A Review of Imbalance in Ecosystems and its effect Due to Agriculture and

livestock production system and its effect on Public and Livestock health
Dr.Kedar Karki.M.V.St. (Preventive Veterinary Medicine) CLSU Philippines
Senior Veterinary Officer. Central Veterinary Laboratory Tripureshwor

Abstract:

The health of humans, like all living organisms, is dependent on an ecosystem that
sustains life. Healthy ecosystems are the sine qua non for healthy organisms. Yet
there is abundant evidence that many life-support systems are far from healthy,
placing an increased burden on human health. In some areas of the world, gains in
life expectancy and quality of life made during the twentieth century are at risk of
being reversed in the twenty-first century. The consequences of ecosystem
degradation to human health are numerous, and include health risks from unsafe
drinking water, polluted air, climate change, emerging new diseases, and the
resurgence of old diseases owing to ecological imbalances. Reversing this damage is
possible in some cases, but not in others. Prevention of ecological damage is by far
the most efficient strategy.

Keywords:

Abiotic, Abundant,Evidence,Arctic Tundra, Climate change, Climatic zone, Coastal

Systems ,Coniferous Trees, Dominant vegetation, Ecological Damage, Ecological
system, Health Risk ,Human Population, Livestock health Living organism, Plants and
Animals, Polluted Air.

Introduction:

An ecological system may be defined as a community of plants and animals interacting

with each other and their Abiotic, or natural, environment. Typically, ecosystems are
differentiated on the basis of dominant vegetation, topography, climate, or some
other criteria. Boreal forests, for example, are characterized by the predominance of
coniferous trees; prairies are characterized by the predominance of grasses; the Arctic
tundra is determined partly by the harsh climatic zone. In most areas of the world, the
human community is an important and often dominant component of the ecosystem.
Ecosystems include not only natural areas (e.g., forests, lakes, marine coastal
systems) but also human-constructed systems (e.g., urban ecosystems, agro
ecosystems, impoundments). Human populations are increasingly concentrated in
urban ecosystems, and it is estimated that, by the year 2010, 50 percent of the world's
population will be living in urban areas .A landscape comprises a mosaic of
ecosystems, including towns, rivers, lakes, agricultural systems, and so on. Precise
boundaries between ecosystems are often difficult to establish. Often regions slide
into one another gradually, over a protracted "transition" zone, as for example
between the boreal forest and the Taiga regions of Canada ( Bright, C. (1998) Rapport,
D. J.; Costanza, R.; and McMichael, A. J. (1998). ).

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Objectives:

To assess the different component of ecosystem health and effect of imbalance of

ecosystem on them and Review the possible mitigation strategies.

Discussion and Review:

ECOSYSTEM HEALTH

It is important to recognize the inherent difficulties in defining "health," whether at

the level of the individual, population, or ecosystem. The concept of health is
somewhat of an enigma, being easier to define in its absence (sickness) than in its
presence. Perhaps partially for that reason, ecologists have resisted applying the
notion of "health" to ecosystems. Yet, ecosystems can become dysfunctional,
particularly under chronic stress from human activity. For example, the discharge of
nutrients from sewage, industrial waste, or agricultural runoff into lakes or rivers
affects the normal functioning of the ecosystem, and can result in severe impairment.
Excessive nutrient inputs from human activity was one of the major factors that
severely compromised the health of the lower Laurentian Great Lakes (Lake Erie and
Lake Ontario) and regions of the upper Great Lakes (Lake Michigan). Unfortunately,
degraded ecosystems are becoming more the rule than the exception.The study of the
features of degraded systems, and comparisons with systems that have not been
altered by human activity, makes it possible to identify the characteristics of healthy
ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems may be characterized not only by the absence of signs
of pathology, but also by signs of health, including measures of vigor (productivity),
organization, and resilience.Vigor can be assessed in terms of the metabolism (activity
and productivity) of the system. Ecosystems differ greatly in their normal ranges of
productivity. Estuaries are far more productive than open oceans, and marshes have
higher productivity than deserts. Health is not evaluated by applying one standard to
all systems. Organization can be assessed by the structure of the biotic community
that forms an ecosystem and by the nature of the interactions between the species
(both plants and animals). Invariably, healthy ecosystems have more diversity of biota
than ecologically compromised systems. Resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to
maintain its structure and functions in the face of natural disturbances. Systems with a
history of chronic stress are less likely to recover from normal perturbations such as
drought than those systems that have been relatively less stressed.

Healthy ecosystems can also be characterized in economic, social, and human health
terms. Healthy ecosystems support a certain level of economic activity. This is not to
say that the ecosystem is necessarily self-sufficient, but rather that it supports
economic productivity to enable the human community to meet reasonable needs.
Inevitably, ecosystem degradation impinges on the long-term sustainability of the
human economy that is associated with it, although in the short-term this may not be
evident, as natural capital (e.g., soils, renewable resources) may be overexploited and
temporarily enhance economic returns. Similarly, with respect to social well-being,
healthy ecosystems provide a basis for and encourage community integration.
Historically, for example, native Hawaiian groups managed their ecosystem through a

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well-developed social cohesiveness that provided a high degree of cooperation in
fishing and farming activity.

Another reflection of ecosystem health lies directly in the public health domain. In
spring 2000, a deadly strain of the bacterium E-coli (0157:H7) entered the public
water supply in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada, causing seven deaths and making
thousands sick. This small town, with a population of five thousand, is in a farming
community. Inadequate manure management from cattle operations was the likely
source of this tragedy (Mageau, M. T.; Costanza, R.; and Ulanowicz, R. E. (1995)
Rapport, D. J. (1989). "What Constitutes Ecosystem Health?", Rapport, D. J.; Costanza,
R.; Epstein, P. R.; Gaudet, R.; and Levins, R., eds. (1998).

HOW HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS BECOME PATHOLOGICAL

Stress from human activity is a major factor in transforming healthy ecosystems to sick
ecosystems. Chronic stress from human activity differs from natural disturbances.
Natural disturbances (fires, floods, periodic insect infestations) are part of the
dynamics of most ecosystems. These processes help to "reset" ecosystems by recycling
nutrients and clearing space for recolonization by biota that may be better adapted to
changing environments. Thus, natural perturbations help keep ecosystems healthy. In
contrast, chronic and acute stress on ecosystems resulting from human activity (e.g.,
construction of large dams, release of nutrients and toxic substances into the air,
water, and land) generally results in long-term ecological dysfunction.

Five major sources of human-induced (anthropogenic) stresses have been identified

physical restructuring, over harvesting, waste residuals, introduction of exotic species,
and global change (Rapport, D. J. (1989). Rapport, D. J., and Friend, A. M. (1979).
Rapport, D. J., and Regier, H. A. (1980). Rapport, D. J.; Costanza, R.; and McMichael,
A. J. (1998). Rapport, D. J.; Christensen, N.; Karr, J. R.; and Patil, G. P. (1998).

Physical Restructuring. Activities such as wetland drainage, removal of shoals in

lakes, damming of rivers, and road construction fragment the landscape and alter and
damage critical habitat. These activities also disrupt nutrient cycling, and cause the
loss of biodiversity.

Overharvesting. Overexploitation is commonplace when it comes to harvesting of

wildlife, fisheries, and forests. Over long periods of time, stocks of preferred species
are reduced. For example, the giant redwoods that once thrived along the California
coast now exist only in remnant patches because of overharvesting. When dominant
species like the giant redwoods (arguably the world's tallest tree—one specimen was
recorded at 110 meters tall with a circumference of 13.4 meters) are lost, the entire
ecosystem becomes transformed. Overharvesting often results in reduced biodiversity
of endemic species, while facilitating the invasion of opportunistic species.

Waste Residuals. Discharges from municipal, industrial, and agricultural sources into
the air, water, and land have severely compromised many of the earth's ecosystems.
The effects are particularly apparent in aquatic ecosystems. In some lakes that lack a
natural buffering capacity, acid precipitation has eliminated most of the fish and other
organisms. While the visual effect appears beneficial (water clarity goes up) the
impact on ecosystem health is devastating. Systems that once contained a variety of

3
organisms and were highly productive (biologically) become devoid of most lifeforms
except for a few acid-tolerant bacteria and sediment-dwelling organisms.

Introduction of Exotic Species. The spread of exotics has become a problem in almost
every ecosystem of the world. Transporting species from their native habitat to
entirely new ecosystems can wreck havoc, as the new environments are often without
natural checks and balances for the new species. In the Great Lakes Basin, the
accidental introduction of two small pelagic fishes, the alewife and the rainbow smelt,
combined with the simultaneous overharvesting of natural predators, such as the lake
trout, led to a significant decline in native fish species. The introduction of the sea
lamprey, an eel-like predacious fish that attacks larger fish, into Lake Erie and the
upper Great Lakes further destabilized the native fish community. The sea lamprey
contributed to the demise of the deepwater benthic fish community by preying on lake
trout, whitefish, and burbot. This contributed to a shift in the fish community from
one that had been dominated by large benthics to one dominated by small pelagics
(fish found in the upper layers of the lake profile). This shift from bottom-dwelling fish
(benthic) to surface-dwelling fish (pelagic) has now been partially reversed by yet
another accidental introduction of an exotic: the zebra mussel. As the zebra mussel is
a highly efficient filter of both phtyoplankton and zooplankton, its presence has
reduced the available food in the surface waters for pelagic fish. However, while the
benthic fish community has gained back its dominance, the preferred benthic fish
species have not yet recovered owing to the degree of initial degradation. Overall, the
increasing dominance by exotics not only altered the ecology, but also reduced
significantly the commercial value of the fisheries (Rapport, D. J.; Regier, H. A.; and
Hutchinson, T. C. (1985). Rapport, D. J., and Whitford, W. (1999). Rapport, D. J.;
Costanza, R.; Epstein, P. R.; Gaudet, R.; and Levins, R., eds. (1998).

Global Change.

Rapid climate change (or climate warming) is an emerging potential global stress on all
of the earth's ecosystems. In evolutionary time, there have of course been large
fluctuations in climate. However, for the most part these fluctuations have occurred
gradually over long periods of time. Rapid climate change is an entirely different
matter. By altering both averages and extremes in precipitation, temperature, and
storm events, and by destabilizing the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which
controls weather patterns over much of the southern Pacific region, many ecosystem
processes can become significantly altered. Excessive periods of drought or unusually
heavy rains and flooding will exceed the tolerance for many species, thus changing the
biotic composition. Flooding and unusually high winds contribute to soil erosion, and
at the same time add to nutrient load in rivers and coastal waters.These
anthropogenic stresses have compromised ecosystem function in most regions of the
world, resulting in ecosystem distress syndrome (EDS). EDS is characterized by a group
of signs, including abnormalities in nutrient cycling, productivity, species diversity and
richness, biotic structure, disease prevalence, soil fertility, and so on. The
consequences of these changes for human health are not inconsiderable. Impoverished
biotic communities are natural harbors for pathogens that affect humans and other
species (Mageau, M. T.; Costanza, R.; and Ulanowicz, R. E. (1995)).

ECOSYSTEM HEALTH AND HUMAN HEALTH

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An important aspect of ecosystem degradation is the associated increased risk to
human health. Traditionally, the concern has been with contaminants, particularly
industrial chemicals that can have adverse impacts on human development,
neurological functions, reproductive functions, and that appear to be causative agents
in a variety of carcinomas. In addition to these serious environmental concerns (where
the remedies are often technological, including engineering solutions to reduce the
release of contaminants), there are a large number of other risks to human health
stemming from ecological imbalance.

Ecosystem distress syndrome results in the loss of valued ecosystem services, including
flood control, water quality, air quality, fish and wildlife diversity, and recreation. One
of the major signs of EDS is increased disease incidence, both in humans and other
species. Human population health should thus be viewed within an ecological context
as an expression of the integrity and health of the life-supporting capacity of the
environment.Ecological imbalances triggered by global climate change and other
causes are responsible for increased human health risks( Colwell, R. R. (1996).
Colwell, R. R., and Patz, J. A. (1998). (1995). "Disturbance and Stress Effects on
Ecological Systems." In Complex Ecology:).

Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases.

The global infectious disease burden is on the order of several hundred million cases
per year. Many vector-borne diseases are climate sensitive. Malaria, dengue fever,
hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and various forms of viral encephalitis are all in this
category. All these diseases are the result of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses)
which are transmitted to humans as a result of bites from blood-sucking arthropods.

Global climate change—particularly as it impacts both temperatures and precipitation

—is highly correlated with the prevalence of vector-borne diseases. For example,
viruses carried by mosquitoes, ticks, and other blood-sucking arthropods generally
have increased transmission rates with rising temperatures. St. Louis encephalitis (SLE)
serves as an example. The mosquito Culex tarsalis carries this virus. The percentage of
bites that results in transmission of SLE is dependent on temperature, with greater
transmission at higher temperatures.

The temperature dependence of vector-borne diseases is also well illustrated with

malaria. Malaria is endemic throughout the tropics, with a high prevalence in Africa,
the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of South and Central America and
Mexico. Approximately 2.4 billion people live in areas of risk, with some 350 million
new infections occurring annually, resulting in approximately 2 million deaths,
predominantly in young children. Untreated malaria can become a life-long affliction—
general symptoms include fever, headache, and malaise.

The climate sensitivity of malaria arises owing to the nature of the interactions of
parasites, vectors, and hosts, all of which impact the ultimate transmission rates to
humans. The gestation time required for the parasite to become fully developed
within the mosquito host (a process termed sporogony) is from eight to thirty-five
days. When temperatures are in the range of 20°C to 27°C, the gestation time is
reduced. Rainfall and humidity also have an influence. Both drought and heavy rains
tend to reduce the population of mosquitoes that serve as vectors for malaria. In drier

5
regions of the tropics, low rainfall and humidity restricts the survival of mosquitoes.
Severe flooding can result in scouring of rivers and destruction of the breeding
habitats for the mosquito vector, while intermediate rainfall enhances vector
production Watson R. T.; Zinyowera, M. C.; and Moss, R. H., eds. (1996). Reeves, W.
C.; Hardy, J. L.; Reisen, W. K.; and Milby, M. M. (1994).

Ecological Imbalances.

Cholera is a serious and potentially fatal disease that is caused by the bacterium
Vibrio cholerae. While not nearly so prevalent as malaria, cases are nonetheless
numerous. In 1993, there were 296,206 new cases of cholera reported in South
America; 9,280 cases were reported in Mexico; 62,964 cases in Africa; and 64,599
cases in Asia. Most outbreaks in Asia, Africa, and South America have originated in
coastal areas. Symptoms of cholera include explosive watery diarrhea, vomiting, and
abdominal pain. The most recent pandemic of cholera involved more regions than at
any previous time in the twentieth century. The disease remains endemic in India,
Bangladesh, and Africa. Vibrio cholerae has also been found in the United States—in
the Gulf Coast region of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida; the Chesapeake Bay area; and
the California coast.

The increase in prevalence of V. cholerae has been strongly linked to degraded coastal
marine environments. Nutrient-enriched warmer coastal waters, resulting from a
combination of climate change and the use of fertilizers, provides an ideal
environment for reproduction and dissemination of V. cholerae. Recent outbreaks of
cholera in Bangladesh, for example, are closely correlated with higher sea surface
temperatures. V. cholerae attach to the surface of both freshwater and marine
copepods (crustaceans), as well as to roots and exposed surfaces of macrophytes
(aquatic plants) such as the water hyacinth, the most abundant aquatic plant in
Bangladesh. Nutrient enrichment and warmer temperatures give rise to algae blooms
and an abundance of macrophytes. The algae blooms provide abundant food for
copepods, and the increasing copepod and macrophyte populations provide V.
cholerae with habitat. Subsequent dispersal of V. cholerae into estuaries and fresh
water bodies allows contact with humans who use these waters for drinking and
bathing. Global distribution of marine pathogens such as V. cholerae is further
facilitated by ballast water discharged from vessels. Ballast water contains a virtual
cocktail of pathogens, including V. cholerae Ruiz, G. M.; Rawlings, T. K.; Dobbs, F. C.;
Drake, L. A.; Mullady, T.; Huq, A.; and Colwell, R. R.. (2000). Two other examples of
how ecological imbalances lead to human health burdens concern the increased
prevalence of Lyme disease and hantavirus pulmonary disease. Lyme disease, sonamed
because it was first positively identified in Lyme, Connecticut, is a crippling arthritic-
type disease that is transmitted by spirochete-infected Ixodes ticks (deer ticks). Ticks
acquire the infection from rodents, and spend part of their life cycle on deer. Three
factors have combined to increase the risk to humans of contracting Lyme disease,
particularly in North America: (1) the elimination of natural deer predators,
particularly wolves; (2) reforestation of abandoned farmland has created more
favorable habitat for deer; and (3) the creation of suburban estates, which the deer
find ideal habitat for browsing. The net result is a rising deer population, which
increases the chances of humans coming into more contact with ticks.

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By 1995, in the southwestern United States, hantavirus infection was confirmed in
ninety-four persons in twenty states, with 48 percent mortality. Variants of the strain
that causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome have also been found in other areas of the
country, as well as in Asia and Europe. The virus is apparently asymptomatic in
rodents, and it is transmitted in their saliva and excreta. In humans it has a flu-like
presentation, which is followed by acute respiratory distress syndrome. The primary
reservoir in the Four Corners area of the southwestern United States is the deer
mouse. Climatic disturbances, which in recent years are thought to be exacerbated by
human activity (e.g., global warming), appear to set up conditions that trigger
outbreaks. In the early 1990s, ENSO events initially caused drought conditions to
develop in the southwestern United States. This led to a decline in plant and animal
populations, including natural predators of the deer mouse. Heavy rains followed the
drought in 1993, resulting in a bumper crop of piñon nuts, a major food supply for the
deer mouse. Subsequently the deer mouse population greatly increased, bringing
about increased contact with humans and triggering the outbreak of hantavirus
(Reeves, W. C.; Hardy, J. L.; Reisen, W. K.; and Milby, M. M. (1994)).

Antibiotic Resistance and Agricultural Practice:

Antibiotic resistance is a growing threat to public health. Antibiotic resistant strains of

Streptococcus pneumoniae, a common bacterial pathogen in humans and a leading
cause of many infections, including chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, and meningitis,
have greatly increased in prevalence since the mid-1970s. In some regions of the
world, up to 70 percent of bacterial isolates taken from patients proved resistant to
penicillin and other b-lactam antibiotics. The use of large quantities of antibiotics in
agriculture and aquaculture appears to have been a key factor in the development of
antibiotic resistance by pathogens in farm animals that subsequently may also infect
humans. One of the most serious risks to human health from such practices is
vancomycin-resistant enterococci. The use of avoparcin, an animal growth promoter,
appears to have compromised the utility of vancomycin, the last antibiotic effective
against multi-drug-resistant bacteria. In areas where avoparcin has been used, such as
on farms in Denmark and Germany, vancomycin-resistant bacteria have been detected
in meat sold in supermarkets. Avoparcin was subsequently banned by the European
Union. Another example is the use of ofloxacin to protect chickens from infection and
thereby enhance their growth. This drug is closely related to ciprofloxacin, one of the
most widely used antibiotics in the year 2000. There have been cases of resistance to
ciprofloxacin directly related to its veterinary use. In the United Kingdom,
ciprofloxacin resistance developed in strains of campylobacter, a common cause of
diarrhea. Multi-drug-resistant strains of salmonella have been traced to European egg
production (Baquero, R., and Blazquez, J. (1997)).

Food and Water Security.

Agricultural practices are also responsible for a growing number of threats to public
health. Some of these are related to inadequate waste management, which has
resulted in parasites and bacteria entering water supplies. Others are of entirely
different origins and involve apparent transfer across species of pathogens that affect
both animals and humans. The most recent and spectacular example is mad cow
disease, known as variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, a neuro-degenerative
condition that, in humans, is ultimately fatal. The first case of Bovine Spongiform

7
Encephalopathy (BSE), the animal form of the disease, was identified in Southern
England in November 1981. By the fall of 2000, an outbreak had also occurred in
France, and isolated cases appeared in Germany, Switzerland, and Spain. More than
one hundred deaths in Europe were attributed to what has come to be commonly
called mad cow disease.Improper manure management was the likely source of the
outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Other health risks
associated with malfunctioning agro ecosystems include periodic outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic disease that is spread by surface runoff contaminated by
feces of infected cattle. This parasite causes fever and diarrhea in immunocompetent
individuals and severe diarrhea and even death in immunocompromised individuals
(Aldhous, P. (2000). "Inquiry Blames Missed Warnings for Scale of Britain's BSE Crisis."
Nature 408:3–5. Epstein, P. R. (1995). "Emerging Diseases and Ecosystem Instability:)

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION

Ecosystem pathology in some cases can be reversed simply by removing the source of
stress. In cases, for example, where ecosystem degradation is the result of point-
source additions of nutrients or toxic chemicals, removal of these stresses may result
in considerable recovery of ecosystem health. A classic case is Lake Washington (near
Seattle, Washington). This lake had become highly anoxic (oxygen-depleted) owing to
a sewage outfall entering the lake. Redirecting the sewage outfall away from the lake
reversed many of the signs of pathology.

In cases where it is not feasible to remove the source of stress, more innovative
engineering solutions have been tried. For example, in the Kyrönjoki and Lestijoki
Rivers in western Finland, spring and fall runoff leads to sharp pulses of acidity. Spring
runoff from snowmelt, which releases acid from tilled or dug soils, has been
particularly damaging to fish, during the critical time of year for spawning. Fish
reproduction is severely curtailed, if not all together eliminated in highly acidic water.
Further there have been massive fish kills resulting from the highly acidic waters. One
possible remedy is to replace the original drains which take runoff from the land to
the rivers with new limed drains that can neutralize the acidity. This solution has been
implemented on an experimental basis and appears to substantially reduce acidic
runoff.

More radical treatments for damaged ecosystems involve "ecosystem surgery." In some
cases, invading exotic vegetation (such as mangroves in Hawaii) have been removed
from regions, and native vegetation has been replanted. In areas of North America
where wetlands have been severely depleted owing to farming, urbanization, and
industrial activity, efforts have been made to establish new wetlands.

More often than not, however, reversing ecosystem pathology is not possible. Efforts to
restore the indigenous grasslands in the Jornada Experimental Range in the
southwestern United States provide an example. Overgrazing by cattle has severely
degraded the landscape and has lead to replacement of the native grasses by largely
inedible shrubs, dominated by mesquite. Erosion by wind and episodic heavy rains
have left areas between shrubs largely bare, and subsequently underlying sands have
developed in dune-like fashion over a large part of the area. The resulting mesquite

8
dunes have proven highly resistant to efforts to restore the native grasslands, although
almost every intervention has been tried, including highly toxic defoliants (Agent
Orange), fire, and bulldozing.

Even where it has been possible to restore some of the ecological functions of
degraded ecosystems, and thus improve ecosystem health, the restoration seldom
results in reestablishment of the pristine biotic community. The best that can be
achieved in most cases is reestablishment of the key ecological functions that provide
the required ecosystem services, such as the regulation of water, primary and
secondary productivity, nutrient cycling, and pollination. In all such efforts, key
indicators of ecosystem health (vigor, productivity, and resilience) are essential to
monitor progress. Standard ecological indicators can be used for this purpose (e.g.,
measures of productivity, species composition, nutrient flows, soil fertility) along with
socioeconomic and human health indicators.

Experience in efforts to restore highly damaged ecosystems suggests that ecosystem-

health prevention is far more effective than restoration. For marine ecosystems,
setting aside protective zones that afford a sanctuary for fish and wildlife has
considerable promise. Many countries are adopting policies to establish such areas
with the prospect that these healthy regions can serve as a reservoir for biota that
have become depleted in the unprotected areas. Yet this remedy is not without its
limits. Restoring ecosystem health is not simply a matter of replenishing lost or
damaged biota. It is also a matter of reestablishing the complex interactions among
ecosystem life forms. Having a ready source of healthy biota that could potentially
recolonize damaged ecosystems is important, but it is only part of the solution
(Rapport, D. J.; Regier, H. A.; and Hutchinson, T. C. (1985). Rapport, D. J., and
Whitford, W. (1999). Rapport, D. J.; Christensen, N.; Karr, J. R.; and Patil, G. P.
(1998)).

Conclusion and Recommendation:

Given the difficulties in reversing ecosystem degradation, and the many associated
human health risks that arise with the loss of ecosystem health, the most effective
approach is simply the prevention of ecosystem disruption. However, like many
common-sense approaches, this is easier said than done. In both developed and
developing countries there is a strong inclination to continue economic growth, even
at the cost of severe environmental damage. Apart from selfish motivations, the
argument is made that economic growth has many obvious health benefits, such as
providing more efficient means of distributing food supplies, providing more plentiful
food, and providing better health services and funding for research to improve
standards of living. These are indeed benefits of economic development, and have led
to substantial increases in health status worldwide.

However, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, the past is not necessarily the best
guide to the future. The human population is at an all time high, and associated
pressures of human activity have led to increasing degradation of the earth's
ecosystems. As ultimately healthy ecosystems are essential for life of all biota,
including humans, current global and regional trends are ominous. Under these
circumstances, a tradeoff between immediate material gains and long-term
sustainability of humans on the planet may be the only option. If so, the solution to

9
sustaining human health and ecosystem health becomes one of devising a new politic
that places sustaining life support systems as a precondition for betterment of the
human condition( Rapport, D. J.; Christensen, N.; Karr, J. R.; and Patil, G. P. (1998).

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drkarki_kedar@yahoo.com

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