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This design guide focuses on the LRFD design of steel rolled shape beams in positive moment
regions which are composite with the deck. A design procedure is presented first with an
example given afterward for a simple span bridge. The presented information, guidance, and
example design calculations are also largely applicable to plate girder beams as well as the
positive moment areas of continuous bridges.
Design of steel sections varies significantly between the AASHTO LFD and LRFD Codes.
While essentially the same limit states are checked in both codes, differences in design
equations and specification layout make a direct step-by-step (side-by-side) comparison of the
two codes impractical. At selected points in this design guide, however, the two codes are
compared and contrasted with commentary.
For the purpose of this design guide and as general statement of IDOT policy, bridges with steel
superstructures are designed to behave compositely in positive moment regions.
When the AASHTO LRFD Code refers to members as I-sections, it is referring to any I-shaped
steel section. Rolled wide flange sections and welded plate girders both qualify. The AASHTO
LRFD Code presents steel I-section design for composite action in positive moment regions in a
straightforward and organized manner. Article 6.10, the starting point for I-section flexural
members, outlines the necessary limit state checks and their respective code references as
follows:
In addition, composite wide flange and plate girder sections require the design of diaphragms,
stud shear connectors and splices (for typical continuous structures). Departmental diaphragm
details and policies for bridges designed according to the LRFD and LFD Specifications can be
Two important considerations (among others) for selecting a trial beam section are:
Section depth is normally dictated by the Type, Size, and Location Plan. As section
depth affects roadway clearance, it should not be changed during the design process of
a bridge unless there are extenuating circumstances.
Section weight is chosen largely by trial and error. Usually, a lighter section is chosen
for a given web depth, and this section is increased as required.
For bridges with typical overhangs and beam spacings, interior beams typically control the
design of all beams interior and exterior. See Section 3.3.1 of the Bridge Manual for more
information.
The effective flange width (in.) shall be taken as the tributary width perpendicular to the axis
of the member. For non-flared bridges with equal beam spacings where the overhang width
is less than half the beam spacing, the tributary width is equal to the beam spacing. For the
atypical situation when the overhang is greater than half the beam spacing, the tributary
width is equal to half the beam spacing plus the overhang width.
Once the effective flange width is calculated, the composite section properties are
calculated by transforming the concrete section. For normal-weight concrete with a
minimum 28-day compressive strength (fc) between 2.8 ksi and 3.6 ksi, the concrete section
is transformed using a modular ratio of 9 (C6.10.1.1.1b). The following composite section
properties are used in steel I-section design for positive moment:
Section weight is calculated using the full concrete section width. Typically, the beam
weight is multiplied by a detail factor between 1.1 and 1.2 to account for the weight of
diaphragms, splice plates, and other attachments.
Using the dead loads, live loads, and load and distribution factors, calculate moments and
shears for the bridge. See Section 3.3.1 of the Bridge Manual for more information.
Moments and shears have different distribution factors and differing load factors based upon
the limit state being checked as explained in greater detail later in this design guide.
Although wide-flange sections are typically stocky or stout enough that all cross-section
proportional limits are met, many of the computations in this section are useful in later
aspects of design. Proportional limits typically carry more significance with plate girders and
are indicators of section stability.
Webs without longitudinal stiffeners (wide-flange sections typically do not have longitudinal
stiffeners and plate girders built in Illinois only occasionally have them See Section 3.3.20
of the Bridge Manual) shall be proportioned such that:
D
150 (Eq. 6.10.2.1.1-1)
tw
Where:
tw = web thickness (in.)
D = web depth (in.). For wide-flanges, this is the clear distance between top and
bottom flanges (d 2tf; where: d = section depth (in.) and tf = flange thickness
(in.))
This check is identical to the upper limit for LFD Braced Noncompact Sections found in
Article 10.48.2.1(b) of the AASHTO LFD Code.
Compression and tension flanges of the non-composite section shall meet the following
requirements:
bf
i) 12.0 (Eq. 6.10.2.2-1)
2t f
D
ii) b f (Eq. 6.10.2.2-2)
6
I yc
iv) 0.1 10 (Eq. 6.10.2.2-4)
I yt
Note: Due to symmetry, Iyc and Iyt are identical for wide-flange sections. Therefore,
requirement iv) is always satisfied for rolled shapes.
Constructibility requirements are necessary to ensure that the main load-carrying members
are adequate to withstand construction loadings. The non-composite section shall be able
to support the wet concrete deck and other live loads during pouring.
Construction loads use Strength I load factors. As there is no future wearing surface during
construction, the load condition simplifies to:
MCONST
STRENGTH I = p(DCCONST)+1.75(LL+IM)CONST (Table 3.4.1-1)
Where:
p = 1.25 for construction loading (3.4.2.1)
DCCONST = dead load of beam, unhardened slab concrete, reinforcement, and
formwork. According to Article 3.2.2.1 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications, the combined weight of unhardened slab
concrete, reinforcement, and formwork shall not be taken as less than
0.160 kcf for normal-weight concrete. The slab and reinforcement are
normally assumed to weigh 0.150 kcf. As such, the formwork is
assumed to add 10 pcf for formwork.
IDOT standard diaphragm details serve as points of discrete bracing for the top and bottom
flanges. For wide flange shapes, LRFD Equations 6.10.3.2.1-1 and 6.10.3.2.1-2 should
typically be checked because their webs are not slender. For plate girders with slender
webs, Equation 6.10.3.2.1-3 should checked instead of 6.10.3.2.1-1.
1
ii) fbu + fl f Fnc (Eq. 6.10.3.2.1-2)
3
Where:
fbu = factored flange stress due to vertical loads (ksi)
MCONST
STRENGTH I
= , where Snc is the non-composite section modulus
S nc
fl = lateral flange bending stress (ksi) due to cantilever forming brackets and
skew effects. Note that this term should typically be taken as zero for a
majority of typical bridges if the requirements of Article 503.06 of the IDOT
Standard Specifications are met and the bridge skew is less than or equal to
45. See also Sections 3.3.5 and 3.3.26 of the Bridge Manual.
f = resistance factor for flexure, equal to 1.00 according to LRFD Article 6.5.4.2
Rh = hybrid factor specified in Article 6.10.1.10.1, equal to 1.0 for non-hybrid
sections.
Fyc = yield strength of the compression flange (ksi)
Fnc = nominal flexural resistance of the flange (ksi), taken as the lesser Fnc(FLB)
(6.10.8.2.2) and Fnc(LTB) (6.10.8.2.3 or A6.3.3). Fnc(LTB) using Article 6.10.8.2.3
is presented here.
Where:
Fnc(FLB) = Local Buckling Resistance (ksi), specified in Article 6.10.8.2.2,
defined as follows:
For f pf:
Otherwise:
Fyr f pf
Fnc(FLB) = 1 1 R R F (Eq. 6.10.8.2.2-2)
R h Fyc rf pf b h yc
Where:
Fyr = compression flange stress at the onset of nominal yielding
within the cross section, taken as the smaller of 0.7Fyc and
Fyw (yield strength of the web), but not smaller than 0.5Fyc.
f = slenderness ratio of compression flange
b fc
= (Eq. 6.10.8.2.2-3)
2 t fc
E
= 0.38 (Eq. 6.10.8.2.2-4)
Fyc
E
= 0.56 (Eq. 6.10.8.2.2-5)
Fyr
E
= 1.0 rt (Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-4)
Fyc
Where:
b fc
rt = (Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-9)
1 Dc t w
12 1 +
3 b fc t fc
For Lb Lp:
Fyr Lb Lp
Fnc(LTB) = C b 1 1 R b R h Fyc R b R h Fyc
R h Fyc Lr Lp
(Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-2)
Where:
Fyr = as defined above
Fcr = elastic lateral-torsional buckling stress (ksi)
C b R b 2E
= 2
(Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-8)
Lb
rt
Where:
Cb = moment gradient modifier, defined as follows:
fmid
For > 1, or f2 = 0:
f2
Otherwise:
2
f f
Cb = 1.75 1.05 1 + 0.3 1 2.3 (Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-7)
f2 f2
Where:
fmid = stress due to factored vertical loads at the
middle of the unbraced length of the compression
flange (ksi). This is found using the moment that
produces the largest compression at the point
under consideration. If this point is never in
compression, the smallest tension value shall be
used. fmid is positive for compression values, and
negative for tension values.
f2 = largest compressive stress due to factored
f1 = f0 (Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-10)
Otherwise:
Where all variables and assumptions are identical to those used for checking the
compression flange.
While the equations used in LRFD Lateral Torsional Buckling checks are similar to those
used in checking LFD Partially Braced Members, the LRFD equations could result in slightly
larger sections for some cases. If the designer prefers, a procedure more analogous to the
LFD design procedure may be used in LRFD designs. This procedure is found in Article
A6.3.3 of the appendices.
Note: While the procedure in Article A6.3.3 is similar to the LFD procedure, it is not exactly
the same. For this reason, the AASHTO LFD Code shall not be used in substitution of this
procedure.
Articles 6.10.3.2.4, 6.10.3.4 and 6.10.3.5 involve consideration of issues arising from
bridges with pouring sequences, staged construction, loading sequences during
construction, etc. For a particular typical bridge, these articles may or may not apply. The
commentaries, however, provide useful guidance to the engineer. Article 6.10.3.3 examines
shear forces in webs during construction loading. As the final Strength I shears are usually
much greater than construction loading shears, this generally does not control the design.
The purpose of the service limit state requirements are to prevent excessive deflections
(possibly from yielding or slip in connections) due to severe traffic loading in a real-life
situation. Service II load factors are used for these checks: the actual dead loads are
applied (load factor of 1.00), along with 1.3 times the projected live load plus impact.
For this load case, the following flange requirements shall be met:
( )
f f 0.95 (R h ) Fyf (6.10.4.2.2-1)
In positive moment regions of beams which have been made composite with the deck,
this check is satisfied by inspection for most typical bridges.
ff +
fl
2
( )
0.95 (R h ) Fyf (Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-2)
Where:
ff = flange stress due to factored vertical Service II loads (ksi), calculated as
follows:
MDC1 MDC2 + MDW 1.3 (MLL +IM )
= + + (Eq. D6.2.2-1)
S nc S n=27 S n=9
Again, for straight interior beams with skews less than or equal to 45, fl can be
assumed to be zero.
The requirements for Service Limit State correspond to the requirements of the LFD
Overload requirements found in Article 10.57 of the AASHTO LFD Code.
Fatigue and fracture limit state requirements are necessary to prevent beams and
connections from failing due to repeated loadings.
For the fatigue load combination, all moments are calculated using the fatigue truck
specified in Article 3.6.1.4. The fatigue truck is similar to the HL-93 truck, but with a
constant 30 ft. rear axle spacing and no distributed loading. The fatigue truck loading uses
a different Dynamic Load Allowance of 15% (Table 3.6.2.1-1).
Note: The fatigue truck loading does not use multiple presence factors. The value of the
live load distribution factor shall be divided by 1.2 when finding moments from the fatigue
truck (3.6.1.1.2).
The fatigue and fracture limit states use the fatigue load combinations found in Table 3.4.1-
1:
Whether Fatigue I or Fatigue II limit state is used depends upon the amount of fatigue cycles
the member is expected to experience throughout its lifetime. For smaller amounts of
cycles, Fatigue II, or the finite life limit state, is used. As the amounts of cycles increase,
there comes a point where use of finite life limit state equations becomes excessively
conservative, and use of the Fatigue I, or infinite life limit state, becomes more accurate.
To determine whether Fatigue I or Fatigue II limit state is used, the single-lane average daily
truck traffic (ADTT)SL at 75 years must first be calculated. (ADTT)SL is the amount of truck
traffic in a single lane in one direction, taken as a reduced percentage of the Average Daily
Truck Traffic (ADTT) for multiple lanes of travel in one direction.
Where:
ADTT75 is the amount of truck traffic in one direction of the bridge at 75 years. Type,
Size, and Location reports usually give ADTT in terms of present day and 20 years
into the future. The ADTT at 75 years can be extrapolated from this data by
assuming that the ADTT will grow at the same rate i.e. follow a straight-line
extrapolation using the following formula:
75 years
ADTT75 = (ADTT20 ADTT0 ) + ADTT0 (DD)
20 years
Where:
ADTT20 = ADTT at 20 years in the future, given on TSL
ADTT0 = present-day ADTT, given on TSL
DD = directional distribution, given on TSL
The designer should use the larger number given in the directional distribution. For
example, if the directional distribution of traffic was 70% / 30%, the ADTT for design
should be the total volume times 0.7 in order to design for the beam experiencing the
higher ADTT. If a bridge has a directional distribution of 50% / 50%, the ADTT for
design should be the total volume times 0.5. If a bridge is one-directional, the ADTT
for design is the full value, as the directional distribution is 100% / 0% i.e. one.
When (ADTT)75, SL is calculated, it is compared to the infinite life equivalent found in Table
6.6.1.2.3-2. If the calculated value of (ADTT)75, SL exceeds the value found in this table, then
the infinite life (Fatigue I) limit state is used. If not, the finite life (Fatigue II) limit state is
used.
Regardless of limit state, the full section shall satisfy the following equation:
Where:
Where (F )TH is the threshold stress range found in Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 or Table
6.6.1.2.5-3 (ksi)
1
A 3
(F)n = (Eq. 6.6.1.2.5-2)
N
Where:
A = constant from Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 or Table 6.6.1.2.5-1 (ksi3).
Many typical bridges made with rolled steel sections need not satisfy the requirements of
distortion-induced fatigue given in Article 6.6.1.3. This can become a consideration for
bridges with high skews, curved members, etc.
LRFD Fatigue Limit State checks are quite different than the LFD Fatigue requirements
stated in Article 10.3 of the AASHTO LFD Code. LRFD contains updated provisions based
upon relatively recent research and is somewhat more complex to apply.
Strength limit state compares the ultimate shear and moment capacities of the sections to
the factored Strength I loads applied to the bridge. Strength I factors for this limit state are
as follows:
MSTRENGTH I = p(DC+DW)+1.75(LL+IM+CE)
Where:
p = For DC: 1.25 (max.) (Table 3.4.1-2)
For DW: 1.50 (max.)
The strength limit state requirements for compact sections differ from those for
noncompact or slender sections. Compact rolled sections are defined in Article
6.10.6.2.2 as sections that satisfy the following:
i) Fy 70 ksi
ii) The cross-section proportional limit web requirements are satisfied (6.10.2.1.1)
2 (D cp ) E
iii) 3.76 (Eq. 6.10.6.2.2-1)
tw Fyc
Where:
Dcp = depth of web in compression at the plastic moment, as calculated using
the procedure in Article D6.3.2 (in.)
If these requirements are met, the section shall satisfy the following strength limit state
requirement (6.10.7.1):
Mu +
1
(fl ) (S xt ) f (Mn ) (Eq. 6.10.7.1.1-1)
3
Again, fl = 0 for straight interior beams on bridges with skews less than or equal to 45.
For Dp 0.1Dt:
Mn = Mp (Eq. 6.10.7.1.2-1)
Otherwise:
Dp
Mn = Mp 1.07 0.7
(Eq. 6.10.7.1.2-2)
Dt
Where:
Dp = distance from the top of the concrete deck to the neutral axis of the
composite section at the plastic moment (in.)
Dt = total depth of the composite section (in.)
Mp = plastic moment capacity (k-in.) of the composite section calculated using the
procedure in Article D6.1
Regardless of whether or not the section is compact, it shall satisfy the following ductility
requirement:
Where:
v = resistance factor for shear, equal to 1.00 (6.5.4.2)
Vu = factored Strength I shear loads (kips)
Vn = nominal shear resistance (kips)
= Vcr = CVp (Eq. 6.10.9.2-1)
Vp = plastic shear capacity (kips)
Where:
C = ratio of shear buckling resistance to shear yield strength
D Ek
For 1.12 :
tw Fyw
Ek D Ek
For 1.12 < 1.40 :
Fyw tw Fyw
D Ek
For > 1.40 :
tw Fyw
1.57 Ek
C= (Eq. 6.10.9.3.2-6)
(D t w )2 Fyw
Design Stresses
fc = 3.5 ksi
fy = 60 ksi (reinforcement)
Fy = Fyw = Fyc = Fyt = 50 ksi (structural steel)
Bridge Data
Number of Girders: 6
Try W33x118:
d = 32.86 in.
tw = 0.55 in.
bfc = bft = 11.48 in.
tfc = tft = 0.74 in.
Yb = 30.5 in.
Ic = 16468 in.4
Sn=9 = 540 in.3
Sn=27 = 489 in.3
Q = 487 in.3
Composite Section Weight = 0.805 k/ft. (includes 1.2 detail factor)
Using the bridge and section data shown above, the following moments and shears have
been calculated:
At point 0.464 (the point of maximum moment), the unfactored distributed moments are:
These loads occur in between the second and third diaphragms. The corresponding
construction loading factored moments for the diaphragm locations (brace points) and
midpoint for these diaphragms are:
MBRACE POINT 1
STRENGTH I = 598.5 k-ft., corresponding to diaphragm location 2
MMIDPOINT
STRENGTH I = 625.5 k-ft., corresponding to the midpoint of diaphragm locations 2 and
For this bridge, the maximum factored Fatigue loading occurs at point 0.408. For simplicity,
it is conservative to use this value at point 0.464 in conjunction with the other moments.
The factored, distributed moments for Strength Limit State, Service Limit State, and
Constructibility Limit State are found to be:
M CONST
STRENGTH I
= 697.1 k-ft.
D
150 (Eq. 6.10.2.1.1-1)
tw
Where:
D = d 2tf = 32.86 in. 2(0.74 in.) = 31.38 in.
tw = 0.55 in.
D 31.38 in.
= = 57.1 150 O.K.
tw 0.55 in.
bf
i) 12.0 (Eq. 6.10.2.2-1)
2t f
bf 11.48 in.
= = 7.8
2t f 2(0.74 in.)
D
ii) b f (Eq. 6.10.2.2-1)
6
bf = 11.48 in.
D 31.38 in.
= = 5.23 in.
6 6
11.48 in. > 5.23 in. O.K.
I yc
iv) 0.1 10 (Eq. 6.10.2.2-4)
I yt
The top and bottom flanges of rolled sections are identical, therefore:
I yc
=1
I yt
0.1 1 10 O.K.
MCONST
STRENGTH I
fbu =
S nc
12 in.
697.1 k ft.
= ft.
359 in.3
= 23.30 ksi
fl = 0 ksi
f = 1.00 (6.5.4.2)
Rh = 1.0 (6.10.1.10.1)
Fyc = 50 ksi
fl f (Fnc )
1
ii) fbu + (Eq. 6.10.3.2.1-2)
3
Fnc is taken as the lesser Fnc(FLB) and Fnc(LTB) (6.10.8.2.1)
E 29000 ksi
pf = 0.38 = 0.38 = 9.2 (Eq. 6.10.8.2.2-5)
Fyc 50 ksi
f pf, therefore:
Fnc(FLB) = RbRhFyc (Eq. 6.10.8.2.2-1)
Where:
Rb = 1.0 (Eq. 6.10.1.10.2)
Rh = 1.0 (Eq. 6.10.1.10.1)
Fyc = 50 ksi
E
Lp = 1.0 rt (Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-4)
Fyc
Where:
b fc
rt = (Eq. 6.10.8.2.3-9)
1 Dc t w
12 1 +
3 b fc t fc
Where:
Dc = 0.5D
= 0.5 31.38 in.
= 15.69 in.
11.48 in.
rt =
1 (15.69 in.)(0.55 in.)
12 1 +
3 (11.48 in.)(0.74 in.)
= 2.86 in.
29000 ksi
Lp = 1.0 (2.86 in.) = 68.9 in.
50 ksi
E
Lr = rt (Eq. 6.10.6.2.3-5)
Fyr
29000 ksi
= ( 2.86 in.)
0.7 50 ksi
= 258.6 in.
Where:
Fyr = 0.7Fyc = 0.7(50 ksi) = 35 ksi
12 in.
625.5 k ft.
MMIDPOINT
STRENGTH I ft.
fmid = = = 20.91 ksi
S nc 359 in.3
12 in.
598.5 k ft.
MBRACE POINT 1
STRENGTH I ft.
f2 = = = 20.01 ksi
S nc 359 in.3
12 in.
555.9 k ft.
MBRACE POINT 2
STRENGTH I ft. =
f0 = = 18.58 ksi
S nc 359 in.3
f1 = f0 = 18.58 ksi
Fnc(LTB) controls.
1 1
fbu + fl = 18.76 ksi + (0 ksi) = 18.76 ksi
3 3
As the rolled section is symmetric about the x-axis, fbu is equal for both flanges.
23.30 ksi + 0 ksi = 23.30 ksi < (1.00)(1.0)(50 ksi) = 50 ksi O.K.
As VCONST = 39.3 k < VSTRENGTH I = 181.6 k, construction shear loading will not control the
design by inspection.
i) ( )
f f 0.95 (R h ) Fyf (Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-1)
By inspection O.K.
ii) ff +
fl
2
( )
0.95 (R h ) Fyf (Eq. 6.10.4.2.2-2)
Where:
fl = 0 ksi
Where:
MDC1 = 410.0 k-ft.
MDC2 = 76.4 k-ft.
Where:
75 years
(ADTT20 ADTT0 )
20 years + ADTT0 (DD)
ADTT =
From Table 6.6.1.2.3-1, use Detail Category A for rolled sections. From Table 6.6.1.2.3-
2, the 75-year infinite life equivalent (ADTT)SL is 530 trucks/day. Therefore, use the
infinite life limit state, Fatigue I.
+
MFATIGUE I MFATIGUE I
(f ) =
S n =9
Where:
+
MFATIGUE I = 192.1 k-ft.
MFATIGUE I = 0 k-ft.
+
Note that MFATIGUE and MFATIGUE already includes the 1.5 factor specified in
Equation 6.6.1.2.2-1.
Check Compactness
ii) Cross-section proportion limit web requirements are satisfied (see above)
2 (D cp ) E
iii) 3.76 (Eq. 6.10.6.2.2-1)
tw Fyc
Find Dp, the depth to the plastic neutral axis from the top of the slab, to determine
Dcp, the depth of the web in compression at the plastic moment capacity.
Dp = Y (Table D6.1.1)
P + Pw + Pt Prt Prb
Y = (t s ) c
Ps
1712.6 kips 0 0
= (8 in.)
1880 .2 kips
= 7.29 in.
Take Dcp as 0
2 (D cp ) 2 (0 )
= = 0.0
tw 0.55 in.
E 29000 ksi
3.76 = 3.76 = 90.55
Fyc 50 ksi
Mu +
1
(fl ) (S xt ) f (Mn ) (Eq. 6.10.7.1.1)
3
As fl = 0, this simplifies to Mu f (Mn )
Dp = 7.29 in.
Dp
Mn = Mp 1.07 0.7
(Eq. 6.10.7.1.2-2)
Dt
Y 2P
Mp = s + [P d + P d + P d + P d + P d ]
2t rt rt rb rb c c w w t t
s
Where:
drt = distance from plastic neutral axis to centroid of top reinforcement (in.)
= not required when steel force assumed to be zero (0)
drb = distance from plastic neutral axis to centroid of bottom reinforcement
(in.)
= not required when steel force assumed to be zero (0)
dc = distance from plastic neutral axis to centroid of top flange (in.)
= (8 in. 7.29 in.) + 0.5(0.74 in.) = 1.08 in.
dw = distance from plastic neutral axis to centroid of web (in.)
= (8 in. 7.29 in.) + 0.74 in. + 0.5(31.38 in.) = 17.14 in.
dt = distance from plastic neutral axis to centroid of tension flange (in.)
= (8 in. 7.29 in.) + 0.74 in. + 31.38 in. + 0.5(0.74 in.) = 33.20 in.
Mn = (35599 k in.)1.07 0.7 7.29 in.
40.9 in.
= 33649 k-in.
Where:
Dp = 7.29 in.
0.42Dt = 0.42(40.9 in.) = 17.18 in.
Where:
v = 1.00 (6.5.4.2)
Vu = 181.6 kips
Vn = Vcr = CVp (Eq. 6.10.9.2-1)
Where:
D
= 57.1
tw
Ek (29000 ksi)(5)
1.12 = 1.12 = 60.3
Fyw (50 ksi)
A W33x118 beam is adequate for the proposed span length, beam spacing, and diaphragm
spacing.