediatelyobvious,inmost
Whil l i di l b i i
wellformedcrystalshapes,axisofrotation,
axisofrotoinversion,centersofsymmetry,
i f i i f
andmirrorplanes canberecognized.
 Quantifying symmetry operations
Using linear algebra, it is possible to represent locations
of points, lines or planes and operations performed on
those planes by a matrix

In the
h mineralogical
i l i l version
i off the
h standard
d d x,y,z
Cartesian system (a,b,c) a 3x3 matrix will represent
all the necessaryy points
p for any
y location

This method allows for a semi-quantitative approach to

s mmetr operations using
symmetry sing the same terms as with
ith
Miller Indices
 180

[100]2

Plot
stereo
[001]2
[001]2 -1 0 0 a
0 -1
1 0 b
0 0 1
c
[100]m
[100]m -1 0 0 a
0 1 0 b
0 0 1
c
[100]2 -1 0 0 1 -1
[100]2
0 -1 0 x 1 = -1
0 0 1 0 0 Plot
stereo
 BacktoSymmetry
y y
Alldiscussedoperationsmaybecombined,butthe
number of (i.e. unique) combinations is limited, to
numberof(i.e.unique)combinationsislimited,to
32.Eachoftheseisknownasapointgroup,or
crystalclass.

Theuseofpointderivesfromtheobservationthat
throughouteachoftheoperationsatleastonepoint
g p p
inthepatternisunmoved.Group,comesfrom
mathematicalgrouptheory.

Thecrystalclassesmaybesubdividedintooneof6
crystalsystems.
Eachofthe32crystalclassesisuniquetooneof
the6(7)crystalsystems:
h 6(7) l

Triclinic,monoclinic,orthorhombic,tetragonal,
hexagonalandisometric(cubic)
The7thsystem,trigonal,isoftenthoughtofasasubsetofthehexagonal
h h l f h h f b f h h l
system.

Interestingly,whileallmirrorplanesandpolesof
rotationmustintersectatonepoint,thispoint
it lf
itselfmaynotbeacentreofsymmetry(i).
tb t f t (i)

Ofthe32classes,21arewithout,and11withone.
 CrystallographicAxes
Theidentificationofspecificsymmetry
p y y
operationsenablesonetoorientateacrystal
g g y
accordingtoanimaginarysetofreference
linesknownasthecrystallographicaxes.

Thesearedistinctanddifferentfromtheclassic
Cartesian Axes x y andz,usedinother
CartesianAxes,x,y and z used in other
commondayusage,suchasplottinggraphs.
Withtheexceptionofthehexagonalsystem,theaxes
are designated a b and c
aredesignateda,b,andc.

Theendsofeachaxesaredesignated+
The ends of each axes are designated + or.Thisis
or This is
importantforthederivationofMillerIndices.

Theanglesbetweenthepositiveendsoftheaxesare
designated,,and.

liesbetweenb andc.
liesbetweena andc.
liesbetweena andb.
 Eachofthe6cystalssystemshasa
uniquesetofcrystallographicaxes
f ll h
Triclinic:Threeunequalaxeswithobliqueangles.
Triclinic: Three unequal axes with oblique angles
Monoclinic:Threeunequalaxes,twoareinclinedtoone
another,thethirdisperpendicular.
Orthorhombic:Threemutuallyperpendicularaxesof
differentlengths.
Tetragonal: Three mutually perpendicular axes two are
Tetragonal:Threemutuallyperpendicularaxes,twoare
equal,thethird(vertical)isshorter.
Hexagonal:Threeequalhorizontalaxes(a1,a2,a3)anda
4thh perpendicularverticalaxisofdifferentlength.
Cubic:Threeperpendicularaxesofequallength.

Trigonal:Threeequalaxesandthreeequalanglesthatarenot90.
 Triclinic:Threeunequalaxeswithobliqueangles.

Toorientateatriclinic
crystal the most
crystalthemost
c
pronouncedzone
should be vertical.
shouldbevertical.

a andb aredetermined
by the intersections of
bytheintersectionsof b

(010)and(100)with
(001)
(001). a

Thebaxisshouldbe
longer than the a axis
longerthantheaaxis.
Theuniquesymmetryoperationinatriclinic
The unique symmetry operation in a triclinic
systemisaonefoldaxisofrotoinversion(i.e.
q y y
equivalenttoacentreofsymmetryor
inversion,i).

Allformsarepinacoids thereforemustconsist
p
oftwoidenticalandparallelfaces.

Commontriclinicrock
Common triclinic rockforming
formingmineralsinclude
minerals include
microcline,someplagioclases,and
wollastonite.
Monoclinic:Threeunequalaxes,twoareinclinedwith
oblique angles the third is perpendicular
obliqueangles,thethirdisperpendicular.

Orientationofacrystalhas
fewconstraints b istheonly c
axisfixedbysymmetry.
c istypicallychosenonthe
is typically chosen on the
basisofhabitandcleavage.

b
and
d =90.
90
Therearesomeveryrare
caseswherebequals90
givingapseudoorthorhombic
a
form.
Theuniquesymmetryoperationinamonoclinicsystem
is2/m
/ atwofoldaxisofrotationwithamirror
f ld f h
plane.

bistherotation,whileaandc lieinthemirrorplane.

Monocliniccrystalshavetwoforms:pinacoidsand
prisms.
i

Commonmonoclinicrockformingmineralsinclude
l kf l l d
clinopyroxene,mica,orthoclaseandtitanite.
 Orthorhombic:Threemutually
perpendicular axes of different lengths
perpendicularaxesofdifferentlengths.

Conventionhasitthatacrystalis
orientedsuchthatc >b >a. c

Crystalsareorientedsothatc isparallel
tocrystalelongation.
y g
a

Inthiscasethelengthofthebaxisis
takenasunityandratiosarecalculated
thereafter. b
The unique symmetry operation in an orthorhombic system is
2/m 2/m 2/m Three twofold axis of rotation coinciding with
the three crystallographic axes.

Perpendicular to each of the axes is a mirror plane.

The general class for the orthorhombic system are rhombic

dipyramid {hkl}.

There are three

Th h types off form
f in
i the
h class:
l pinacoids,
i id prisms,
i andd
dipyramids.

Common orthorhombic rock-forming minerals include andalusite

and sillimanite, orthopyroxene, olivine and topaz.
Tetragonal: Three mutually perpendicular axes, two
are equal,
equal the third (vertical) is shorter.
shorter

c
The two horizontal axis in a
tetragronal mineral are oriented in the
plane of the horizontal.
horizontal Therefore,
Therefore if a
= b, c must be in the vertical.
a2

There is no rule as to whether c is

greater or less than a.

a1
==
Theuniquesymmetryoperationinatetragonalsystemis4/m2/m
2/m Theverticalaxis(c)isalwaysafourfoldaxisofrotation.
2/m The vertical axis (c) is always a fourfold axis of rotation

Thereare4twofoldaxisofrotation:2paralleltothe
crystallographicaxesa
ll h andb,theothersat45.
db h h

There are 5 mirror planes.

Thereare5mirrorplanes.

Thegeneralclassfortheorthorhombicsystemisknownasthe
di
ditetragonaldipyramidalclass.
l di id l l

Therearefourtypesofformintheclass:basalpinacoids,tetragonal
There are four types of form in the class: basal pinacoids, tetragonal
prisms,tetragonaldipyramids,andditetragonalprisms.

Commontetragonalrockformingmineralsincludezircon,rutileand
C t t l kf i i l i l d i til d
anatase,andapophyllite.
 Hexagonal:Threeequalhorizontalaxes(a1,a2,a3)anda4th
perpendicular vertical axis of different length.
perpendicularverticalaxisofdifferentlength.

Thethreehorizontalaxisofa c
h
hexagonalmineralareorientedinthe
l i l i t d i th
planeofthehorizontal,withc inthe
vertical.

UnliketheothersystemstheBravais a3
Mill
Millernomenclatureforcrystalfaces
l t f t lf
isgivenby4numbers(i.e.{0001}) a2
Thefirstthreenumbersarelistedin
orderofa1,a2,a3.
a1

= = 90
= 120
Theuniquesymmetryoperationinthehexagonalsystemisasix
, p g p /
foldaxisofrotation,andthemostcommonspacegroupis6/m
2/m2/m.

Thereverticalaxisisthesix
There vertical axis is the sixfold
foldrotationaloperation,whilethere
rotational operation, while there
areafurther6twofoldaxisofrotationinthehorizontalplane(3
coincidewiththean axes).

Thereare7mirrorplanes.

Thegeneralclassfortheorthorhombicsystemisknownasthe
The general class for the orthorhombic system is known as the
dihexagonaldipyramidalclass.

Therearefivetypesofformintheclass:pinacoids,hexagonal
Th fi t ff i th l i id h l
prisms,hexagonaldipyramids,dihexagonalprisms,and
dihexagonaldipyramids.

Commonhexagonalmineralsincludeberylandapatite.
Isometric(cubic):Threeequallengthaxesthatintersectingat
rightangles
right anglestooneanother.
to one another.

Theaxesareindistinguishable,asare
th i t
theintersectingangles.Assuchallare
ti l A h ll
interchangable.
a3
Thereare15isometricforms,butthe
mostcommonare: a2
Cube
a1
Octahedron
Dodecahedron
Tetrahexahedron
Trapezohedron
Trisoctahedron
Hexoctahedron = = = 90